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For many years Art Master and Instructor in all Architectural Subjects
in theMunicipal School of Art, Birmingham

WITH TWELVE PLATES

T. FISHER UNWIN, LTD.
LONDON: ADELPHI TERRACE
{iv}
First published in 1922.

PREFACE

THE object of this little work is to give an outline of the leadingcharacteristics of Gothic Architecture, as found in churches of theMiddle Ages in England. And it is hoped that it may be found useful tothose visiting those noble buildings, whose antiquity and inseparableconnection with the history of the country in their growth anddevelopment, in addition to the highest purpose for which they wereerected by the faithful followers of the Founder of the Christian Faith,entitle them to veneration and careful study in the realms of history,art, and religion.

Its purpose as a handbook is to explain the origin and use of some ofthe forms which are presented to the eye of the visitor to these ancientmonuments, not as being the result of caprice, or mere æsthetic motives,{vi}but as derived originally from a deep conviction of the living truthwhich their founders professed, and which they attempted to express inall their constructive work.

It is intended that the book may also be found useful as an elementaryintroduction to the study of Gothic Architecture through the manyelaborate and exhaustive treatises which are published on the subject.To such students, literary study should be supplemented by personalacquaintance with buildings recognised as standards of excellence.

The Introduction deals with symbols as the motive of Gothic design. Inthe following pages the various periods of English Gothic are defined bytheir predominating forms and ornaments dating from the seventh to thesixteenth centuries. Simple examples have been chosen in order to avoidthe confusion which might result from the choice of more complexillustrations.

In the preparation of the illustrations the works of Agincourt, Didron,{vii}Owen Jones, and the late Jethro A. Cossins, have been consulted forthose ofPlate I. Of the remaining,Plate II., Fig. 5, andPlate V.,Fig. 1, are from works of Parker and Rickman respectively. Five detailsare from photographs; the remainder are from original sketches andstudies by the Author.{ix}{viii}

LIST OF PLATES

CHRONOLOGY

The popular classification of English Gothic Architecture divides thestyle into four periods, thus:

These terms are useful, but not sufficiently descriptive. They weresuperseded by the late Edmund Sharpe’s “Seven Periods,” the terms ofwhich are derived from the forms of the windows and their tracery, butare applicable to other details.

PLATE I

English Church Architecture
of the Middle Ages

INTRODUCTION

THE term Gothic was applied originally as one of contempt in thefifteenth century by the architects of the Renaissance, who attempted toreproduce the ancient architecture of Rome, and considered Mediæval Art,which had ruled all departments of design throughout Europe during thethree preceding centuries, to be no better than the invention of theBarbarians, the Goths, and the Vandals, who overran the Roman Empire inthe fourth century. During the three previous centuries the persecutedconverts to Christianity were driven to take refuge in any hiding-placeavailable. In Rome they descended to theCatacombs, the undergroundworkings of the ancient Roman stone quarries, consisting of narrow,{16} lowpassages, their aggregate lengths amounting to hundreds of miles. Therethey quarried out of the rock their chambers for assembly, where theygathered for worship in the light of torches or lamps, and excavatedrecesses for the burial of their dead. These chambers were imitated inthe form of theCrypts (hidden chambers) existing under some churchesand cathedrals. (ComparePlate I., Figs. 1 and 2.) The walls of thecatacombs have rude incised inscriptions and carvings revealing theChristian Faith by symbols, such as thecross, suggesting theCrucifixion—the emblem of sacrifice; thecircle, the line withoutend, the symbol of Eternity (Plate I., Fig. 3); thetriangle,trefoil, andtriquetra, symbols of the Trinity (Figs. 6, 7, and 8);thequatrefoil of the four evangelists (Figs. 9 and 10). Thefishwas adopted as a symbol of the Redeemer, because the letters of theGreek wordicthys, when used as an acrostic, gave the initials of thewords—Jesus, Christ, God, Son, Saviour (Plate I., Fig. 11). This symbolwas extensively adopted in the decoration of baptismal fonts.

TheVesica piscis (Latin, the bladder of a fish) (Plate I., Fig. 5)was used as a nimbus or{17} glory to surround the figure of a sacredpersonage in sculpture and in painting. Its name shows the use of Latinterms in the Roman Church as distinguished from the Greek inByzantium, which was an ancient Greek city adopted by Constantine, theChristian Emperor, as the capital of the eastern division of the RomanEmpire under the new name of Constantinopolis—the modernConstantinople. But the term “Byzantine” has been retained in mattersrelating to art.Plate I., Figs. 15 and 16, show the Greek Cross, whichis a version of the Greek letterchi combined with the letterrho(similar to the EnglishP). This symbol represented the name Christ,and was theChristian standard, the Labarum, chosen by the EmperorConstantine.

Plate I., 3A. The sacred monogram generally found in church decorationstands for the Latin phraseJesus hominum Salvator—“Jesus, theSaviour of men.” The Greek letters IHS (iota, eta, sigma) gave thefirst three letters of the nameJesus.

In the plan of an English cathedral or cruciform church, the symbol ofthe Latin Cross is made the basis of its form (Plate XI., Fig. 1).{18} (TheByzantine or Greek Cross has the four limbs of equal length.) TheNave, N. (Latin,navis, a ship, a symbol of the Church), is built fromwest to east. The Choir or Chancel, which is screened off by aCancellum or lattice, is in continuation of the Nave to the east end.This in some cathedrals includes the Lady Chapel, which was in mediævaltimes dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

In several churches and some cathedrals the head of the Cross, theChancel or Choir, is not in line with the Nave, but is slightly inclinedto one side—not in all cases the same side. Two explanations are givenfor this, one being itsorientation—i.e., the axis of its lengthpoints to the rising of the sun on the day of its foundation, which doesnot coincide with that of the Nave, the Chancel having been commenced atan earlier or later date and different season of the year. The othertheory is that it symbolises the head of Christ falling on one side indeath.

Plate I., Fig. 14 (from the “Grammar of Ornament”), shows an ornamentaldesign composed entirely of early Christian symbols.Plate I., Figs. 12and 13, carved ornament and{19} a capital bearing crude resemblance to anancient Ionic capital. Both Figs. 12 and 13 are under the influence ofGreek and Roman Art without reference to symbolism.

Plate I., Fig. 4, shows achevron (a French military ornament), adecoration dating back to ancient Egypt, where it symbolised the wavesof the Nile, and was adopted in many later periods, and becameconspicuous in the Norman arches of English architecture.{21}{20}

PLATE II

Plate II

THERE can be no doubt that Christianity found its way into Britain earlyduring the Roman occupation, but was suppressed through the violentpersecutions by the Pagan tribes who ruled following the Roman departureA.D. 410, to be revived and further developed after the mission of St.Augustine,A.D. 597, from Rome to the Anglo-Saxons, who occupied Britainbetween the fifth and eleventh centuries.

The church of Greenstead, in Essex, is one of the most ancient in thecountry, and was built by Anglo-Saxons. Its walls are of substantiallogs of timber placed upright upon a foundation of rude stonework. Thismethod appears to be a survival of their method of building theirdwellings.

Of stone buildings, the church tower of Barton-on-Humber (Plate II.,Fig. 6) is a good example of Anglo-Saxon work. In it the ex{24}ternalangles of the tower and of the door and window openings have theirquoins (corner stones) of“long-and-short” work, the name applied toSaxon masonry of this kind, in which long stones are placed on end withshort stones laid flat, suggesting their origin to be the work ofcarpenters who would place timbers in such positions, contrasted withthat of masons, who would place all stones horizontally or atright-angles to pressure.

In this example and the very fine one at Earls Barton, Northamptonshire,this “long-and-short” work is carried over the exterior of the wall as akind of surface decoration.

Plate II., Fig. 3, shows the present-day manner of framing timbers in apartition withsill (s.), posts orstuds (p.), lintel (l.), inclinedstruts, andcorbel-blocks (c.b.).

Saxon timber framing would be on similar lines, and this manner wasperpetuated traditionally in their stone walls. The practice ofimitating woodwork in stone and vice versa is one to be found in theworks of all ages from remote antiquity. The heads of Saxon door andwindow openings were either semicircular (Plate II., Figs. 7, 8, and 9)or formed by placing{25} two stones inclined to each other thus—ʌ, and ashort column or rude baluster was sometimes placed between two windows.

[Note.—The window over the clock face (Plate II., Fig. 6) is aninsertion of a later period.]

The interesting little church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wiltshire, shows thesame manner of building (Plate II., Fig. 1).

Anglo-Saxon bell-towers appear to have been generally covered with aroof of the form shown inPlate II., Fig. 5, as at Sompting, Sussex.{27}{26}

PLATE III

Plate III

THE Norman period dates fromA.D. 1066, though the Norman manner ofbuilding had been adopted after the year 1000, when church building wasrevived after suspension in anticipation of the Millennium, which wasexpected to bring the end of the world. That dreaded year having safelypassed, church building was vigorously revived. Timber construction hadled to frequent disaster by fire, and as larger buildings were nowrequired, better construction became imperative. Masonry must supersedecarpentry in wall construction, and the necessary skilled labour camefrom Normandy.

The influx of superior talent following the Norman Conquest resulted ingreat improvement in every department of building. Statelycathedralswere founded, each for the reception of thecathedra or throne of thebishop. Abbeys{30} and monasteries and parish churches for the clergy werebuilt throughout the land, as proved by the existence of Norman work inmost parts of the country.

Every period of English Gothic architecture has certain forms appearingin the general composition and details which help to fix the period towhich they belong. In the Norman thesquare and thecircle, theright angle and the semicircle, are the prevailing figures suggestive ofstrength and severity so evident in the impressive naves of Ely,Peterborough, Norwich, Gloucester, Tewkesbury, and the fortress-likecathedral of Durham.

Plate III. gives a few details of work of the Norman period. The termpier (Plate III., Fig. 1) defines the pillars or masses of masonrysupporting the arches between the nave and aisles of a church. Thisexample (Plate III., Fig. 1), from St. John’s Chapel in the White Towerof London, William the Conqueror’s residence, is circular with a squarecapital chamfered down to the circular pier, and has a slightly mouldedabacus (the crowning moulding of a capital).

Plate III., Fig. 2, thecushion capital, is the{31} simplest kind ofNorman capital. It is cubical, with its square faces rounded down to theshaft.

[Note.—Theshafts of all English Gothic columns arecylindrical—i.e., without any diminution towards the top, in contrastwith Greek and Roman shafts, which are always diminished.]

Plate III., Fig. 3, is the capital of arespond—a half-columnattached to a wall and carrying an arch or part of a roof.

Plate III., Fig. 4, thecorbel-table, or cornice underneath the eavesof a roof (corbel—a bracket).

Plate III., Fig. 6, fragment of a Norman arch offour orders, eachorder being a separate arch, three of which are enriched with the Normanchevron. Thedripstone orhood-moulding (d.s.) encloses the archas inPlate III., Fig. 8, though its original function—to protect themoulding under it from weather—is not needed here, but it is generallyintroduced to give effective finish to the arch. The capitals in thisgroup arescallop capitals. A small portion{32} of a similar capital isshown at the right hand ofPlate III., Fig. 3.

Plate III., Fig. 7, is a Norman font of the simple bowl form enrichedwith carved Norman heads connected by Byzantine ornament and surroundedwith aNorman arcade of intersecting arches—a feature oftenintroduced in the walls of churches and cathedrals.

Plate III., Fig. 8, is a double-recessed window with an arch of threeorders. The columns in the positions shown are calledjamb-shafts ornook-shafts; those on the right aredetached and may be removed,leaving the bases and capitals remaining. On the left the shafts areengaged—i.e., form part of the masonry of the wall. These twovarieties are never found together as here, but are thus shown forconvenience. The capitals are a variety of the cushion capital.

Plate III., Fig. 9, is acushion capital with thetriquetra symbolof the Trinity (Plate I., Fig. 8).

Byzantine influence is evident in the ornament of the capitals (PlateIII., Figs. 1, 3, and 9), in the chevron (Plate III., Fig. 6), and thedecoration of the font (Plate III., Fig. 7).{33}

Norman walls depended for their strength upon their thickness, with theslight addition at intervals, where lateral pressure occurred, of thinpilaster-like buttresses projecting only a few inches equally frombottom to top.{35}{34}

PLATE IV

Plate IV

THE period of Transition from Norman to Early English dates from 1145 to1190, in the reigns of Stephen and Richard I., the period whenarchitecture gradually passed from the massiveness and severity ofRomanesque, as expressed in the Norman, to the delicate refinement ofEarly English Gothic. In its general character there is much that iscommon to both periods. It is easily distinguished in its details ascapitals, arches, carving, etc.

Plate IV., Figs. 1 and 3, show Transitional capitals in which the squareabacus of the Norman remains and the concave surface of the body or bellcontrasts with the convex of the Norman (Plate III., Figs. 2, 3, 6, and9). Rude carving suggestive of foliage was sometimes introduced. Theplacing of two pointed arches under a semicircle (Plate IV., Fig. 2) isespecially indicative of the Transitional period.{38}

In the Transitional period thepointed orGothic arch was firstintroduced, and established as the most characteristic feature of theGothic style on account of its superior strength and fitness. In theTransition, hollows were introduced separating the rounds in mouldings(Plate IV., Fig. 4). In other respects Transitional work differs littlefrom Norman.{39}

PLATE V

Plate V

IN the Early English period knowledge of the true principles ofarchitectural design and construction advanced considerably—mouldingsand carving attained the highest refinement, and the work of the EarlyEnglish period is admitted to be the purest of the Gothic style.

Improved scientific construction is most evident in the walls. Thedevelopment of stone-vaulted roofs (a protection against fire) carriedby arched ribs brought down the incumbent load on to the walls,producing thrusts upon them which had to be provided against. The oldmanner of making the wall of great thickness was wasteful andunsatisfactory. The happy idea of the Gothicbuttress fulfilled allthe requirements, and produced one of the most beautiful features of theGothic style. It was built in diminishing stages, its outline enclosingthe graceful parabolic curve of nature{42}—the path of the combinedthrusts and their opposing reactions. This structure was carried toperfection when combined with theflying-buttress (Plate VII., Fig.10), which conducted the thrust from the lofty wall of the nave over theexternal roof of the aisle by an arch on thewall-buttress, which wasstrengthened to do its work by the addition of a heavypinnacle.PlateV., Fig. 9, from Lichfield Cathedral, shows two buttresses of the Lancetperiod built to meet the thrust of the ribs carrying the vaulting of theChapter-house and Library over. In one of these the approximatedirection of the thrusts is indicated by the arrowsa,b, which, ifunopposed, would cause a collapse; the ultimate deflection of their pathby the weight of the superincumbent masonry is indicated by dotted lineswithin thebuttress, thereby producing equilibrium through theopposing resistance from the foundations along the same path.

InPlate V., Figs. 10 and 11, the piers had columns surrounding themwhose shafts in the Lancet period weredetached, but connected attheir extremities by mouldedstone bands (A, B), and at the bases andcapitals. These{43} piers were sometimes carried to a great height, asthose in Westminster Abbey, which have three of thesestone bands intheir height. In the Geometrical period the shafts formed part of themain pier, were not detached, and resembled mouldings (Plate V., Fig.11). Such shafts were described asengaged.

Plate V., Fig. 7, shows a tower with abroach-spire belonging to theEarly English period. In the figure the four broaches are the smallpyramids covering thesquinch arches orsquinch corbels, whichcarried four of the eight sides of the octagonal spire across the anglesof the tower.

Plate V., Fig. 4, shows threeLancet windows under a single arch ordripstone. This grouping of the windows soon suggested the design oftracery windows, in which the lights are separated bymullions, thesimplest form being as represented in the Lichfield Chapter-house inPlate V., Fig. 9. Geometrical arrangements were invented from the simpleone (Plate V., Fig. 5) to the elaborate windows and arcades ofWestminster Abbey. Cusps (spear points) were formed in the tracery,theSoffit-cusp (s.c.) projecting from the underside of the mullion,{44}indicating early work and uncommon. All other cusps were worked on thechamfer (c.c), their points being variously shaped.

InPlate V., Fig. 8, the capitals were either moulded, or carved withstiff-leaf foliage, beingconventional—i.e., designed on naturalprinciples, but not in imitation of nature, and sometimes of greatbeauty, but never so delicate as to suggest its unsuitability to thematerial in which it was wrought. Hollows in the arch and othermouldings were enriched with thetooth ornament (Plate V., Fig. 12),which occurs in the Lancet period only.

Plate V., Fig. 6, shows astring course anddripstone. All mouldingsconsist of large rounds and deep hollows, separated by fillets (a, b),and are frequently arranged in extensive groups, as in doorways,arcading, etc.

The Cathedral of Salisbury is the only one which is throughout belongingto the Early English period.{45}

PLATE VI

PLATE VII

Plates VI and VII

THE term “decorated” is applied to the work of this period because ofthe superfluity of its ornaments. Almost every feature was enriched withcarved ornament. The predominating form is thecurvilinear line, theogee orogival (Plate VI., Fig. 2), Hogarth’s “line of beauty andgrace,” which occurs in the lines of tracery, the shape of arches,sections of mouldings, and of foliated ornament.

The Geometrical period, 1245-1315, is the overlapping of Early Englishand Decorated. The term Geometrical is applied on account of the windowtracery, which is made up of circles and triangles more or lesselaborate. The change fromGeometrical toCurvilinear orflowingtracery is demonstrated inPlate VII., Figs. 1, 2;Plate VII., Fig. 2,being a slight alteration ofPlate VII., Fig. 1.{50}

Plate VII., Fig. 5,reticulated—net-like—is a common exampleproduced in the same manner asPlate VII., Fig. 2, and is adaptable toall shapes of windows. Many elaborate and beautiful designs wereproduced on these principles by extension of such elements as inPlateVII., Fig. 3.

Plate VII., Fig. 4, is a common type of window; an extension of thesimple two-light window (Plate V., Fig. 9), frequently enriched withcusps and ball-flower (Plate VI., Fig. 3) in the hollows of themullions.

InPlate VII., Fig. 10, the buttresses are decorated with niches forstatuary. Aflying-buttress is shown (F.B.), carrying the thrust ofthe stone-vaulted roof of the nave over the external roof of the aisleinto the main buttress, whose weight and consequent stability areincreased by the heavypinnacle. The smaller buttress (C.) resists thethrust of the window arches. Norwich Cathedral displays an interestingarray of flying-buttresses.

Plate VI., Fig. 6, shows a tower and spire at the crossing of nave andtransepts. The base of the spire and itsbroaches (Plate V., Fig. 7)are concealed by aparapet wall, with battle{51}ments protecting afootway round the spire, which could be used as a place of observation.Mouldings in the Geometrical period attained the greatest refinement.Many can be favourably compared with those of the best Greek periods.

Arches continued to be built in square orders (Plate III., Figs. 6 and8), and consisted of round mouldings, generally separated by deephollows and fillets (Plate VII., Fig. 7).

In mouldings of the Curvilinear period (Plate VII., Fig. 8) theogeesuperseded the round, and the hollows were shallower. Towards the end ofthe period the squareorders ceased, and the planes of theorderswere at about 45° with the vertical (Plate VII., Fig. 9; compare withPlate VIII., Fig. 12).

Thewave-moulding (Plate VII., Fig. 9) and thescroll-moulding(Plate VII., Figs. 9, 12, and 13), supposed to resemble a parchmentscroll, are conspicuous in the Curvilinear. The general character of theornament is indicated onPlate VII., in most of which theogee line isapparent.

Theball-flower (Plate VI., Fig. 3) is a dis{52}tinctive feature of theDecorated period superseding the tooth ornament of the Lancet (Plate V.,Fig. 12). It was applied to hollow mouldings of arches and tracery ofwindows, vaulting, and spires.

Capitals were moulded as in the section (Plate VII., Fig. 13), orcarved, asPlate VI., Fig. 4, generally in imitation of natural foliage,varying from a bold conventionalism (Plate VI., Fig. 5) to a closeimitation of nature, asPlate VI., Fig. 1 (a.a.). Animal forms and smallhuman figures were occasionally introduced. Figure sculpture reached itshighest degree of excellence in this period.

Construction was further advanced, but in design the climax had beenattained in the Geometrical period, and a very gradual decline set in,as shown in excessive ornamentation and literal imitation of naturalforms in stonework, which is unsuitable for such delicate treatment onaccount of its fragility.

The increasing wealth of the nation during this period is indicated bythe grandeur of the buildings and the redundancy of ornament.{53}

PLATE VIII

PLATE IX

Plates VIII and IX

THE term “perpendicular” was applied to the work of this period, thelast of English Gothic, on account of the predominance of vertical linesin the whole architectural design, and especially in window tracery.

A comparison ofPlate VII., Fig. 5, net tracery, withPlate IX., Fig. 5,rectilinear, will explain how the latter was developed from the formerby extending the sides of themeshes of thenet by straight linesinto the summit of the window. But as the termperpendicular is only arelative one, not necessarily meaning vertical, the termrectilinearwas substituted, being descriptive of the general character of the wholedesign in mass and detail. In this work, however, the term“perpendicular” is preferred as the one most generally known. Windowsbecame so large, chiefly for the{58} display of stained glass, as to reducethe wall spaces between them to little more than piers, andtransoms(horizontal mullions) had to be introduced to strengthen the verticalmullions. [SeePlate IX., Figs, 1 and 2 (a.b.), belfry windows inthese examples.]

Loftiness is a special trait of the Perpendicular period. Walls werecarried to a greater height than previously. The external roof wasfrequently covered with lead, and inclined at an angle easy to walkupon. The roof-timbers were supported by ornamental principals exposedto view from the interior, or there was a stone-vaulted internal roof ofrich design, the increased thrusts upon the walls being counteracted bylarger buttresses.

Tall towers were built, such as those of York Minster, Gloucester,Worcester, and the churches of Boston (Lincolnshire), Wrexham, Taunton,and many others of magnificence.Plate IX., Figs. 1 and 3, givevarieties of smaller parish church towers. In these the Tudor arch andsquare-headed window are shown. Spires are not so common as in thepreceding periods.Buttresses were placeddiagonally at{59} allcorners, scientifically the best position (Plate IX., Figs, 1 and 2).

In large churches external wall surfaces were enriched with panelling,covering in some cases the whole from ground to summit, and combinedwith open tracery in the battlements. In the interior the same kind ofdecoration prevailed, and in some cases the window tracery was carriedbelow the glass down to the floor as panelling.

Arch-mouldings (Plate VIII., Fig. 12) generally included the largehollow also common in the window jambs. The plane of the arch-mouldingswas inclined to the vertical 45° (Plate VIII., Fig. 12). The usualdripstone (d.s.) and some of theircorbels are shown inPlate VIII.,Figs. 1 and 3. Piers (Plate VIII., Fig. 11) were of the simple formshown with columns at the angles, single, or in groups, asPlate VIII.,Fig. 13, the general contour of the pier being a rhombus or lozenge inplan.

Theogee arch with crockets and finial was continued from theDecorated period.{60}

TheTudor orfour-centred arch (Plate IX., Figs. 1 and 6) belongs tothe late Perpendicular period.

Plate VIII., Fig. 4, shows a common form of Tudor door-head with thelabel orsquare dripstone and carvedspandril (a triangularspace). Columns were circular, with octagonal bases and capitals, thelatter moulded or carved with oak-leaf foliage or conventional ornament,resembling that inPlate VIII., Fig. 9. Corbels with shields (PlateVIII., Fig. 9), armorial bearings, and the Tudor rose (Plate VIII., Fig.2), frequently occur.

Many Perpendicular churches are rich in ornamental woodwork: choirstalls with lifting seats (misereres), under which are grotesquecarvings; poppy-heads (Fr.poupée, a doll), the bench-end ornamentswhich sometimes carried a small carved figure among foliage; panelledscreens crowned with brattishing (Plate VIII., Fig. 5), and otherornaments. The termbrattishing is also applied to the open tracery ofsome battlements of the Perpendicular period.

The Perpendicular is the longest of the English Gothic periods. In itGothic con{61}struction attained its climax; ornamentation declined from arefined realism to coarse conventionalism, coinciding with the declineof spiritual life in the Church. Cathedrals and churches increased inall dimensions, and everything showed the tendency towards therenaissance of classic art which was flourishing on the Continent.Classic mouldings were imitated, and carved ornament of pure Italiandesign was applied to decorate Gothic forms—notable instances being thetomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey, and the Salisbury Chantry inChristchurch Priory near Bournemouth. Both were the work of Torregiano,a contemporary of Michael Angelo.

The English people clung to their Gothic style for a century after thesame had almost disappeared from the Continent, and in the Elizabethanperiod, 1558-1603, classic details, including thefive orders, werecompletely incorporated into Gothic design. The pointed archdisappeared; the Roman semicircle took its place. Brickwork supersededmasonry, roof construction was concealed, and all kinds of shams wereintroduced. Then came a period of close imitation of Greek and Romantemples,{62} until the Gothic revival under its pioneer, A. W. Pugin (b.1812,d. 1852), whose literary works are very instructive andinteresting reading. The present-day (1922) tendency is towards arevival of Byzantine architecture.{63}

PLATE X

Plate X

NEXT in importance to the construction of substantial walls comes thenecessity of weather-proof and storm-proof roofs, such as shouldpreserve the stability of the walls, or their disintegration would behastened by that which should be their protection.

The nature of the covering and the action of weather are the principalfactors affecting their design and construction. The rigours of theEnglish climate require a covering to be such as to prevent thepenetration of rain, and their support to be strong enough to resist thepressure of snow and the hurricane. The high-pitched roof (of steepinclination) is common to all periods of English Gothic. The averageNorman roof waspitched about 45°, its apex being about a right anglecomposed agreeably with the semicircular arches in the gables. Thehigher-pitched roofs came simultaneously with the introduction of the{66}pointed arch, sometimes at a pitch of 60°, ultimately declining to about20° or less in the late Perpendicular period. The outer covering isgenerally of boards overlaid with tiles or sheet-lead, the latter beingimperative in the low-pitched roofs. The whole of the covering iscarried bycommon rafters orspars rising from the walls to the apexof the roof.

Plate X., Figs. 1 and 2, show two ordinaryprincipals ortrusses.These are in no sense Gothic, but are here given to more clearly explainthe principles of roof construction. The common rafters (c.r.) bearingthe covering are of light timber, tending to bend under the weight; toprevent thispurlins (P.), stout beams, are placed at suitableintervals, and these are carried at their ends by theroof trusses.Thetie-beam (t.b) is the chief beam of the truss. Theprincipalrafters (p.r.) are framed into it and into the heads of theKing andQueen posts. In theQueen-post-truss thecollar unites the Queenposts;struts andcross-braces complete the structure. In a properlyconstructed roof-truss all the stresses are neutralised in the trussitself, and the whole{67} framework rests as a dead weight upon the wallswithout any lateral thrust to force them out of the vertical. TheKing-post-truss is suitable to roofs up to 30 feet span, theQueen-post-truss to 40 feet.

Open timber roofs have their construction visible from the interior.Plate X., Fig. 8, shows a crudeQueen-post-truss in an oldWorcestershire church, in which the tie-beam has been chosen from a bentlog so as to prevent its bending under the roof load. In the trusses(Plate X., Figs. 1, 2) the King and Queen posts act like the keystonesof an arch, so that by bolting or strapping up with ironwork at pointss.s. theseposts are put into a state of tension, the tie-beam (t.b.)is pulled up to acamber, or curve, and is also in tension. In thecrude Queen-post-truss (Plate X., Fig. 8) these conditions are reversed,for the tie-beamsupports the Queen posts. InPlate X., Figs. 1 and 2,all the spaces in these trusses are triangular, a fact which ensuresstability where the parts are of proper strength and properly united.Plate X., Fig. 4, is a trussed rafter roof requiring no purlins norprincipal—each common rafter is a truss. This kind of roof is suitable{68}only to small spans; its weakest part is from a. to b.

In the roof-truss, or principal, the Gothic architects objected to thetie-beam as an obstruction to the sense of loftiness, so desirable inthe church interior, and therefore invented thehammer-beam principal(Plate X., Fig. 7), which resembles a Queen-post-truss, having a collarand King post. The hammer-beams (h.b.) are substitutes for the tie-beam.

In this principal the space between the collar and the apex of the roofis satisfactorily trussed, but from the collar downwards theQueenposts (Q.p.) andwall posts (w.p.) with theirbraces (b.) becomemere brackets supporting the small King-post-truss above, bringing itsload as low as possible on to the walls, so that their weight of masonryand buttresses may effectually resist the lateral thrust of the roofupon them.

Plate X., Fig. 5, shows acollar principal with curved braces. Thetendency of all roof principals is tospread at the walls; this hasbeen met by modern church-builders by introducing an iron tie-rod inplace of a tie-beam, thus forming a triangle, the only form of absolutestability, for the whole of the prin{69}cipal, as indicated by the dottedline connecting the hammer-beams inPlate X., Fig. 7.

Plate X., Fig. 6, shows a low-pitched Perpendicular roof with principalsand half-principal. The common rafters are concealed by a panelledceiling, the panels being formed by principal rafters and purlins. Thearched trusses bring part of the thrust low down on to the walls, whichare strengthened by heavy buttresses on the outside. Thehalf-principal is placed over a window arch.

Plate X., Fig. 3, shows a low-pitched roof and ceiling supported by atie-beam only, strengthened at its bearings bywall posts andbraces.{71}{70}

PLATE XI

PLATE XII

Plates XI and XII

STONE-VAULTED roofs became necessary in church building early in theNorman period for security against fire. They were made after the Romanmanner, semicircular, with similar vaults intersecting at right angles.The lines of their intersections are thegroins. When two intersectingvaults are of equal semicircles, each groin is a semi-ellipse. Thisgroin is the weakest part of the vault; in order to strengthen it theNormans built an arch called thegroin rib, underneath the groin, tosupport it. Difficulties were met in forming intersecting vaults ofunequal span, clumsy contrivances were resorted to, until, in theTransition period, 1145-1190, the introduction of the pointed archsolved the problem, and led the way to the development of Gothicvaulting. The Roman and Norman vaults were built upon temporarycentering. Acentre is a timber frame made like a roof-truss shaped{76}to the form of the arch; a series ofcentres were placed at convenientdistances apart and covered with strong boarding upon which the vaultwas built. After the masonry was completelyset, the temporarycentering was removed, leaving the vault to carry itself.

As the system of vaulting developed,cross ribs andwall ribs (PlateXI., Fig. 3) were added, and much of the temporary centering wasdispensed with; ornamental arrangements were designed by introducingmore ribs, andthe web—the covering surface of masonry—was reducedto small panels in the Decorated and Perpendicular periods. In the Tudorperiod, 1485-1558, theweb became the principal part, the ribs beingmere mouldings worked upon its surface in the form offan-vaulting, asimple example of which can be studied in the south porch of ChesterCathedral, and the most elaborate in the roof of the Chapel of HenryVII., Westminster Abbey.

Abay of a cathedral is one of the spaces into which its length isdivided by the supports of the roof as piers, arches, or principals. Thebays of the aisles are usually square—those of{77} the nave, choir, ortransepts rectangular on account of their greater width.

Vertically each of the bays of the nave, etc., is divided into threestories (Plate XI., Fig. 2), thegroundstory rising from the floor;thetriforium, orblindstory, having no windows, is over the aisles,and theclerestory over the triforium. The prefixclere—bright—indicates the brilliancy of its light.

In the Norman period these three divisions were nearly equal in height.In the succeeding periods the groundstory attained about half of thetotal height of the bay, the clerestory was extended downwards, and thetriforium reduced, until, in the Perpendicular period, it entirelydisappeared.

Plate XI., Figs. 3 and 4, show a few square bays of Gothic vaulting inskeleton diagrams with the forms of plan indicated by dotted lines upontheir base-planes. All the lines represent ribs.

Plate XI., Figs. 2 and 3, showquadripartite vaulting—i.e., havingfour compartments in one bay. This is the simplest form of Gothic vault,and belongs chiefly to the Early English period. The ribs ah, bh, ci, diare wall ribs;{78} bg, cg, ag, dg, are cross ribs; ae, ce, be, de, are thediagonal ribs. The ridge-ribs eg and h, e, i, are horizontal, andintersect the summits of the cross ribs and diagonals. At everyintersection there is generally a carved keystone orboss.

In the vaulting of a nave the breadth across is about twice the breadthof the aisles, so that the nave bays are not square, but rectangular.

Plate XI., Fig. 4, andPlate XII., Fig. 2, showlierne-vaulting,havinglierne-ribs, the short ribs joining and supporting all theascending ribs as h, k, l, m, g.

Plate XII., Figs. 2 and 3, are lierne vaults. That shown in Fig. 3 isunder the belfry of a church tower at Coventry, with circular openingfor hoisting the bells.

The detail at B shows the method of collecting the three ribs into oneat thespringers in the corners A, B, C, D, by small arches in thetracery of ribs.

Plate XII., Fig. 1, shows fan-vaulting having no ribs. The lines shownindicate mouldings on the masonry imitating ribs. The structure is builtup of slabs of stone, accurately joined{79} together forming concavehalf-cones, their vertices being the springers of the vault. The dottedlines show some of the jointing; the other lines represent the imitationribs. The crown of the vault is the flat surface gh, gi, generallyrichly ornamented.{81}{80}

INDEX

Abacus,Pl. III., Fig. 1
Arcade (Norman),Pl. III., Fig. 7

Ball-Flower,Pl. VI., Fig. 3
Band,Pl. V., Figs. 10, 11
Base,Pl. III., Figs. 1, 5
Battlements,Pl. IX., Figs. 4A, 4B
Bay,Pl. XI., Fig. 2
Belfry Windows,Pl. IX., Figs. 1, 2
Boss,Pl. XII., Figs. 2, 3
Braces,Pl. X., Figs. 2, 7
Brattishing,Pl. VIII., Fig. 5
Broach-Spire,Pl. V., Fig. 7
Buttress,Pl. V., Fig. 9;Pl. VII., Fig. 10
Buttress (Diagonal),Pl. IX., Figs. 1, 2
Byzantine,Pl. I., Figs. 3 to 16
Byzantium, p. 17

Camber,Pl. X., Figs. 1, 2, p. 67
Catacombs,Pl. I., Fig. 1
Cathedral, p. 29
Centering, p. 75
Chamfer-Cusp,Pl. V., Fig. 5
Chevron,Pl. I., Fig. 4;Pl. III., Fig. 6
Chrism,Pl. I., Figs. 15, 16
Clerestory,Pl. XI., Fig. 2
Collar,Pl. X., Figs. 2, 5, 7, 8
Conventional, p. 44
Corbel Blocks,Pl. II., Fig. 3
Corbel-Table,Pl. III., Fig. 4
Crocket,Pl. V., Figs, 1, 2;Pl. VII., Figs. 10, 11, 14
Crypt,Pl. I., Fig. 2
Cushion Capital,Pl. III., Figs. 2, 8, 9
Cusp,Pl. V., Fig. 5
Cylindrical Shafts,Pl. III., Fig. 2

Detached Shafts,Pl. III., Fig. 8
Dripstone,Pl. III., Figs. 6, 8

Engaged Shafts,Pl. III., Fig. 8

Fan-Vaulting,Pl. XII., Fig. 1
Finial,Pl. V., Fig. 2;Pl. VII., Figs. 6, 10, 11;Pl. VIII., Fig. 6
Fish Symbol,Pl. I., Fig. 11
Flowing Tracery,Pl. VII., Figs. 2, 3
Flying-Buttress,Pl. VII., Fig. 10
Font (Norman),Pl. III., Fig. 7

{82}Geometrical Tracery,Pl. V., Fig. 5;Pl. VII., Fig. 1
Gothic Arch,Pl. IV., Fig. 2;Pl. V., Figs. 4, 5
Groin,Pl. XI., Figs. 3, 4, p. 75
Groundstory,Pl. XI., Fig. 2

Hammer-Beam,Pl. X., Fig. 7
Hood-Moulding,Pl. III., Figs. 6, 8

I.H.S.,Pl. I., Fig. 3A

Jamb-Shaft,Pl. III., Fig. 8

Labarum,Pl. I., Figs. 15, 16
Label,Pl. VIII., Fig. 4
Lancet Windows,Pl. V., Fig. 4
Lierne-Vaulting,Pl. XI., Fig. 4;Pl. XII., Figs. 2, 3
Long-and-Short Work,Pl. II.

Mullion,Pl. IX., Figs. 1, 3, 5, 6

Nave,Pl. XI., Fig. 1

Ogee or Ogival,Pl. VI., Fig. 2
Open Timber Roof,Pl. X., Figs. 3 to 8, p. 67
Orders of Arches,Pl. III., Figs. 6, 8

Parapet,Pl. VI., Fig. 6;Pl. IX., Figs. 1 to 4
Pier,Plate III., Fig. 1
Pinnacle,Pl. VI., Fig. 6;Pl. VII., Fig. 10;Pl. IX., Figs. 1, 2, 3
Pitch of Roof,Pl. X.
Pointed Arch, pp. 37, 38
Principal and Principal Rafter,Pl. X., all Figs.
Purlin,Pl. X., Figs. 1, 2

Quadripartite Vaulting,Pl. XI., Fig. 3
Quatrefoil,Pl. I., Figs. 9, 10
Queen Post,Pl. X., Figs. 2, 7, 8
Quoin,Pl. II., Figs. 6 to 9

Rafters, Common,Pl. X., Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8
Respond,Pl. III., Fig. 3;Pl. XI., Fig. 2, p. 31
Reticulated Tracery,Pl. VII., Fig. 5

Sacred Monogram,Pl. I., Fig. 3A
Scallop Capital,Pl. III., Fig. 6
Scroll-Moulding,Pl. VII., Figs. 12, 13
Shaft,Pl. III., Fig. 2, p. 31
Sill,Pl. II., Fig. 3
Soffit-Cusp,Pl. V., Fig. 5
Spandril,Pl. VIII., Fig. 4, p. 60
Springer,Pl. XII., Fig. 3, detail
Spur,Pl. III., Fig. 5
Square and Circle,Pl. III., p. 30
Squinch Arches, p. 43
Stiff-Leaf,Pl. V., Fig. 8
String Courses and Dripstones,Pl. IV., Fig. 4;Pl. V., Fig. 6;Pl. VII., Fig. 12;Pl. VIII., Fig. 8
{83}Strut,Pl. X., Figs. 1, 2, 7
Studs,Pl. II., Fig. 3
Symbols,Pl. I.

Tie-Beam,Pl. X., Figs, 1, 2, 3, 8
Tooth Ornament,Pl. V., Fig. 12
Tracery Development,Pl. V., Figs. 4, 5;Pl. VII., Figs. 1 to 5
Transitional,Pl. IV.
Transom,Pl. IX., Figs. 1, 2, p. 58
Trefoil,Pl. I., Fig. 7
Triforium,Pl. XI., Fig. 2
Triquetra,Pl. I., Fig. 8;Pl. III., Fig. 9
Truss,Pl. X.
Tudor Arch,Pl. VIII., Fig. 4;Pl. IX., Fig. 6
Tudor Flower,Pl. VIII., Fig. 2

Vaulting Ribs,Pl. XII., Figs. 2, 3;Pl. XI., Figs. 3, 4
Vesica Piscis,Pl. I., Fig. 5

Wall Post,Pl. X., Figs. 3, 7, p. 68
Wave—Moulding,Pl. VII., Fig. 9
Web (Vaulting),Pl. XI., Figs. 3, 4, p. 76

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PLATE		PAGE
I.	Byzantine and Early Christian	13
II.	Anglo-Saxon	21
III.	Norman	27
IV.	Transitional, 1145-1190 (Norman to Early English)	35
V.	Early English	39
VI.	Decorated	45
VII.	Decorated	47
VIII.	Perpendicular	53
IX.	Perpendicular	55
X.	English Gothic Roofs	63
XI.	Vaulting	71
XII.	Vaulting	73

Norman	William	I.,	1066,	to Richard	I.,	1189.
Early English	Richard	I.,	1189,	to Edward	I.,	1272.
Decorated	Edward	I.,	1272,	to Richard	II.,	1377.
Perpendicular	Richard	II.,	1377,	to Edward	VI.,	1547.

Saxon			1066.
Norman	1066	to	1145.
Transitional	1145	”	1190.
Lancet	1190	”	1245.
Geometrical	1245	”	1315.
Curvilinear	1315	”	1360.
Rectilinear	1360	”	1550.