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FABRICS DESCRIBED; TEXTILE, KNIT GOODS,WEAVING TERMS, ETC., EXPLAINED; WITHNOTES ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF SAMPLES.

Compiled and Illustrated, as an Aid to Members of theChinese Maritime Customs Service,

PREFACE.

The following pages represent an attempt to compile,primarily for the benefit of members of the Chinese MaritimeCustoms Service, descriptions of cotton, woollen, and otherfabrics, their weaves and finishes, etc., together with otherinformation concerning terms currently used in the piece goodstrade which are likely to be met with in invoices, applications,or contracts.

This manual does not embrace all textiles known to the trade,but it does cover all those enumerated in the "Revised ImportTariff for the Trade of China," as well as many others. As far aspossible the commonly accepted trade name has been used. Itshould, however, be borne in mind that many fabrics are knownin the trade by a variety of names, so that one branch of the trademay not recognise a name applied to the same fabric by anotherbranch.

The descriptions have been built up from informationobtained first hand from practical weavers, manufacturers, wholesaleand retail merchants, buyers, etc., as well as from personalvisits to mills in the Manchester and Huddersfield districts, andfrom standard works on weaving. To Mr. G. W. Shaw, of BothamHall, Huddersfield, I am indebted for introductions to theprincipal manufacturers in that district, enabling me to go throughsuch mills as those of Mr. A. Whitwam and Messrs. GodfreySykes, where every phase of manufacture from raw materialto finished goods was shown and explained with characteristicYorkshire thoroughness. I am indebted for either informationor actual samples, or both, to:—

The Board of Trade (through their Piece Goods Expert,Mr. A. Sutton), John Bright & Bros., Limited, and Selfridge & Co.,Limited, realising the value of classified information concerningdescriptions of piece goods, have very kindly supplied me withranges of samples.

The following works have been consulted, and their contentshave materially assisted me. I take the opportunity ofacknowledging my indebtedness to their authors, as well as tothose of any other works consulted but which may have beenomitted from this list:—

I wish specially to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. A.Sutton, Piece Goods Expert to the Board of Trade, London, forhaving perused the manuscript of the "Piece Goods Manual"and for the painstaking manner in which he pointed out wheremodifications were advisable. His suggestions have enabled meto revise definitions so as to make them agree with accepted tradeinterpretations.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PIECE GOODS MANUAL.

Actual.—The terms "actual" and "nominal" are used inthe trade to indicate (1) that the width should be taken as statedor (2) that a certain amount of allowance should be made."Actual" implies that the width is not less than stated. "Nominal"means that the width of the cloth may vary as much as halfan inch below width given on contract.

Agaric.—A cotton fabric of loop yarn construction, havinga surface somewhat similar to a fine Turkish Towelling.

Albatross.—A dress fabric of worsted warp and worstedfilling of open texture and fancy weaves. When the name isapplied to a cotton fabric it is used to designate a plain-wovenall-cotton fabric, soft, fine, and free from ornamentations, made inimitation of the worsted fabric of the same name. It has a fleecysurface, is generally sold in white, black, or solid colours, beingused instead of Bunting for flags. Not often used for printing, forwhich purpose it is not well adapted.

Alhambra Quilt.—An all-cotton counterpane woven with acoarse waste weft known as Candlewick. A loosely wovencoloured warp yarn is used for the figuring and a grey "sticking"warp for securing the weft in position.

Alpaca.—This name is given to a fabric woven with a cottonwarp and an alpaca wool weft. The fabric is classed as a lustrefabric, this being due to the predominance of the lustrous weft.Generally plain woven with a simple one-over and one-underweave, Alpaca is, when solid coloured, a cross-dyed fabric, i.e.,one in which the cotton warp yarns were dyed prior to weavingand the piece of fabric piece-dyed after leaving the loom. Similarto Lustre Orleans, Mohair Brilliantine, and Mohair Sicilian, whichare typical lustre fabrics.

Alpaca Wool is the fleece of the Peruvian sheep, whichis a species of llama. The staple is of good length and soft, butis not quite as lustrous as mohair. The natural colours arewhite, black, brown, and fawn.

Alpacianos.—Nothing seems to be recorded in any modernbook dealing with textiles or in any technical dictionary concerningany fabric known by the name of Alpacianos. The name,however, appears in the Revised Import Tariff for the trade ofChina, from which it would appear to be an all-cotton fabric,piece-dyed after leaving the loom, probably averaging between28 and 31 inches in width and about 25 yards in length. Thename is probably of South American origin.

American Sheetings.—A rather coarse make of plain-wovengrey cloth, woven from coarse yarns (about 20's counts), 48threads of warp and the same number of weft picks to the inch,and generally woven with "twist way" weft. Another name forthis material is Cabot. Average width, 36 inches; length, 40yards per piece. Weight varies. The use of the name Sheeting,as applied to this class of material, is now firmly established butincorrect, Sheetings originally being a two-and-two twill fabrichaving a width of as much as 120 inches.

Angola.—This name is used to designate a plain or twillweave fabric having a cotton warp and a weft made from cottonand wool scribbled together prior to being spun. The proportionof wool to cotton varies. This scribbled wool and cotton yarn, orAngola Wool as it is called, generally contains about 20 per cent.of cotton and 80 per cent. of wool.

Angola Yarn or Wool.—A yarn spun from a mixture of80 per cent. wool and 20 per cent. cotton.

Angora.—Angora is the name of a species of goat whichyields a wool commercially known as Mohair. This kind of woolenters largely into the classes of goods known as Astrakhan,Crépon, Plushes, Brilliantine, Zibelines, fine Cashmeres, and otherfabrics usually sold as all wool. It enters into the manufacture ofvery high-grade fabrics in combination with silk. More lustrousthan wool, it has not, however, the warmth-retaining properties ofthe latter.

Angora Goat.—A species of goat originally bred in AsiaMinor, producing Mohair fibre. From the long silky hair of thisgoat was made Turkish Yarn or Camel Yarn. The name CamelYarn has led to mistakes; it has no reference to the camel, but isderived from the Arabic wordchamal, fine.

Animalised Cotton.—To increase the affinity of cotton fordye-stuffs and at the same time increase its lustre, cotton issometimes treated with solutions of wool, silk, or gelatine in such[3]a manner that when the solvent has evaporated the coatedsurface remains sufficiently pliable not to crack under normalconditions.

Artificial Silk.—In the making of artificial silk, celluloseprepared from wood or cotton is turned into a nitro-cellulose bytreatment with nitric acid. This nitro-cellulose is made liquidby dissolving it in ether and alcohol, then forced under pressurethrough very fine tubes, or forced through holes of about 1/250thof an inch pierced in a platinum plate, in the form of very finethreads, from which the ether and alcohol evaporate readily, leavingthe nitro-cellulose as a fine lustrous fibre. Artificial silk is oftenused in the ornamentation of figured fabrics. It bears a verydeceptive resemblance to true silk, but the individual fibres arecoarser and burn very quickly, without the typical smell of truesilk and without the hard bubble of ash. Its value is about athird of that of the best silk, but as an offset to this must betaken its higher specific gravity. If of equal thickness, the lengthof thread, weight for weight, is only from half to two-thirds thatof real silk.

Astrakhan.—A fabric having a curly, wavy surface resemblingAstrakhan fleece. There are three varieties of this kind offabric, each produced on a different principle: (1) on the weftprinciple, in which, owing to shrinkage of the ground texture, thepile weft is thrown up and forms a curly loop; (2) on the warptexture principle, in which a thick curly warp yarn is broughtover wires to form the necessary loops; and (3) the cheapestform, as a knitted fabric.

Astrakhan varies as regards the size of the loop which goes tomake the curl. The lustre yarn that is used is curled beforeuse, the curl being fixed by heat. The ground texture is cotton.Width varies from 48 to 50 inches; weight from 19 to 36 ouncesper yard of the 50-inch wide material. The heavier grades run35 to 40 yards per piece, the lighter grades from 50 to 55 yards.Generally met with in solid black or a grey produced by blendingblack and white fibres, also in solid white. Astrakhans havegenerally an uncut pile, but are sometimes finished with part ofthe loop curls cut, say, 50 per cent., which gives the fabric theappearance of woolly fur with complete curls at intervals.

Back Cloth.—An unbleached, reinforcing, all-cotton cloth,plain woven, used in printing fabrics to support the fabric which isbeing printed.

Backed Cloth.—To add weight to certain single texturefabrics, extra threads running either in the direction of the warp,i.e., lengthways of the piece, or weftways across the piece, arestitched on to the back of the fabric. Fabrics having such extrathreads stitched on to them are called Backed Cloths.

Baize.—A coarse, harsh, loosely woven woollen fabric ofplain weave, having a long nap on both sides like flannel. Baizeis generally dyed in bright colours and is known under the nameBayetas. Average width 66 to 67 inches, length 30 to 45 yardsper piece.

Balbriggan.—Named after the town of Balbriggan, Ireland.First applied, in 1845, to full-fashioned hosiery made from unbleachedcotton. About 1860 the term was applied to knit underwearof the same material. It was originally used only onhigh-class goods, but now covers everything in light-weight flatunderwear made of yarn stained to the shade of Egyptian cotton.

Bale of Cotton.—The standard bale of cotton, according tothe usage of the trade in England and America and generallyaccepted elsewhere, weighs 500 pounds. The following is theaverage weight and density of cotton bales:—

Baline.—A coarse canvas, mostly made of better grades ofjute, flax, and hemp, used for upholstery purposes, interlinings,tailoring purposes, etc.

Balzarine Brocades, Dyed.—The cotton variety of thisclass of fabric would be an all-cotton fabric having a gauze weaveand net-like appearance which had been embellished by theaddition of certain figures or designs woven into the fabric eitherby means of combination of the warp and weft threads or bymeans of an additional thread or threads. But Lappet or Swivelfigured Balzarines would not be considered Brocades in the truesense, as such style of figuring is not brocaded. Dyed BalzarineBrocades are piece-dyed after leaving the loom.

Balzarines.—Very few books of reference make mention ofthis kind of fabric. Of "uncertain origin," this name is said to havebeen given to "a light-weight mixed fabric of cotton and wool forwomen's dresses commonly used for summer gowns before theintroduction of barége (or barrège)." Barége was, for the nameseems to have fallen into disuse, "an open fabric resemblinggauze, but more open in texture and stouter in thread. It wasmade of various materials but is best known as made of silk warpand worsted weft. It was first employed as ornament for thehead, especially for sacred ceremonies, as baptism and marriage."It would appear, therefore, from the above that Balzarines—of thecotton variety—would be a gauze weave or net-like fabric wovenfrom cotton warp and cotton weft. They may have been eitherbleached, dyed, printed, or brocaded. The exact differencebetween Balzarines and other gauze fabrics does not appear in anymodern works dealing with textiles. The fabric probably approximates30 inches in width and from 28 to 30 yards in length perpiece. Unless specially designated as such, Balzarines are freefrom brocaded ornamentation; but from the fact that they arefound associated with Lenos, they may, like these, have someplain weave combined with the main gauze structure—probablyrunning in stripes lengthways of the piece.

Bandanna is a term applied to materials that have beendyed in a somewhat unusual manner, the cloth being tied in knotsprior to being dipped into the dye-stuff. A peculiar clouded effectis produced, as the dye-stuff does not reach the knotted partsequally with the rest of the surface. This term is met with mostfrequently in connexion with a large handkerchief, of which greatquantities were imported into India for sale to the natives.

Barré.—A striped or barred design, woven or printed,running from selvedge to selvedge.

Basket Cloth.—A plain-woven all-cotton fabric woven withtwo or more warp threads grouped together without twisting andwoven as a unit of matt weave.

Batiste.—A fabric of French origin; the term has come tomean commercially a light, sheer cloth, made of fine quality ofyarns and woven with a plain weave. A light fabric, with a Swissfinish, in distinction from a Nainsook, and usually wider andheavier than the latter fabric. In 32-inch widths and up a line ofBatistes runs 14 to 16 square yards to the pound. There arebleached and unbleached cotton Batistes, also linen and colouredBatistes. The cotton are largely ecru, and the linen are most[6]commonly in the grey. There is a gradual variation in qualitiesranging from a comparatively coarse to a very fine Batiste.There are also wool Batistes.

Bayadère.—Applied to fabrics in which the stripe, whetherwoven or printed, runs crosswise, that is, from selvedge to selvedge.

Bayetas.—The Spanish for Baize, which is a coarse, harsh,loosely woven woollen fabric having a long nap on both sides likeflannel. Bayetas are generally dyed in bright colours and havean average width of 66 to 67 inches and a length of 30 to 45yards per piece.

Beavers.—A heavy cloth manufactured of fine wool with afinish on face made to imitate the appearance of the beaver's fur.When the surface is made with a long and dense nap this fabricbecomes known as Fur Beaver.

Beaverteen.—A heavy, twill-weave, all-cotton fabric of thefustian or uncut pile variety, usually dyed in shades of grey or tanand generally used for garments having to withstand rough wear.

Bedford Cords.—Fabrics having cords or ribs running inthe direction of the length of the cloth, produced by interweavingthe weft, in plain or twill order, with alternate groups of warpthreads. The ribs may be emphasised by the addition of waddingor stuffing warp threads. Bedford Cords may be woven as eitheran all-cotton, all-wool, or wool and cotton fabric. The ribs ofBedford Cords are but slightly separated from each other. CottonBedford Cords closely resemble a wide-welt Piqué.See Welt.

Beige.—A dress fabric, generally twilled weave, made ofyarns spun from wool which has been dyed in the stock prior tobeing spun, mostly met with in greys, browns, and mottled ormixed effects. In America the term is used to designate a dressfabric of fine texture woven from yarns in which two threads ofdifferent colours are twisted together or wherein printed yarns areemployed.

Bengal Stripes.—An all-cotton plain-woven fabric of thestriped Gingham variety. Warp yarns partially white, balancedyed indigo blue.

Bengaline.—A silk fabric having thick threads or cords atintervals, from selvedge to selvedge. Frequently the cord is ofwool, covered with silk in the process of weaving, or cotton and[7]silk are combined together to produce this kind of material.When made of all cotton and known as a cotton Bengaline, it isgenerally mercerised. The warp yarn is often of two-ply. Bengalinehas much the appearance of Poplin.

Silk or part-silk Bengalines are often treated to an embossingprocess, which method presses a figure upon the fabric verysimilar in appearance to a Jacquard woven effect. A commonname for Reps, also similar to Poplin, but generally of a heaviercorded appearance with the cord running transversely across theface of the fabric.

Binding Cloth.—A muslin dyed and stamped or embossed,used to cover books by bookbinders.

Bleached.—This term is used to designate either raw cotton,cotton yarn, or more often cotton fabrics which have beenrendered white. The most generally used agent for bleaching ischloride of lime. The process of bleaching varies according towhether the fibres being bleached are in the loose, the yarn, orthe woven state. Prior to being bleached fabrics are said to be inthe "grey"; after bleaching they are said to be "white."

Bleached Domestics.—A term commonly used referringto the cheaper grades of bleached cotton cloths, either plain ortwilled.

Bombazine.—Bombazine is the name given to a twilledfabric of which the warp is of silk and the filling is worsted.

Book-fold Muslin.—A trade designation meaning muslinput up in 24-yard lengths, folded in such a way as to open book-wisefrom the centre, the various folds resembling the leaves of abook.

Botany.—A term applied to worsted yarns made fromBotany wool. It is considered the finest of all worsted yarnsand is used for making fine fabrics of close texture. The nameBotany is commonly used to designate a fine grade of Australianwool.

Bouclé.—Having knots, loops, or curls on the surface; usuallyemployed for cloakings. Imitation Astrakhan is a type of the kindof fabric coming under the heading Bouclé.

Bourette.—A rough-surfaced effect produced by introducinglumpy, knotted yarns at intervals in the weaving.

Broadcloth.—Broadcloth is a soft, closely woven materialmade with an all-wool warp and filling having a satin finish. Thebeauty of Broadcloth depends on its even, nappy, lustrous surface.The three main points that go towards fixing its value are thequality of the wool used, the uniformity of the nap, and the perfectionof finish. It is most often twill woven, double plain, butit is also met with in a plain weave.

Brocade.—The ordinary cotton Brocade is a figured fabricof single texture. More elaborate Brocades, used for dress andupholstery purposes, may have several wefts, in which case thecloth is one-sided, the warp forming the ground on the face, andthe wefts appearing only where required to produce figure. Soft-spunwefts are often used in Brocades and similar kinds of cloths,the better to fill and throw up the figure used in their ornamentation.It is a term commonly applied to fabrics of differentweaves or combinations of weaves in which the design appearingon the surface of the fabric is of a fancy figured or floral effect,usually of elaborate design; also used as an adjective to denote"woven figured."

Brocatelle.—The real Brocatelle is a rich upholstery fabric,which has a raised figure of silk warp and weft interwoven insatin order, on a ground formed by a linen weft and a specialbinder warp. The name is also applied to quilts having a coarsewhite weft and two colours of warp, which latter change placesfor figuring purposes.

Broché.—The French term for Brocade. Elaborate figureswoven on the surface of the fabric.

Brown Sheeting.—This term is the equivalent of "plaingrey cloths" and covers all weights of cotton goods in the grey orunfinished condition.

Brown Shirting.—The term is restricted usually to meansuch grey cotton cloths as have a width of 40 inches or less fromselvedge to selvedge.

Bugis.—This name is given to a fine make of cottonsarong having only one side decorated with a border design.It is used by sewing two pieces together plain edge to plainedge, thus converting it into a sarong with both edges ornamented.

"Bump" Yarns.—Cotton yarns of coarse numbers below 3's,used for weft purposes in counterpanes and other coarse fabrics,are termed "Bump" Yarns. Sometimes the term Candlewick isused for very coarse counts. The counts in the case of "Bump"Yarns are denoted by the number of yards weighing 1 ounce.

This kind of weft is extensively used for coarse and heavygoods, such as bagging, Alhambra quilts, etc.

Bunting.—A plain, loose, even-thread weave of Mohair woolor worsted, used mostly for making flags. Bunting, which is amaterial having to be dyed, is made of wool and not cotton orother vegetable fibre for the reason that wool has a greateraffinity for dye-stuffs than cotton and retains them better. Thereis, however, a cotton fabric woven from low-count yarns, generallyknown as either Butter Muslin or Cheese Cloth, which is sometimescalled Bunting.

Burlaps.—A plain-woven, coarse, and heavy fabric made fromjute, flax, or hemp, used for wrappings, upholstery, etc.

Cabled Yarns.—Cabled Yarns are produced by folding together"two-fold" threads. Under the heading "Folded Yarn"it will be seen that when two single threads of 60's count yarn aretwisted together they produce a two-fold 60's, written thus: 2/60.When three such two-fold yarns are twisted together they producea six-fold 60's thread. Sewing cottons, known in the trade asSpool Cotton, are good examples of Cabled Yarns.

Cabot.—A Levant term for a rather coarse make of plaingrey cloth, woven from coarse yarns (about 20's counts); 48 warpthreads and the same number of picks to the inch.

Lancashire-made Cabots are usually heavily sized. Considerablequantities of this cloth are made in South Carolina mills in36-inch width and shipped to China under the name of AmericanSheetings.

Calico.—This name is used to designate most plain-wovencotton fabrics which have simple designs printed on their face ineither one or more colours. Calicoes are usually in two colours,that is, one colour for the ground and the other for the figure ordesign. The ground colour is generally effected by piece-dyeingthe fabric in some solid colour. After the cloth is dyed the design[10]is printed on the cloth. Being cheap fabrics, Calicoes are generallygiven a "cheap common dye"—by this is meant that the coloursare not fast and will run or fade when washed. The printing ofCalicoes is done by the aid of a machine whose main feature is arevolving cylinder on which the design has been stamped or cutout. Such machines are capable of printing several colours inone design. Calico is woven with a plain one-over and one-underweave. As a textile term it is applied to cheaper grades of plaincotton cloth, and the name is rightly applied when such clothsare printed. In the Manchester district and in Great Britaingenerally the term Calico is used only to designate a plain greyor white shirting or sheeting free from any ornamentation.

Camel's Hair.—A loosely woven fabric of long-fibre wool.The term in its original sense is used to describe the soft downyfibre from the haunches and under parts of the camel.

Camlets (Woollen).—An all-wool plain-woven fabric freefrom any ornamentation of weave produced either by combinationof weave or extra warp or weft threads. It is invariably wovenwith the plain one-over and one-under weave from worsted yarns,which make the fabric somewhat lustrous. In width averaging30 to 31 inches and in length 60 to 61 yards. Camlets are onlydivisible into two kinds, Dutch and English. The former varietyappears to be no longer made, and one manufacturer states thatpractically 99 per cent. of the Camlets imported into China areof the English variety. Not unlike an Alpaca in feel, thoughsomewhat less lustrous, Camlets may be compared to a very finewool Bunting.

Camlets, Dutch (Woollen).—This heading apparentlycovers a type of material which has almost disappeared from themarket. Originally a rough cloth made from camel's hair, it wasknown as either Camlet or Camelot. A somewhat ancient descriptionis "a rough fabric composed of wool and cotton, or hair andsilk with a wavy or variegated surface." A firm of manufacturersin Bradford, written to for information under this heading, writesas follows: "This is a very ancient heading, and Camlets now areonly made in this country, and although there are about threequalities shipped to China, practically speaking, 99 per cent. arein the quality of the sample shown." The sample in questionshows the fabric to be a plain, all-wool, fairly loosely plain-wovenfabric dyed a bright vermilion. Both warp and weft are ofworsted yarn and hence it is a somewhat lustrous fabric; in width itaverages between 30 and 31 inches, in length from 60 to 61 yards,and its average value during the 10 years 1904-14 was 40s. 5d.per piece. Camlet somewhat resembles a fine Bunting and has aharsh handle; somewhat stiff, it has the feel of an Alpaca fabric.

Camlets, English (Woollen).—This fabric is describedunder Camlets, Dutch. A typical sample of English-madeWoollen Camlets showed the fabric to be a plain, all-wool, fairlyloosely plain-woven fabric dyed a bright vermilion. Both warpand weft are of worsted yarn, and hence it is a somewhat lustrousfabric, averaging 30 to 31 inches in width and 60 to 61 yards inlength. Average value of the quality generally imported intoChina was for the 10 years 1904-14 40s. 5d. per piece. Somewhatharsh of handle, it resembles a fine Bunting with the stifffeel of an Alpaca.

The earliest mention of English Camlets is to be found inCamden's "Brittania," 1610, where, speaking of Coventry, it issaid: "Its wealth, arising in the last age from the woollen andcamblet manufacture, made it the only mart of this part." In thenext century those of Brussels are said to exceed all other Camletsfor beauty and quality, those of England being reputed second.

Caniche.—Name given to a curled wool fabric showing theeffect of the coat of thecaniche, or French poodle.

Canton Flannel.—This term is used to designate anall-cotton flannel, first made for and exported to Canton. CantonFlannel will be found more fully described under "CottonFlannel." It is a narrow heavy fabric, twill woven, showingtwill on one side and having a long, soft, raised nap on the other.Woven as a four-shaft twill for winter weights and as a three-shafttwill for the summer weight. Width from 27 to 30 inches.Canton Flannel is taken direct from the loom, measured, napped,and folded, and packed for shipment. The yarn used to makethis class of cloth is spun from low-grade cotton of from three-fourthsto 1 inch in length of staple, generally dyed in brightcolours.

Canvas.—Canvas is a coarse plain-weave fabric woven fromyarn which is hard twisted. It is often woven from folded yarn,and this may readily be seen in what is known as embroiderycanvas. Canvas used for sails is generally a stout strong-builtcloth woven with "double warp coarse flax yarns." A termapplied to heavy, plain, unbleached, dyed or yarn-dyed fabric, ofdifferent grades or weights properly made of ply yarns, althoughthe term more frequently applies to fabrics of such similarappearance made without or partially of ply yarn. Various sortsof Canvases are known in different trades, such as EmbroideryCanvas, Duck, Dress Canvas, Mercerised Canvas, etc. Dressfabrics, the principal part of which are of such a construction, arestill termed Canvas in the distributing trade when they containstripes or fancy effects of other weaves.

Carbonising.—All-wool cloths and even raw wool very oftencontain a certain amount of vegetable matter, such as burrs, thechemical composition of which is similar to that of cotton, and asit is at times very desirable to extract this vegetable matter, thecloth or fibre is for this purpose subjected to a process known ascarbonising. The material is passed through a bath containingsulphuric acid of a suitable strength and temperature. Upondrying, the acid concentrates upon the vegetable matter, convertingit into hydrocellulose, which, being in the form of a powder,is easily removed, while the wool, not being acted upon by theacid to any considerable extent, remains intact. This systemwould be employed to test the percentage of cotton in any unionfabric: by carefully weighing the sample prior to treatment andagain after all the vegetable matter had been carbonised theproportion of cotton to wool can readily be ascertained.

Casement cloth.—A plain-woven fabric used for casementwindow curtains and usually white or cream-coloured. CasementCloth is made from either mohair, alpaca, or cotton. The cottonvariety is made from high-class yarns, well woven, and ismercerised before bleaching or dyeing.

Cashmere.—A cloth made from the hair of the Cashmeregoat. The face of the fabric is twilled, the twills or diagonal linesbeing uneven and irregular owing to the unevenness of the yarn.Cashmere was originally made from hand-spun yarn. In theknitted goods trade the word Cashmere, when applied to hosieryor underwear, means goods made of fine worsted yarns spun fromSaxony or other soft wools.

Cashmere has been described as being a lightly woven woollenfabric of twilled construction and soft finish, having the twill onthe "right" side,i.e., on the face of the fabric. It is sometimeswoven with a cotton warp and fine Botany wool weft. Anall-cotton variety, woven in the same way as the true Cashmere,is also met with: it is known as Cotton Cashmere.

Cashmere Double.—A Cashmere cloth having as a distinctivefeature a twill face and a Poplin-corded effect on thereverse.

Cashmere Wool is the fine, extremely soft, grey or whitefur of the Cashmere goat, which is bred in Tibet. There are twokinds of fibre obtained: one, which is really the outer covering,consisting of long tufts of hair, beneath which is found the other,the true Cashmere Wool of commerce, a soft downy wool ofbrownish grey tint having a fine silky fibre.

Castor.—A heavy cloth, manufactured of fine wool with afinish on the face made to imitate the fur of the beaver. Thiscloth differs from Beaver Cloth only in its weight, Castor clothbeing lighter than Beaver.

Cellular Cloth.—A plain Leno fabric having an open cellularstructure, which is specially suited for shirtings and underwear.Cellular Cloth is also found with stripes of different weave, thoughstill a form of Leno weave to the rest of the fabric.

Ceylon or Ceylon Flannel.—A coloured striped clothwoven with a cotton and wool mixture weft. The warp threadswhich form the stripes are dyed in the yarn prior to weaving.

Challis.—The name is given to a light-weight plain orfigured material made either of cotton or wool or a mixture ofboth. An all-wool Challis has, when plain woven, the appearanceof a Muslin Delaine. Usually printed.

Chambray.—Chambray is a staple fabric of many yearsstanding, being next in line of the cotton goods after the bettergrades of Gingham. It is a light-weight single cloth fabric,always woven with a plain weave and a white selvedge. It iswoven from warp and weft which may be either all cotton, cottonand silk, or all silk: it has an average width of 27 or 30 inchesand weighs 2 to 3½ ounces per finished yard. When made as anall-cotton fabric it is finished in the same way as a Gingham.

Checks.—Fabrics having rectangular patterns formed bycrossing the threads of a striped warp with weft threads of thesame order. "Mock" Checks are produced by combining weaveeffects.

When Checks are woven without a highly variegated colouringthey are known as Ginghams.

Cheese Cloth.—A very open and lightly constructed thincotton fabric of light weight and low-count yarns, woven with aplain weave, weighing from 9 to 12 yards to the pound. CheeseCloth is often used for Bunting, by which name it is sometimesknown. The Cheese Cloth used for wrapping round cheese andbutter after they have been pressed is a bleached cloth.

Cheviot.—Most stout woollen fabrics which have a rough orshaggy face are described as Cheviots, which has become a termdenoting more a class of goods than a particular fabric. It has aslightly felted, short, even nap on the face, and is often made of"pulled wool," which is the wool taken from the pelts of deadsheep.

Mungo, shoddy, and a fair percentage of cotton enter into thecomposition of the yarn from which it is made. Irrespective ofthe quality of the yarn used, however, Cheviots are finished eitherwith a "rough" or a close finish. The weave may either be plainor twill.

Chiffon.—A sheer silk tissue of plain weave and soft finish.The word is often used to indicate light weight and soft finish, asChiffon Velvet.

Chinchilla.—A fabric made of fine wool, having a surfacecomposed of small tufts closely united. The name is Spanish fora fur-bearing animal of the mink species, and the fabric is animitation of the fur.

Chiné.—Warp-printed: a fabric wherein the design, beingprinted on the warps, appears somewhat faintly and in indefiniteoutline. The weft is not printed, but is generally in the white.Some varieties, occasionally met with, have a coloured weft. Thisclass of fabric is also known as a Shadow Cretonne, when thedesigns are of the variety generally used in Cretonne fabrics.

Chintz.—When this name is applied to a fabric other than aprinted Chintz it is used to designate a woven Chintz, which is afabric on the warp threads of which, before being woven intocloth, various coloured designs have been printed. Many silkribbons are Chintz woven. Where the colours seem to have runin the pattern the name Chene is sometimes used. Warp-printedChintz is also known as Shadow Cretonne, from the softness of thedesign due to the white weft blurring the sharpness of the designprinted on the warp.

Clip Spots.—Figured Muslins ornamented by small detachedfigures of extra warp or weft, the floating material betweenthe spots being afterwards clipped or sheared off.

Coated Cotton Cloths.—This name is given to a clothhaving one or both surfaces coated with paint, varnish, pigments,or other substances. Examples of coated cloths are TracingCloth, Bookbinder's Cloth, Imitation Vellum, Oilcloths, and Oilskins.

Collarette.—A wide knitted neckband used on men's undershirtsin lieu of binding.

Coloured.—This term, when applied to textile fabrics, isused to show that the fabric which is designated as "coloured"has been dyed in the yarn and not dyed subsequently to havingbeen woven,i.e., it has been woven from coloured yarns.

Coloured Crimp Cloth.—Like all other fabrics that aredesignated as "coloured," Coloured Crimp Cloth is dyed in theyarn and not piece-dyed. Coloured Crimp Cloth is essentially aCrimp Cloth which has been woven from previously dyed yarn;apart from this difference it answers the description given underCrimp Cloth, Plain or Crimps.

Coloured Lists.—All serges, etc., that are dyed in the woolor yarn, as against those dyed in the piece, have coloured lists oredging. The word "list" is another name for selvedge.

Coloured Woollen and Worsted Yarns.—The most importantcoloured woollen and worsted yarns are: (a.) Mixtures,(b.) Mélanges, (c.) Marls, and (d.) Twists.

(a.)Mixtures.—A mixture yarn is one composed of fibres oftwo or more colours which have been thoroughly blended. Inwoollens the wool is dyed after scouring and the mixing accomplishedduring the carding process.

(b.)Mélange.—This is a fine mixture yarn produced from atop-printed sliver. The result is obtained by printing at regularintervals the required colours on the top of the sliver. The mixingof the fibres and colours is brought about during the drawing andspinning processes. As a rule only long fibres such as Mohairare subjected to this method of treatment. In these yarns, onmany fibres two or more colours may be clearly seen under themicroscope.

(c.)Marls.—A term sometimes applied to three-fold twistyarns, but more correctly applied to a yarn which is between atwist and the mixture yarn. It is produced by combing two ormore slivers of different colour in the later drawing operations,and in consequence the colours are not so thoroughly blended asin the case of mixture yarns.

(d.)Twists.—This class of yarn is produced by simply twistingor folding together two or more yarns of different colours.

Corduroy.—Corduroy, like many other low-grade cottonfabrics woven with a pile weave, such as Cotton Velvets, Velveteens,Moleskins, is really a Fustian. The pile surface of[16]Corduroys does not cover the surface of the fabric uniformly, asin the case of Velveteens, for instance, but runs in straight linesor ribs, which may be of different sizes and have round or flat tops.When a Corduroy has a twill back it is known as a "Genoa"backed Corduroy; when, as in the lighter makes, the back showsa plain weave it is known as "Tabby" backed.

Corduroy is a cotton fabric with the ribs running lengthwaysof the piece. The pile is a weft pile. Corduroys are made inmany varieties—known as Fine Reed, Eight Shafts, Thicksets,Constitution, Cables, etc. Constitution and Cables have broadfloats or races which are some distance apart. The term Corduroy,when applied to hosiery, is used to designate stockings which arecommonly known as two-and-two rib, or two ribs alternating onface and back of children's stockings.

Cotton.—Cotton is the most used of all vegetable fibres forthe manufacture of textiles. Length and fineness of individualfibres go towards making quality; shortness and coarseness offibre make for low qualities.

The chief classes of cotton are known as Sea Island, Egyptian,American, Brazilian, Peruvian, East Indian, the first mentionedbeing the highest and the last the lowest quality. Qualities aredesignated in each class as follows:—

East Indian type of cotton fibres measure on an average but halfan inch, as compared with 2 inches in Sea Island type.

Cotton Duck.—Duck being a fabric which is sometimeswoven in linen, to refer to it simply as Duck might be misleading;hence, although when used by itself the term Duck is generallyrecognised to mean a cotton fabric, to differentiate between thetwo the word Cotton or Linen is used. This fabric is describedunder "Duck."

Cotton Flannel.—As the name implies, Cotton Flannel is amaterial woven in cotton in imitation of the real all-wool flannel.It is either a plain or a twill woven fabric which has had the wefton one or both sides of the fabric "raised" or "napped." Thisis done by passing the fabric, whilst it is tightly stretched, over arevolving cylinder, the surface of which is covered with small steelhooks or teasels; these, scratching as they do the surface of thefabric, tear up very slightly the short fibres and cover the fabric[17]with a "nap," which is afterwards cut down uniformly. CottonFlannel was first made for the Canton market. Cotton Flannelsmay be either "single raised" or "double raised"; in the firstonly one side of the fabric is raised, in the second both sides areraised. Whilst Cotton Flannel clearly shows that the fabric is acotton one, the term Flannelette does not necessarily mean that itis a purely cotton fabric identical with Cotton Flannel. Flannelettemay contain wool, even if only in very small percentage, but bytrade usage the name is used to designate only an all-cottonfabric.

Cotton Plush.—The term Plush being a generic termapplied to cut-pile fabrics having the pile deeper than ordinaryVelvet, Velveteen, etc., it follows that Cotton Plush is essentiallya cotton-pile fabric with a somewhat deeper pile than Velveteen.Cotton Plushes may be woven with either plain or twill back,the plain-backed variety being known as a "Genoa" Plush andthe twill-backed variety as a "Tabby" Plush.

The count is therefore arrived at by dividing the number ofmetres reeled by twice the number of grammes they weigh.

Counts.—The size of yarn is technically called the "count,"and it is based upon the number of hanks, "cuts," or "runs" of agiven length which are required to weigh 1 pound. The standardlength of the hank varies according to the nature of the yarn.Cotton Yarn measures 840 yards per hank; Worsted Yarnmeasures 560 yards per hank; Woollen Yarn measures 256 or 300yards per "cut," "run," or hank, according to district; Linenmeasures 300 yards per lea; and Spun Silk, 840 yards per hank.The number of such "cuts," "runs," hanks, or leas required toweigh 1 pound avoirdupois equal the number of the count. WhenWoollen Yarn is in gala cuts of 300 yards the number of suchcuts required to weigh 24 ounces equal the count: this becomesequivalent to the number of 200 yards required to weigh 1 pound.

Coutil.—French for Drill. A strong three-thread twillcloth with herring-bone stripes dyed drab or French grey andused for corset-making.

Covert.—A wool or worsted cloth, usually in fine twillweave, in small mixture effect. There are various grades ofCoverts and they all have as a distinctive feature neutral tones ofcolour. The real Covert cloth is always made from double andtwist warp yarns and single fillings. The weave is such that thefilling yarn does not show on the face of the cloth, thereforealmost any shade similar in general tone to the warp may be usedas filling. Cheap grades are made as a piece-dyed union mixturecontaining up to 30 per cent. cotton. They are also known asVenetian Coverts when they have a pronounced whipcord effect.The weave is a sateen weave of the warp-face variety.

Crabbing.—One of the many processes through which clothgoes from the time it leaves the loom on its way to being turnedout as a finished fabric. The object of crabbing is to fix or setthe cloth at the width it has to be as a finished fabric. Theactual operation of crabbing consists of running the cloth at atension on to a steaming or boiling roller. The axle or core of theroller is hollow and perforated; the cloth having been tightlywound round, steam is forced through the perforations and rightthrough the mass of tightly wound cloth. The superheatedsteam sets the cloth.

Crape Cloth, Plain.—Plain Crape Cloth is an all-cottonfabric, plain woven from hard-twisted cotton yarns and is freefrom any woven or printed ornamentation. The nature of thehard-twisted yarn is such that it readily shrinks or curls in lengthwhen not kept at a high tension; this, together with subsequentfinishing operations, causes a considerable contraction to takeplace, resulting in an uneven crinkled surface, which is thechief characteristic of Crape. The crinkled surface in true Crapeis obtained in several ways: (1) by combination of materials;(2) by weave combination; (3) by combination of (1) and (2);(4) by mechanical arrangements during weaving; (5) by subjectingfabrics specially constructed to a special chemical process duringfinishing. The cheaper grades of Crape have the crinkled effectproduced by suitably prepared rollers through which the cloth ispassed, and the crinkled effect in cotton Crapes is not always theresult of true Crape weaving, which relies on the irregularity ofthe interweaving of threads to produce the Crape effect. Inwidth Crape seldom exceeds 30 inches, but is made up in piecesof varying length.

The name is also applied to a thin, transparent, "crisp" orcrumpled silk material, usually black, which is used in mourning,as well as to a sort of thin worsted material of which the dress ofthe clergy is sometimes made.

Crash.—A coarse plain-weave linen material in which theunevenness of the weft yarns gives a rough surface to the cloth.There are various grades of Crash, of which the coarser and moreirregular kinds are used for towelling, whilst the finer are dressmaterials. Some Crash fabrics are woven from waste cotton.

Cravenette.—A waterproofing process applied to fabricsmade of silk, wool, or cotton. Not a fabric.

Crêpe de Chine.—A sheer silk having a minute crapeeffect in the weave. The name in its correct acceptance appliesto an all-silk fabric, but there are also cotton and silk mixedfabrics which bear this name, and at times even all-cotton fabricshave been so designated—by the retailer, at least. All the materialswhich are known by this name are of comparatively light weight.In practically all these fabrics the lustre is imparted by the warpyarns, which are likely to be of better silk than the filling. Thefilling yarns are twisted harder than for ordinary cloth. The hardtwisting of any yarn will so curl up the fibres that they will notlie parallel and so will not reflect light and give lustre. All-silkCrêpe de Chine fabrics have a width of about 40 inches, whilstall-cotton and cotton and silk mixtures average 27 inches in width.The all-cotton variety is most often simply designated as Crêpe.

Crepoline.—A fabric of a warp rib character in which theregular order of the weave is so broken as to give a "rib crape"effect.

Crépon.—A dress fabric of silk or wool in which the designis produced by using yarns having a different degree of stretch, sothat portions of the fabric are crisped, crinkled, or apparentlyblistered, either irregularly or in set designs.

Cretonne.—This fabric is essentially a printed cotton fabricwoven either with a plain twill satin or oatmeal weave. The weftis generally made from waste and is not very regular. Cretonnes,being used mainly for curtains, hangings, or furniture coverings,are generally printed with large, bold, and highly coloured designs.It is woven with a bleached or grey cotton warp and filling inwidths ranging from 25 to 36 inches, and for curtains in widths[20]up to 50 inches. Their main feature is their large bright-colouredfloral designs, and their value depends to a great extent upon theartistic merits of these designs. Sometimes a fancy weave orsmall brocaded effect may occur in this class of fabric, but itis seldom met with, and it is not representative of the trueCretonne fabric. Flax also is said to be used in the manufactureof certain grades of Cretonnes, without, however, taking them outof the class to which Cretonne fabrics belong.

Crimp Cloth, Plain, or Crimps.—Crimps are plain-wovenall-cotton fabrics which have as their distinctive feature "cockled"striped effects. These "crimped" or "cockled" stripes are producedby dividing the warp threads into two separate "beams,"one of which is under greater tension than the other; that is tosay, the warp threads from one of the beams will be tightand the others slack. These slack threads in the process ofweaving are "taken up" more rapidly and form the "crimped"stripes. Crimps may also be produced by subjecting fabricsspecially constructed to a special chemical process during finishing,or by passing the material through suitable rollers whichwill stretch the material in some places more than in othersand thus artificially produce the "cockled" stripe. Crimps aremade up in widths seldom exceeding 30 inches; the length ofpieces, however, may vary considerably. It is also known asSeersucker or Crinkle.

Crinkle, or Seersucker.—Names given to striped fabricsof the Crimp type. Seersucker originally meant a silk fabric.

Cross-dyed.—Cross-dyed goods may be described as fabricswoven with black or coloured cotton warps and wool or worstedfillings and afterwards dyed in the piece. This process is resortedto because the warp and filling of a fabric woven with a cottonwarp and a wool filling, and then piece-dyed, would not becomeidentical in colour, as cotton and wool have not the sameattraction for dye. Cross-dyeing is generally used in mohair,alpaca, and lustre fabrics, and the principal cloths in thisclassification are cotton warp figured Melroses, Florentines, Glacés,Brilliantines, Lustres, Alpacas, and Mohairs.See Union Cloth.

Crossover.—This name is given to fabrics having stripes,of either colour or weave effect, extending across the width of thecloth from selvedge to selvedge.

Cut Goods.—Underwear made of either ribbed or flat webbingknitted into long rolls and cut to the proper lengths and sectionsfor garments, after which the various parts are sewed together.

Cuttling.—Plaiting cloth in folds; used in the same senseas lapping and folding, as opposed to rolling into bolts.

Damask.—The name Damask is technically applied tocertain classes of fabrics richly decorated with figures of foliage,fruits, scrolls, and other ornamental patterns, usually of a largeand elaborate character. The weaves usually employed are twills(mostly satin twills), and the figures in the fabric are made byalternately exchanging warp for weft surface orvice versa. Thematerials employed vary according to the purpose to which thefabrics are to be applied. In the manufacture of upholstery clothfor hangings and furniture covering, silk or worsted is used; whilefor table covers, towels, napkins, etc., linen is generally employed,except in the cheapest grades, when cotton is the material used.Damask was originally applied only to silken fabrics whose designswere very elaborately woven in colours and often with either goldor silver threads. Although in the majority of Damask fabricsnothing but satin twill weaves are employed (principally five andeight shaft), very good effects are obtained by combining otherweaves with satin twills. Where Damasks are made all of onecolour, as in white linen table covers, the effect is given by thethreads lying at right angles to each other; the light falling uponthem brings the pattern in bold relief and makes it easily visible.

Damassé.—Applied to fabrics having a rich woven design.Similar to Damask.

Delaine.—A term applied to plain-woven materials made "ofwool." The term probably originated in France and was appliedthere to all plain-woven fabrics of light weight made of wool. Asused at present, the term may be combined with another name,and then purely designates the nature of the material used inthe manufacture of the fabric, such as in Muslin Delaine.

Denim.—A stout cotton warp-faced twill cloth, generallywoven as a four-end twill. The warp is dyed either blue or brownbefore weaving, whilst the weft is grey; they are both of coarsecounts. Denim, being a warp-faced material, has the warp on thesurface; and as the warp is made of coloured yarns, the clothwhen woven shows a solid coloured surface. The back of thefabric shows the bulk of the weft threads, and these, being in thegrey, give the back of the cloth a distinctive lighter colour thanthe face of the cloth. Like all warp-faced twill weave, the backof the cloth shows a plain-weave effect. Denims have generally awhite edging forming the selvedge; they range from medium toheavy weight and are largely used in the manufacture of workmen'soveralls.

Derby Rib.—Applied to hosiery having six ribs on the facealternating with three on the back.

Diagonal.—This name is applied to plain or figured twills ofbold character and originates in the twill effect, which, in relationto the length of the fabric, runs in a diagonal direction. Thistwill effect is produced by raising warp threads in groups in aprogressive order, the filling thus making them stand out in ridgesor heavy twill.

Diaper.—This term as applied to fabrics is used to describetwo distinct styles, the first of which consists of a small diamondweave, while the second and true Diaper has rectangular figuresor dice interwoven on the Damask principle. In cotton fabrics itis confined to diced or diamond reversible patterns on a smallscale. The weave is produced by the interchanging of warp andweft. In linen fabrics, also, it is used to produce diced, diamond,and bird's-eye patterns, and also small reversible Damaskpatterns. In some districts the names Dorneck and Diced areused instead of Diaper.

Dimity.—A fine cotton fabric, plain or printed, having acord design running lengthways of the piece. The figures are oftenarranged in alternate stripes and appear as if embossed, this effectbeing due to the coarse weft "flushes." A cheaper kind issometimes made by arranging a reversed woven stripe of warp-faceand weft-face twill on a plain ground texture.

Discharge Printing.—In what is known as the "discharge"style of printing, the cloth is first impregnated throughoutits whole substance by being either vat-dyed or pad-dyed; thenthe cloth is dried, but the colour is not fixed. It is next passedthrough the printing machine, and chemicals having the propertyof preventing the development are printed on it, either alone orin combination with other colouring matters. The ground colouris then developed by steaming, and the printed pattern, white orcoloured, is obtained upon a coloured ground.

Dobbie, or Dobby.—This name is used to describe a typeof loom used for the production of certain classes of figured fabricswhich have a great many points of similarity with fabrics producedby means of a Jacquard loom. The distinctive feature of aDobby loom is the series of lattices into which pegs are inserted,which control the lifting of heald shafts in their proper order, soas to form the shed, the heald shafts being pulled down again bymeans of springs after having been lifted up to form a shed.

Domestics.—This term is used in the textile producingdistricts of Great Britain to denote a class of medium and heavyweight grey cloths, plain or twill woven, the better qualities ofwhich are not exported but used for home or domestic consumption.

Domet.—A strong, heavy, twill-woven cotton fabric resemblingCanton or Cotton Flannel, having a raised or nappedsurface on both sides of the fabric. Domet may be either in thegrey or white and is a plain fabric.

Double Cloth Weave.—Where two single cloths are sowoven that they are combined together and make but one, itbecomes known as a Double Cloth and is the result of double-clothweaving.

Double Cloth is woven either to obtain two well-defined andfinished faces or to allow of a heavy material being made with agood quality face and with the back made up of a cloth composedof inferior material. This style of weaving is resorted to whenthe object is to produce certain kinds of bulky or heavy overcoating.

Double Sole, Heel, and Toe means an extra threadadded to hosiery at points mentioned. Strictly speaking, "double"applies only to single-thread goods.

Double Warps.—The name double warp is used to designatevarious kinds of fabrics of good quality in which the warp threadsconsist of two-fold yarn. Not to be mistaken as designatingtwo-ply or double-weave fabrics.

Drills.—Drills are strong, heavy, warp-faced fabrics wovenfrom yarns of good quality with a three (two warp and one weft),four (three warp and one weft), or five (four warp and one weft) endtwill weave. When so woven they are known as Florentine Drills,of which the khaki Drill so often met with in the Colonies is a goodexample. Drills are also woven with a warp sateen weave whichhave—as the twill effect is done away with—a smooth surface.

Drills may be either linen or cotton fabrics, grey or white,bleached or dyed, printed or striped. They average 40 yards inlength per piece and vary in weight from under 10 to 12¾ pounds[24]or over per piece and 31 inches in width. The name is from theLatintrilex, of three threads, and is applied to a "three-threadtwilled cloth." Cotton Drill is a medium weight single clothweighing from 4 to 6 ounces and composed of all-cotton yarns,warp, and filling, and is generally woven as a three-end twill-weavefabric.

Drillette.—This is a cotton fabric, finer and lighter in makethan the ordinary cotton Drill. Drillette of 30-inch width isimported into Colonial markets, where it is largely used forlinings and pocketing.

Duchesse.—A satin fabric having the back woven in flattwills, with a smooth surface.

Duck.—Duck is a heavy single-cloth cotton fabric made ofcoarse two-ply yarn of plain weave. Lighter than Canvas, Duckis woven on the same principle as Canvas. Duck on leaving theloom is finished by washing and sizing, drying and pressing; thisgives the finished material a peculiar, hard, stiff feel. There arelinen Ducks, but they are specially designated as Linen Ducks,the term Duck being used to denote the cotton variety.

Better qualities of Duck, such as are used for tropical suitings,are woven with a two-and-two matt dice or Hopsack weave. Theterm "two-and-two" means that two weft threads pass alternatelyunder and over two warp threads, exactly as if a plain weave hadbeen doubled and the weave worked with two threads instead ofone; the plain weave is often termed a one-and-one weave.SeeCotton Duck.

Dungaree.—A stout cotton warp-faced twill cloth woven asa four-end twill from coarse-count warp and weft. The onlydifference between this fabric and a Denim is that in the latterthe weft is grey, whereas in a Dungaree both the warp and theweft have been dyed prior to weaving. Dungaree, being a warp-facedmaterial, has the warp on the surface, and as both warp andweft are dyed yarns, the cloth, when woven, shows a solid colouredsurface.

Duplex Prints.—Fabrics which have one set of patternsprinted on the face of the cloth and another different pattern ordesign printed on the reverse side are generally styled DuplexPrints. They differ from fabrics which have been printed incolour on one face, but in such a manner that the printedpattern has soaked through and shows—though less sharply—onthe back of the fabric. The Duplex Print is the result oftwo distinct printing operations, first on one side, then on the[25]other side, of a fabric. This being the essential condition fora Duplex Print, it follows that the two patterns need not bedifferent. Fabrics printed on one side only, but in such a waythat the design shows equally or nearly so on both sides, arenot Duplex Prints.

Dyeing.—This term is used to describe the colouring ofmaterials to enhance their value and appearance. There are fivemethods of producing colour in the fabric:—

Unless the process is specially mentioned when a fabric is spokenof as "dyed," it can be taken that what is meant is that thefabric was "piece-dyed,"i.e., dyed in the piece after being takenoff the loom. A dyed fabric is one which has been impregnatedwith some colouring matter and this irrespective of the meansadopted to so impregnate it. Whether the fabric once woven hasbeen allowed to—

is immaterial. Where both sides of a fabric are equally coloured,and where a fabric shows that there has been thorough saturation,that fabric is said to be dyed.

Dyed and Printed.—This term is used to designate anyfabric which has been first impregnated with colouring mattereither by being vat-dyed or pad-dyed, and which in addition hasbeen ornamented by having certain designs impressed on thesurface of the fabric in either one or more colours. This is knownas direct printing. Fabrics may be dyed and printed by variousstyles of printing, such as "Discharge," which consists of printingchemicals upon dyed fabrics in designs, the chemicals causing thedye to come out wherever applied, leaving the printed designeither white or in a different colour from that of the dyedground. "Resist" or "Reserve" style of printing is a processused to obtain white figures on a coloured ground. In this processthe designs are printed in substances that are impervious to thedye into which the cloth is subsequently placed. The cloth is dyed,but all parts covered by the resist agent remain white.

Dyed Alpacianos.—This fabric is found grouped in theRevised Import Tariff for the Trade of China under "DyedCottons."

Alpacianos, as the name of a fabric, seems to have fallen intodisuse and is probably a very old name. Dyed Alpacianos wouldappear to be an all-cotton fabric piece-dyed after leaving theloom, probably averaging between 28 and 31 inches in widthand about 25 yards in length per piece.

The particular weave of Alpacianos is not described in anymodern book of reference dealing with textiles. Names of fabricsvary, come into fashion, and die out. Few connected withmodern textile industries could describe, say, fabrics such as"Durant," "Tammy," or "Everlasting Webster," yet not so verylong ago there were fabrics currently sold under these names.

Dyed Balzarines.—The cotton variety of this somewhatancient fabric was an all-cotton light-weight open fabric resemblinggauze, approximating 30 inches in width and 30 yards in lengthper piece, piece-dyed in solid colours after leaving the loom.SeeBalzarines.

Dyed Cambrics.—Real Cambric is essentially a plain-wovenlinen fabric of light weight and soft finish, but the kind ofCambric most often met with is a cotton fabric of similar weave.Dyed Cotton Cambrics are piece-dyed after leaving the loom and,like White Cambrics, are generally finished with a smooth glazedsurface. The differentiation between Cotton Cambrics and Muslinsis somewhat difficult, as the term Cambric is often applied to whatare in reality Muslins.

Dyed Corduroys (Cotton).—The term is used to describea pile-weave ribbed cotton fabric which has been coloured in thepiece with a view to enhance its value and appearance.

Dyed Cotton Lastings.—This fabric is a plain all-cottontwill or kindred weave material firmly woven from hard-twistedyarns and piece-dyed after weaving. Lastings enter largely intothe manufacture of uppers for boots and shoes.

Dyed Cotton Spanish Stripes.—A plain-woven all-cottonfabric woven with a plain weave, having both surfaces raised,giving the fabric the general appearance of Flannelette; being adyed fabric, it is piece-dyed after leaving the loom. As a distinctivefeature, Spanish Stripes have a list or edge of differentcolour to the main body of the fabric. The warp threads are finerand harder twisted than the filling threads, which are soft and fullto facilitate the raising during the process of finishing. In widththis fabric may vary between 28 and 64 inches, and in length it[27]averages 25 yards. A similar fabric woven from dyed yarnswould be a coloured woven fabric and would not belong to thedyed cotton variety.

Dyed Crimp Cloth.—An all-cotton fabric having thedistinctive "cockled" striped effect of Crimp Cloth. This cockledeffect is produced by greater tension in some of the warp threadsthan in others. Dyed Crimp Cloth is piece-dyed after leaving theloom and is distinguishable from coloured woven Crimp Cloth,which is woven from coloured yarns. This material seldomexceeds 30 inches in width, the length per piece varies.

Dyed Drills.—A heavy twill-woven all-cotton fabric, theweave of which is described under "Drills," which has been dyedin the piece,i.e., impregnated with a Uniform colour over its wholesurface.

Dyed Figured Cottons.—Under this heading may begrouped all such fabrics which (a) are made of all cotton, (b) arefigured by having any design, large or small, woven or embossed,on their surface, (c) are dyed in any colour, and (d) are not otherwiseenumerated. The fabrics coming under this heading includeboth fabrics which have not been subjected to any special processof finishing and those which have been so treated, irrespective ofthe style of finish. The ribs or reps of such fabrics, which areknown as "Reps" or "Ribs," do not in themselves constitutefigures. Printing produces a style of ornamentation which doesnot rightly belong to this class of goods, in which it must only bethe result of weaving or embossing.

Dyed Figured Cotton Italians.—This name is used todesignate an all-cotton fabric having the characteristic even,close, smooth surface of the plain Italian Cloth, but which, inaddition, has had its surface ornamented with any figures, floralor geometrical effects, etc., this figuring having been producedeither by means of extra threads, or by combining the warp andweft threads, or by having the pattern or outline of the designimpressed, stamped, or embossed in the fabric, which, as it is a"dyed" fabric, has been coloured after leaving the loom.

Dyed Figured Cotton Lastings.—This fabric is essentiallyan all-cotton twill or kindred weave material firmly woven fromhard-twisted yarn, which has been figured or ornamented in theweaving by the introduction of a small floral or geometricaldesign. The fabric, being a "dyed fabric," is piece-dyed. LikePlain Lastings, this material enters largely into the manufactureof uppers for boots and shoes.

Dyed Figured Cotton Reps.—This name is used to designatean all-cotton material which is primarily a Rep fabric. Itcombines the prominent reps or ribs running transversely acrossthe face of the cloth, which is the distinctive feature of a Plain Repfabric, with certain small figures, floral or geometrical effects, etc.,which are introduced for the purpose of ornamentation. Thisfiguring may be produced either by means of extra threads on thesurface of the cloth, by the mode of interlacing the warp and theweft threads on the surface of the cloth, or by having the patternor outline of the design impressed or stamped in the fabric, which,as it is a dyed fabric, has been coloured after leaving the loom.This kind of material averages 32 inches in width and 32 yards inlength per piece.

Dyed Figured Ribs.—This name is used to designate a fabricwhich is primarily a rib material having the characteristic rep orrib running from selvedge to selvedge, or, in some cases, lengthwaysof the fabric, but which, in addition, has had its surfaceornamented with any figures, floral or geometrical designs. Thisornamentation constitutes the figuring and is produced either bymeans of extra threads or by having the pattern or outline of thedesign impressed, stamped, or embossed in the fabric, which, as itis a dyed fabric, has been coloured after leaving the loom. ADyed Figured Cotton Rib would be an all-cotton material withan average width of 32 inches and averaging 32 yards to thepiece.

Dyed Fustians.—Fustians embrace two classes of finishedgoods, some of which are characterised in finishes by a nap raisedon the fabric, such as Moleskins, Beaverteens, etc. The otherclass comprises cut pile fabrics, variously known in the trade bydistinctive names, such as Velveteen and Corduroy. Fustians areessentially all-cotton fabrics. Dyed Fustians are piece-dyed fabricsand not woven from coloured yarns.

Dyed Imitation Turkey Reds.—The fabric of which thisclass of goods is an imitation is generally a twill-faced all-cottoncloth piece-dyed with a cochineal dye, which is fast to light andwashing. The Dyed Imitation Turkey Red is similar in constructionof fabric, but depends for its colouring upon a chemical orsynthetic dye which, while it resembles cochineal, has not thesame qualities of fastness.

Dyed Imitation Turkey Reds are piece-dyed fabrics averagingin width 32 inches and in length 25 yards per piece. Fabricscoming under this heading are invariably plain,i.e., unornamentedeither through weave combination, printing, or embossing.

Dyed in the Piece or Piece-dyed.—These terms virtuallyexplain themselves. When a fabric is impregnated with a uniformcolour over its whole surface it is said to be dyed in the piece orpiece-dyed.

Piece-dyeing is open to produce cloud spots, stains, etc.,which would not appear if the yarn had been dyed previously tobeing woven, for in that case even if the yarn had in parts gotstained it would not show as a clearly defined stain in the fabriconce woven. Piece-dyed fabrics may sometimes be distinguishedfrom yarn-dyed fabrics by unravelling threads of each kind. Inthe case of yarn-dyed fabrics, the dyestuff has penetrated throughthe yarn, while in the case of piece-dyed fabrics the dye-stuff hasnot the same chance of penetrating yarn as completely. Theterm "dyed in the grey" (see under Union Cloth) has a similarmeaning to "dyed in the piece" or "piece-dyed."

Dyed Lawns are plain-woven light-weight cotton fabricsof soft finish which have been piece-dyed,i.e., impregnated with auniform colour over their whole surface after leaving the loom.They vary in weight from 1¼ to 2¼ ounces per square yard and inwidth from 27 to 46 inches. They answer to descriptions ofWhite Lawns (which see), and differ from them only in regard tothe fact that they are piece-dyed.

Dyed Lenos.—This fabric or class of fabric is an all-cottonmaterial woven with a gauze and Leno weave and subsequentlypiece-dyed. The description of Leno fabrics given in a UnitedStates Government publication reads: "A term frequently usedwhere various weaves or combination of weaves also have warpthreads crossing over one or more warp threads instead of lyingparallel to one another throughout the fabric. The warp threadswhich thus appear in a zig-zag way either on the surface or closelyinterwoven in the fabric, are, in addition to interlacing with thefilling threads, also crossing their neighbouring warp threads thatcontinue in a parallel line with the selvedges."

Leno fabrics generally show stripe effects, the exception tothis being the All-over Leno, which resembles in weave theordinary Cellular Cloth.

Dyed Leno Brocade.—This term is used to designate afabric woven in the Leno style, that is to say, in a combination of"gauze weaving" and any other style of weave, and the termBrocade shows that it is a figured fabric having a figure chieflyconstructed by weft threads floating on the surface of the material.As in this class of fabric the threads are not dyed prior toweaving, the term "dyed" shows that the material has been dyedafter it has left the loom.See also Lenos.

Dyed Muslins.—Dyed Muslin is an all-cotton fabric of lightweight, plain woven, which has been piece-dyed,i.e., impregnatedwith a uniform colour over its whole surface. There is a difficultyin describing Muslins, for the term Muslin, according to oneGovernment publication, is "a generic term for thin plain-wovencotton cloth. The name, however, is frequently used in conjunctionwith such names as dotted, fancy, figured, spot, check, Swiss,etc., which in each case would denote some combination weave, or ascontaining stripes or checks, but the fabric still preserving a lightweight." From this, however, it seems clear that a Muslin isa plain non-figured fabric of light weight.

Dyed Plain Cottons.—Under this heading may be groupedall such fabrics which (a) are made of all cotton, (b) have asurface which has not been ornamented by the introduction ofany small figures, floral or geometrical designs, whether producedby means of extra threads or by the mode of interlacing the warpand weft threads on the surface of the cloth or by having thepattern or outline of the design impressed or stamped in thefabric, (c) are dyed in any colour, and (d) are not otherwiseenumerated. The fabrics coming under this heading include bothfabrics which have not been subjected to any special process offinishing and those which have been so treated, irrespective of thestyle of finish.

Dyed Plain Cotton Italians.—The fabric answering tothis description is primarily an all-cotton Italian Cloth whosesurface does not show any ornamentation produced either byweaving, printing, embossing, or any other process. The factthat the fabric has been specially finished, to improve its appearance,by being mercerised, schreinered, gassed, silk or electricfinished, does not alter its nature of a "plain" cloth. The fabric,being a "dyed" fabric, is one which has been coloured afterleaving the loom. As Italian Cloths are generally woven from ablack warp and grey weft and, after weaving, dyed in the piece,they are really "cross-dyed."

Dyed Real Turkey Reds.—Turkey Reds are a class ofstaples whose salient distinctive feature is the fact that the dyeused in their manufacture is cochineal dye. Real Turkey Redsare absolutely fast dyed, the colour will not run when washed,and it will not appreciably fade when exposed to the action of thesun.

Turkey Reds are piece-dyed, that is to say, the cotton fabricis woven, generally a twill-faced cloth, and the piece is dyed. Itis not woven of yarn previously dyed. There does exist a yarndyed with turkey red; this, however, is principally used for[31]weaving in to the ends of pieces of White Shirting or Sheetingcertain distinguishing red weft threads, markings that are placedthere by the manufacturer of the grey goods (1) to facilitaterecognition of his goods when they come back from the bleacher,(2) to denominate quality of goods by acting as a distinctivemark, (3) to prevent the piece being cut at either end and thepart cut off stolen whilst at the bleachers. This yarn is also usedfor markings which are to withstand washing without running.The cost of dyeing the grey or white fabric into a Turkey Red isoften greater than the original value of the fabric.

Dyed Reps are fabrics which have as a predominant featurea rep or rib running transversely across the face of the cloth fromselvedge to selvedge and which have been piece-dyed after leavingthe loom. Even without the term "dyed" being used the termRep by itself would generally be used to designate a dyed plaincotton fabric of the Rep variety. For particulars of weave,seeunder Rep.

Dyed Ribs.—Fabrics which are either warp or weft ribbed,i.e., having ribs running either from selvedge to selvedge as inwarp ribs, or lengthways of the material as in weft ribs, andwhich have been piece-dyed after leaving the loom. For particularsof distinctive weave,see under Warp Ribs andWeft Ribs.

Dyed Sheetings.—It would appear that when a true CottonSheeting fabric has been dyed it is no longer known as a"Sheeting," and this is supported by the remark under the headingSheetings which appears in a United States Governmentpublication to the effect that "should a Sheeting be dyed orprinted, it is never sold as Sheeting, but under some othername." A Dyed Sheeting would, of course, be a stout all-cottonfabric answering to the description of a Bolton Sheeting, wovenfrom coarse yarns, as a four-shaft two-and-two twill, and measuringin width up to 120 inches; but the fabric most likely to be describedas a Dyed Sheeting is the narrower variety, which is most oftenplain woven, measuring 36 inches by 40 to 80 yards, and slightlyheavier than Shirtings of the same measurements which, subsequentto weaving, has been piece-dyed.

Dyed Shirtings.—The term in its narrower sense is usedto designate what is virtually an all-cotton cloth, woven witha plain weave and having the warp and weft approximately equalin number of threads and counts, which has been coloured bybeing piece-dyed after weaving. The actual fabric, apart fromthe dyeing, is that of a Grey Shirting or Grey Sheeting, which aremore fully described under their respective headings.

Dyed T-Cloths.—Piece-dyed all-cotton plain-woven fabric,woven from low-quality yarns, generally put up in 24-yard lengths.

Dyed Velvet Cords (Cotton).—This fabric differs fromDyed Velveteen Cords only as regards the length of the pile,which is longer or deeper in Dyed Velvet Cords than in DyedVelveteen Cords. The difference between this fabric and Corduroysis that Corduroys have perfect half-round regular pile ribs,separated by a dividing line between each stripe or pile rib,showing both warp and filling threads, whilst Velvet Cords haveno such dividing line.

Dyed Velveteen Cords (Cotton).—Like the plain Velveteen,this fabric is essentially an all-cotton pile fabric in whichthe distinguishing effect is formed by the points of the fibres inthe filling yarns, termed the pile, being presented to the vision,and not the sides of the yarns as in the majority of cases. Thecords are produced by a process of cutting away the pile so as toform raised cord-like corrugations running lengthways of the piece.Being a dyed fabric, it is coloured uniformly all over the piece insome solid colour. It differs from Dyed Velvet Cords only asregards the length of pile, which in the Velveteen variety isshorter. The difference between this class of material and aCorduroy is that Corduroy has a dividing line between each stripeor cord of pile, showing both warp and filling threads, whilstVelveteen Cords have no such dividing line.

Embossed Velvet (Cotton).—The term Cotton Velvet isgenerally recognised in the manufacturing and distributing tradeto be a misnomer, and the material or fabric which would appearto come under this classification is in reality an Embossed Velveteen,which see.

Embossed Velveteen (Cotton).—This term is used todesignate an all-cotton pile-weave fabric generally woven as aweft-pile weave, the pile surface, consisting of threads or fibresin the filling yarn which forms the pile, standing up at rightangles to the back of the fabric. The distinctive feature of thisclass of fabric is the embossed design or pattern, which is essentiallyan indented ornamentation produced by pressure and heat.The embossing machine for giving an indented ornamentationto Velvet or Velveteen and other fabrics has engraved copperrollers, which are heated by enclosed red-hot irons or series ofgas jets when operating on dampened goods. The engraved rollershave designs in intaglio, which confer a cameo ornamentationupon the fabric being embossed.

Embroideries.—When applied to woven fabrics this nameis used to designate a fine plain-woven cloth made from fine yarnsand used for embroidery purposes. Generally a linen fabric.

End.—When the word "end" is used in connexion withweaving it signifies the warp threads, while each filling or weftthread is called a "pick." When used to designate a class of twill-weavingsuch as "a five-end twill," it refers to the total numberof warp and weft threads in the twill pattern; thus, "a five-endtwill" designates the interlacing of four warp and one weft.Under "Twill Weave" will be found the generally recognised waysof arranging the order of interweaving.

English Foot.—A stocking having two seams in the foot,one on each side of the sole.

Equestrienne Tights.—Tight-fitting knitted drawers forwomen's use, made of ribbed cloth, either with or without feet.

Étamine.—French name for Bolting or Sifting Cloth,generally made of silk yarn and used for the purpose of siftingflour. The term is used in America to designate mesh or netweaves.

Étamine, though often made of silk, is found also in wool,cotton, linen, etc. Plain weave and open-work structure are itssalient features. It is equally used for sifting powdered solids andfiltering liquids.

Extract is a comprehensive term used to indicate a specialclass of fibres which have been obtained by "pulling" or beatingto pieces material which may have been milled or unmilled, butwhich was partly composed of cotton, this cotton being got ridof or destroyed by the treatment which is known as carbonising.

Extracted.—Goods in which the pattern has been printed,first applying the design with a material which, after dyeing,permits the colour, as it affects the design, to be washed out or"extracted."

Fancies.—Fancy is a term used to designate those fabricswhich are not woven in the same way year after year, but whichshow variations in weave, colour, or both colour and weave.The principal Fancies of the dress goods variety are Brocades,Cuspettes, Meliores, Hopsacking, Stripes, Checks, Plaids, Mélanges,and Mixtures.

Fents.—When a full-sized piece of cloth is found to beimperfectly woven in parts or damaged through stains, etc., andunsaleable as a whole piece, it is cut up into short lengths; theseshort lengths are called "fents." The name also is applied toshort lengths cut from piece ends and is equivalent to the term"remnant." The value of fents is much less per yard than forsimilar cloth in the full piece.

Figured.—When used with reference to textiles the term"figured" means that for the purpose of ornamentation certainextra threads—known as figuring threads—have been introducedon the surface of a plain ground structure or on other groundstructural weaves, and afterwards allowed to lie loosely or "float"underneath the ground cloth structure. When the extra threadsintroduced run lengthways in the piece the figured fabric producedis known as an "extra warp" figured cloth. When, similarly, thefigured effect is obtained by the introduction of extra threadsrunning across the face of the material, the figured fabric producedis known as an "extra weft" figured cloth. The most elaborateeffects, however, are produced by means of the extra warp effects.A cloth may be figured without the addition of any extra warp orweft thread but by combination of weave.

Figured Muslin.—When an ordinary plain-weave fabric ofthe Muslin variety has been ornamented by means of combinationof weave or an extra thread, whilst still retaining the characteristiclight weight, etc., of the true Muslin fabric, it is known as aFigured Muslin. Unless specially designated, a Figured Muslinwould be an all-cotton fabric.

Figure Weaving.—When complicated and elaborate designsare required the cloth must be woven with the aid of aJacquard, which is an apparatus for automatically selecting warpthreads and manipulating them to facilitate the passage of thefilling. This style of weave produces figured effects on the face ofthe fabric and is generally used to produce patterns of greatwidth. Such figured and elaborate designs are classed under thename of Jacquards.

Filled Cotton Cloth.—This form of cloth has the intersticesbetween the threads filled with glue, china clay, white lead, chalk,plaster of paris, glauber salts, glucose, or other filling substances.

Filling.—This term is given to the process of adding weightto a fabric by subjecting it to an operation, whereby it willhave been made to absorb certain chemicals or substances. Theprincipal filling agents are zinc chloride, magnesium sulphate,magnesium chloride, glue, gelatine, dextrine, starch, and waterglass (alkali silicate). The term "filling" is also used to designatethe material used in weighting the fabric and has the same valueas "loading" or "weighting."

When the word "filling" is used in connexion with weavingit always signifies the weft threads, each of which is also called a"pick."

Flannel (Woollen).—The true Woollen Flannel should be anall-wool fabric, into the making of which no fibres other than woolenter. Woven with either a plain or twill weave, Flannel is asoft-finished material, which, in the better grades, should be of anon-shrinking character. When a very small percentage of cottonis found in so-called all-wool Flannel, it is sometimes due to cottonhaving remained in the machines used for the carding of the woolprior to making it into yarn. In some countries as much as1 per cent. of cotton is allowed in an all-wool Flannel. When ahigher percentage is found the fabric is no longer considered anall-wool Flannel. When cotton is made to form part of Flannelit is scribbled or carded with the wool to increase the strength ofthe thread and improve its spinning properties. Such yarns areknown as Carded Unions and when woven will produce a WoollenFlannel, which is distinct from an all-wool Flannel. Inasmuchas the term "woollen" is commonly used in opposition to "all-wool,"and that it is recognised in England that wastes, shoddy,and blends of material other than wool are referred to as"woollen," the term Woollen Flannel is applicable to a fabricthat is not an all-wool material.

Flannelette.—Like Cotton Flannel, this fabric is wovenfrom soft mule-spun yarn, which is more suitable for a raisedmaterial than a ring-spun yarn. Flannelette may be either plainor twill woven and may be either piece-dyed or woven withcoloured warp and weft yarns to form either stripes or checks.

Flannelette is a cloth produced to imitate Flannel and has,owing to its raised surface, a "woolly" feel. By being subjectedto a special treatment, Flannelette can be rendered "fireproof";if untreated, it is a highly inflammable material. The betterqualities of Flannelette are distinguished from the lower grades[36]by the former being more closely woven in the warp, and theraised nap is shorter in the better grades. Flannelettes aresometimes printed, in which case they would be more correctlydescribed as "Printed Flannelettes," the ordinary Flannelette ofcommerce not being as a rule "printed." Whereas in certaincountries it is not legal to sell as "pure wool Flannel" a materialcontaining cotton, there is nothing to prevent a manufacturer fromselling as Flannelette a material in whose composition a certainamount of wool may enter. Unlike Cotton Flannel, which fromits very name shows that the material is of cotton, and byinference cotton only, the term Flannelette may not alwaysdesignate an all-cotton material, although by general acceptancein the trade Flannelette should be an all-cotton fabric.

Fleece-lined.—Applied to a variety of heavy-weight undergarmentsknitted with three threads—namely, face yarn, backingyarn, and a third thread of yarn tying the face and backtogether. The heavy nap or fleece is produced by running thecloth through wire rolls, called brushers. The term "fleece-lined"is often misapplied to ordinary single-thread underwear whichhas been run through the brushing machine for the purposeof raising a light nap on the inner surface.

Florentine Drills.—When a Drill is woven with a twillweave it is known as a Florentine Drill, to distinguish it fromSatin Drill, which is woven with a warp-faced sateen weave.

Folded Yarn.—Folded Yarn is produced by twisting togethertwo or more single yarns. When two single threads aretwisted together the Folded Yarn produced would be called a"two-fold." If the single yarn used in producing the "two-fold"yarn was of 40's count (that is to say, of yarn of which it took40 hanks of 840 yards to weigh 1 pound), the "two-fold" yarnproduced would really become equivalent to 20's count (thatis to say, it would take 20 hanks to weigh 1 pound); however,it would not be referred to as being a 20's count, butas a two-fold forties and designated 2/40's. All Folded Yarnsare designated by two sets of figures separated by a line, whichshows on one side the number of threads folded together andon the other the "count" of the single threads thus foldedtogether. By dividing the number of the single threads into the[37]counts the actual number of hanks of the Folded Yarn per poundis ascertained thus:—

All Folded Yarn is not composed of single threads of thesame count. Where such Folded Yarns are met with, andwhen it is desired to ascertain the number of hanks of suchFolded Yarn per pound, the simplest way to proceed is totake the highest count and divide it first by itself and theother counts in succession, then divide the sum of the variousquotients into the highest count, and the answer will be hanksper pound:—

In folding yarn part of the length of the original threadsfolded is taken up in the twist; hence, when folded, they will nolonger measure the regulation 840 yards per hank, but slightlyunder.

French Foot.—A hosiery term meaning having only oneseam, and that in the centre of the sole.

Full Regular (sometimes called Looped).—A term appliedto hosiery or underwear in which the seams have been connectedby hand knitting.

Full-fashioned.—A term used to designate hosiery knittedin a flat web, which is shaped by the machine so as to fit the foot,leg, or body. The webs, or sections, are sewn together to formhosiery, underwear, etc.

Fustian.—This name is given to designate low grades ofcotton fabrics woven with a pile weave, such as Cotton Velvets,Velveteens, Corduroys, Moleskins, Cordings, etc. Fustian is alsoapplied to such fabrics when they are made in a combination ofcotton and flax or other vegetable fibre. It is more used as a[38]generic term designating a class of fabrics than to designate oneparticular kind of fabric. One class of Fustians has a raised"nap" on one or both sides, and includes Cantoons or Diagonals,which have a pronounced weft twill on the face side and are usedfor riding breeches.

Galatea.—A cotton fabric having coloured stripes; theweave is usually a three-shaft, but sometimes a four-shaft, warptwill weave. The stripes may be either simply coloured, whilstretaining the twill weave, or they may be plain woven as well ascoloured. This material is often used for washing uniforms fornurses and hospital attendants. The weave of Galatea is similarto that of Jean, Nankeen, or Regatta Twill.

Gauge.—Applied to the number of meshes or wales to theinch in underwear or hosiery. For example, a 16-gauge fabricwill have 16 wales or ribs to the inch.

Gauze Weave.—In gauze weaving all the warp threads arenot parallel to each other, but are made to intertwist more or lessamongst themselves. This style of weaving produces light, openfabrics allowing the introduction of many lace-like combinations.The warp is double, one set being the usual or ground warp andthe other the "douping," or warp that intertwines itself on theground warp. Gauze weaving produces fabrics which are peculiarfor their openness, lightness, and strength. When gauze is combinedwith plain weaving it is styled "Leno."

Gingham.—Gingham is an all-cotton fabric, always wovenwith a plain weave—a yarn-dyed cotton cloth in stripes or checks.It is woven in various grades, having from 50 to 76 ends per inchin the reed and of 1/26's to 1/40's cotton yarn in both warp andweft. It is a washing fabric made in both checks and plaidpatterns, into which a great variety of colour combinations areintroduced. Ginghams are made with from two colour warp andfilling to eight colour in warp and six in filling. During thefinishing process the loom-state fabric is sewed end on piece topiece until a continuous length of cloth of several hundred yardsis obtained (this is done to facilitate handling). It is damped bya sprinkler to make it more readily take up the starch size withwhich it is liberally treated. One variety of Gingham known asMadras Gingham is distinctly a Shirting fabric. Ginghams, whenhaving a highly variegated colouring, are described as Checks.

Glacé.—Originally applied to a fabric having a glossy, lustroussurface. Now often applied to "shot" silks, that is, plainweaves wherein the warp and filling are of different colours.

Granité.—A weave in which the yarns are so twisted as tocreate a pebbled surface.

Grenadine.—A somewhat elastic term used to describe anopenwork, diaphanous material of silk, wool, or cotton.

Grey, in the Grey, or Grey Cloth.—These terms are usedto designate fabrics that are in the loom state and that have beenwoven from yarn that was neither bleached nor dyed. A GreyShirting would no longer be called a Grey Shirting after it hadbeen bleached. In the woollen industry the term "grey" is appliedto the web in its loom state previous to its being put through thevarious necessary processes to make it into a finished cloth.

Grey Drills.—Grey Cotton Drills are all-cotton medium andheavy weight single cloths woven from unbleached yarns as athree-shaft twill (two warp and one weft) which have not beenbleached, dyed, or printed from the time they left the loom.Varying in weight according to quality, they are, however, generallyput up in pieces measuring 31 inches in width by 40 yardsin length. They are more fully described under Drills.

The Pepperell Drill is a Grey Drill of superior quality madefrom high-class yarns and exceedingly well woven.

Grey Jeans.—This name is given to an all-cotton fabricwoven as a three-shaft twill having either (a) each weft threadpassing over one and under two warp threads, or (b) each weftthread passing over two and under one warp thread, the warp andweft intersections traversing one thread and one pick further fromtheir respective positions each time a pick of weft is inserted.

When woven as a warp-faced twill fabric from strong yarns,the cloth is often called a Drill, and is used for suitings, bootlinings, corseting, etc; when woven from lighter yarns as amedium-weight weft-faced twill fabric, the cloth is largely used forlinings. In width it varies from 28 and under to 31 or moreinches and in length from 30 to 40 yards per piece. A "Grey"Jean is a Jean in the loom state,i.e., which has not been bleachedby being treated with bleaching powders, etc.

Grey Sheeting.—There are two distinct varieties of GreySheeting. The first kind is used for bed sheeting and is a stoutcotton cloth woven from coarse yarns, usually in a four-shaft two-and-twotwill weave, and having a width of as much as 120 inches.The weave of this material being a twill weave having an equalnumber of warp and weft threads to the inch, the twill lines ordiagonal produced will be at an angle of 45 degrees to a line drawnacross the width of the material. This diagonal effect is produced[40]by the warp and weft intersections traversing one thread and onepick further from their respective positions each time a pick orweft is inserted. This kind of Sheeting is known as BoltonSheeting, which is a grey material,i.e., unbleached. In lengththe piece may measure up to 80 yards. The second kind ofSheeting is Waste Sheeting, made from waste and condenser wefts,i.e., wefts made from certain waste cotton which accumulatesduring the process of spinning yarn. This waste is treated byspecial machinery, which prepares it and spins it into a full, level,and soft yarn, which is used for weft in the weaving of Sheetings.Waste Sheetings are woven like Bolton Sheeting, with the exceptionof the lower qualities, which are often plain or calico woven.The lower grades of Grey Sheeting are often simply grey Calicocloths of about 36 inches in width and resembling very closelyGrey Shirtings, the only difference being that they are slightlyheavier in the yarn than the ordinary Grey Shirting. GreySheeting is generally made up into pieces of from 40 to 80 yardsin length and varying in weight according to count of yarn used.

Grey Shirting.—A Grey Shirting is an unbleached cottoncloth woven with a plain weave and having the warp and weftapproximately equal in number of threads and counts; the fabrichas a plain, even surface, which, when the threads are evenly spaced,is said to be well "covered." Grey Shirting, a staple import intothe Eastern markets, is made up in pieces measuring from 36 to40 yards in length, a width of from 36 to 45 inches, and weighingfrom 7 to 11 pounds and over per piece, according to the count ofthe yarn and the amount of size used. This class of fabric has thewarp threads heavily sized. The exact difference between GreyShirtings and certain grades of Grey Sheetings is at times non-apparent.Again, a Grey Shirting may be termed a Calico, whichin the trade has become a general term used to designate practicallyany cotton cloth coarser than Muslin.

Grey T-Cloths.—All-cotton plain-woven unbleached fabricof low quality and heavily sized yarns nearly always put up in24-yard lengths. The name is said to be derived from the markT of the original exporters.

Grosgrain.—A silk fabric having a small ribbed effect fromselvedge to selvedge. When the rib runs lengthways the fabric isknown as a Millerayes.

Habit Cloth (Woollen).—An all-wool cloth similar toMedium, Broad, and Russian Cloth. Average width, 54 to 74 inches.In the better grades it is a high-priced fabric generally used forriding habits. Met with in dark shades of green or else in black.

Habutai.—A plain-weave silk, of smooth and even texture,originally made in Japan on hand looms.

Hair-cord Muslin.—A plain-weave fabric having stripes orchecks formed by coarse threads, which stand out in a clearlydefined manner.

Hand Looms and Power Looms.—The difference betweenthese two kinds of looms lies in the fact that in the former(hand loom) the weaving is the result of the loom being workedand controlled by hand and foot, whereas in the power loom,whether belt driven or driven by electric motor, the powertransmitted to the loom works all the essential parts, whichare:—

When a power loom has been suitably tuned up,i.e., timed so thatthe various movements necessary for the forming of the "shed"and the passing of the shuttle and the beating-in occur in theright sequence and at a correct interval of time, the weaver (who,in the case of power looms, is oftener called the overlooker) onlyhas to attend to the broken warp threads or replenishing of theweft shuttle. With a hand loom the weaver controls the heddleswhich form the shed, throws the shuttle carrying the weft threadthrough the shed, and as fast as each filling thread is interlacedwith the warp beats it in close to the previous one by means of areed which is pulled by hand towards, and recedes from, the clothafter each passage of the shuttle. This is done to make the clothfirm. The movement of the reed in the hand-power loom (or,more correctly, in the hand and foot power loom) being controlledby the weaver and not mechanically, accounts for irregularity infirmness of weave not found in fabrics woven on a power loom.

Handle.—This term is used either as a "wool term" inconnexion with wool or as a general textile term in connexionwith fabrics. As a wool term it refers or designates all theattributes which determine quality,i.e., softness, fineness, length,and elasticity—noticeable when wool is judged by the feel. Easierto define than to acquire, "handle" also enters into the judging ofwoven fabrics. It is then used to denote the hardness, harshness,softness, smoothness, etc., which similarly are factors of qualityand which are often best appreciated by the sense of touch.

Harvard Shirting.—This style of Shirting is generallyrecognised by its broken twill effect, which may be combined with[42]plain stripes, small diamond patterns, etc., woven from dyedyarns. The salient feature of Harvard Shirtings is the aboveeffect in different colours. The ground weave is generally atwo-and-two twill.

Henrietta.—A soft, lustrous, twilled fabric of wool; similarto a Cashmere, but finer and lighter.

Herring-bone.—A binding often used in facing the neckand front opening of undershirts. Also applied to the stitchingwhich is made to cover the edge of the split sole in hosiery. Usedin connexion with textiles, it is applied to striped effects producedby alternating a left-hand and a right-hand twill-weave stripe.

Hessian.—A strong, coarse, plain-woven packing or wrappingcloth made from jute or hemp yarns. A standard makeof this material weighs 10½ ounces to the yard, is 40 inches wide,and averages 13 shots per inch.

Hog, Or Hoggett Wool, is another name for lambs' wool;it is the product of the first clipping of the young sheep and canbe distinguished by the fact that its ends are pointed, whereassubsequent clippings yield wether wool with blunt and thickenedends.

Honeycomb.—This designates a style of weave and not anactual fabric. Marked ridges and hollows, which cause the surfaceof the fabric to resemble that of a honeycomb, are the salientcharacteristics of this style of weave. The term is also appliedto leno weaves when consecutive crossing ends cross in oppositedirections.

Huckaback.—This name designates a class of weave mainlyused in the weaving of towels or Towelling, which combines asmall design with a plain ground. The short floats of warp andweft and the plain ground of these weaves give a rough surfacecombined with a firm structure. The small design entering intothis class of weave varies, but is always a geometrical design andnot floral.

Imitation Rabbit Skin.—Generally an all-cotton pile-weavefabric having a long pile, which has not the sameamount of lustre as either a silk or mohair pile, being dullerin appearance. This kind of fabric may be distinguished froma silk or mohair pile material by the fact that its pile willcrush more readily than either. Its pile will not spring back[43]into place readily, more especially when the pile is long. Generally48 to 50 inches wide and 60 yards long, it is shippedon frames, on which it is fastened by a series of hooks.These hooks hold the material by the selvedges, which aremade specially strong. Two 60-yard frames are generally packedin one box or case.

Ingrain.—A term for knitted goods applied to raw materialor yarn dyed before knitting.

Irishes.—This generic name is applied to linen fabrics,which are a speciality of Ireland. Irishes have been imitatedin cotton, and when such a fabric is met with it should bedesignated as a Cotton Irish. The term Irishes would cover suchfabrics as Irish Cambric, Irish Duck, and Irish Linen.

Irish Cambric.—This fabric, like all true Cambrics, is anall-linen fabric, plain woven, without a selvedge. It has beenimitated in cotton, and the name is now currently used todesignate an all-cotton plain-woven fabric finer than lawn, inwhich the warp yarn is often of a different thickness from thatused for the filling and is finished with a smooth glazed surface.

Italian Cloth.—A plain cloth generally made of standardmaterials,i.e., fine Botany weft and a cotton warp. Italian clothis usually a weft-faced fabric. Like all fabrics woven with aweft-faced satin weave, the weft or filling threads are practicallyall on the surface of the cloth, producing an even, close, smoothsurface capable of reflecting light to the best advantage. Italiancloth is generally cross-dyed, that is to say, woven from ablack warp and grey weft, afterwards dyed in the piece. Itmay be woven either as an all-cotton, a cotton and worsted,a cotton and wool, or a cotton and mohair fabric. Its chiefcharacteristic is its smooth, glossy, silky appearance obtainedby various processes of finishing given to the cloth after itis woven. All finishes have the same tendency and purpose,which is to improve the appearance and enhance the value ofthe cloth. Whilst Italian Cloth may be either plain, figured,embossed, printed, etc., or a combination of these varieties, thename is applied to a "plain dyed cotton fabric."

Italian Cloth, Figured, Cotton Warp and WoolWeft.—This fabric, in addition to the characteristics of theplain Italian Cloth woven from cotton warp and wool weft,has had its surface ornamented by the introduction of figuresor floral or geometrical designs produced either by combination[44]of weave or by means of certain extra threads known as "figuringthreads." These figures may be produced by means of eitherextra warp or extra weft threads. In this class of material,where the weft is wool, the extra figuring thread is generallya weft thread. The figuring thread, after having served thepurpose of ornamenting the face of the cloth, is allowed to lieloosely or "float" underneath the ground cloth structure. Wherethe figuring is produced by combination of weave no such floatingthreads appear.

Italian Cloth, Plain, Cotton Warp and Wool Weft.—Underthe heading "Italian Cloth" it will be seen that such afabric is essentially a weft-faced satin-weave material havingpractically the whole of the weft or filling threads on the surface.When it is woven from a wool weft and a cotton warp the materialshows the face of the cloth as a wool face, the main bulk ofthe cotton warp showing on the back of the fabric. When wovenwith cotton warp and wool weft, Italian Cloth still retains thecharacteristic smooth surface of all weft-faced satin-weave fabrics.Very simple tests by burning will show the nature of both warpand weft, and this class of fabric illustrates clearly, by contrastbetween the two sets of threads, the nature of weft-faced satin orkindred weave fabrics. Such Italians are generally cross-dyed,i.e.,woven with dyed warp and grey weft, and then piece-dyed.

Jaconet.—There are two varieties of Jaconets, both of which,however, are all-cotton fabrics. One is a hard-finished fabricsimilar in weight to Victoria Lawn, having a smooth, lustrous,Cambric finish. The other is a soft-finished material which canhardly be distinguished from a heavy soft-finished Nainsook.Jaconet is a plain-woven fabric which has been variously describedas a "thin, soft Muslin," or as a "plain-woven cotton fabric lightlyconstructed, composed of light yarns." Bleached, dyed, or printedin the grey piece length, similar to Mulls, Nainsooks, Cambrics,etc. It is also spelt Jaconettes.

Jacquards is a loose term applied to elaborate designedfabrics produced by means of a machine called a Jacquard, thedistinctive feature of which is an apparatus for automaticallyselecting warp threads and moving them independently of eachother. Jacquards are the produce of what is termed figureweaving, in which complicated figures are woven into the fabric.

Jaeger.—This name is used to designate the products of acertain manufacturer whose material is described as being an"all-wool" material. Generally applied to underwear and fabricsinto whose composition camel wool is said to enter largely.

Jean.—A Jean is an all-cotton fabric woven as a three-shafttwill similar to a Dungaree. Good-quality Jeans, woven fromcoloured warp, are often used as sailors' collars and for children'sclothing. Woven in the grey as a weft-faced twill and subsequentlydyed, they are used for lining cloths. The weave of aJean fabric, which is its salient characteristic, is described under"Grey Jeans," which is the kind of Jean most often met with.

Jeanette.—A three-shaft weft twill fabric having warp andweft threads about equally proportioned in number and thickness.

The name "Jeanette backed" is applied to certain pile fabricsthat have a three-end twill back.

Applied to a cotton material, it would correspond to a Jeantype fabric not as stoutly woven as a Jean. One authority,however, claims that it is "a similar fabric to the Jean in whichthe warp predominates."

Jouy.—Printings in small floral effects on silk or cotton,similar to Pompadour designs. Named after a Frenchman whoestablished a plant for such work during the reign of Louis XV.

Kerseymere.—Seldom met with under this name. Kerseymereis a fine woollen cloth of a serge-like character, woven witha three-shaft weft-faced twill weave.

Khaki.—A colour resembling that of the ground. This wordis derived from the Hindustani word for "earth." A term appliedto a special shade of brown or greenish brown largely employed insoldiers' uniforms.

Ladies' Cloth.—A dress fabric of plain weave, similar to aFlannel in construction, but with a high-finished surface, whichgives the fabric a Broadcloth effect.

Lappet Weave.—Lappet weaving is used to produce on alight fabric small designs which have the appearance of havingbeen embroidered upon the fabric, such as the detached spots indotted Swiss, or narrow and continuous figures running more orless in stripes. This form of weaving is used mainly on plain andgauze fabrics, and the figures are practically stitched into thefabric by means of needles in a special sliding frame. The yarnwhich produces the figured design is an extra warp thread known[46]as a "whip yarn." Lappet weaving produces the design on oneside only of the fabric, and this feature will enable this style ofweave to be recognised from other processes, such as Swiss Embroidery.The loose threads existing between the figures whenthe goods leave the loom are usually cut away, leaving a somewhatimperfect figure or spot with a bit of the figuring threadprotruding at either extreme edge of the figure or spot. Lappet-figuredfabrics are not Brocades.

Lastings.—A plain twill or kindred weave fabric firmlywoven from hard-twisted wool or cotton yarns. Smooth in appearancebut having a somewhat hard handle, Lasting is a fine,durable, generally piece-dyed, material, of which there are severalvarieties, such as the Printed and the Figured. It is sometimesemployed in the making of uppers for boots and shoes.

Leas.—A term used to denote the count of linen yarn, eachlea being a measure of length equal to 300 yards. When usedwith reference to cotton yarn, it is a measure of length equal to4,320 inches, or 120 yards.See under Cotton Yarn Measures.

Leather Cloth.—This name is given to a cloth which isknown in the Bradford district as a Melton. It is a union clothwoven from cotton warp and woollen weft having the warpthreads running in pairs or, as it is called, in "sisters."Generally measuring from 50 to 56 inches in width and weighingfrom 20 to 24 ounces per yard, it is finished with a bright, smoothface. The system of interlacing of warp and weft is not apparenteither on the face or back of the cloth. By pulling away oneor two weft threads it is easy to see that the warp threads areof cotton and that they are in pairs. Leather cloth is freefrom any figuring and is generally dyed in dark colours.

Leno.—Where a fabric is woven with a combination of gauzeweaving and a few plain picks it is said to be a Leno. It isa term now currently used to designate all classes of light fabricsinto which the gauze weave (in which kind of weaving all thewarp threads do not run parallel or at right angles to the weftbut are more or less twisted round each other) is introduced incombination with any other kind of weave. Lenos may haveeither an "all-over effect" or "stripes." The introduction inLenos of the gauze weave tends to strengthen a material whichfrom its very nature can only be but light. Lenos may show,in addition to the "all-over effect," an extra weft figure or spot.Whilst all these would be known as Lenos, their more correctdesignation would be Figured Lenos, or Extra Weft Spot FiguredLenos. The term is now loosely used, and sometimes a "lace"[47]stripe Muslin will be called a Leno. The crossing threads usedin the true or "net" Lenos are often of two or three fold yarn.The common so-called lace curtains are Lenos. The commonvarieties of Lenos are extensively used for the purpose of mosquitonets.

Liberty.—A light-weight silk having a satin finish. A tradename applied to a satin-finish silk of light weight now generallyapplied to such silks, although not the original "Liberty."

Linen Yarn.—When the count of linen yarn is given, itis denoted by "leas." Each lea is a measure of 300 yards, and10 leas = 1 hank and 20 hanks = 1 bundle. It will be seen thatas the "counts" increase, the weight per bundle decreases.

Lingerie.—This comprehensive term embraces ladies' andchildren's undergarments, such as skirts, undershirts, etc., infant'slong and short dresses, stockings, chemises, night-robes, drawers,corset covers, etc.

Lining.—A cloth usually made from cotton warp andcotton, alpaca, or Botany weft, according to the type of clothrequired, generally woven with a sateen weave. Italian Cloth isa typical example of lining cloth. The name denotes a classof fabrics rather than a given fabric.

Lisle Thread.—Yarns made of long-staple cotton, somewhattightly twisted and having a smooth surface produced by passingthe yarn over gas jets.

Loading Worsted and Woollens.—When the naturalweight of any fabric is artificially increased, it is subjected to atreatment called "filling," "loading," or "weighting." Woolfabrics, by reason of their great hygroscopic properties, areusually weighted by being impregnated with hygroscopic substances,such as magnesium chloride. Other agents employedfor filling worsted and woollen goods are zinc chloride, dextrine,starch, and water glass (alkali silicate).

Zinc chloride is a most useful loading agent on account ofit possessing great hygroscopic properties. When a wool fabrichas passed through solutions containing this agent the chlorideis absorbed and permanently retained in the form of moisture,and a slippery handle or feel is imparted.

Longcloth.—This name is used to designate a fine cottonfabric, either plain or twill woven, of superior quality, madefrom a fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist.

The fabric is used for infants' long dresses, from which itderives its name, also for lingerie. Longcloth to some extentresembles Batiste, fine Muslin, India Linen, and Cambric. It is,however, distinguished from these fabrics by the closeness of itsweave. It has, when finished, a very good white appearance, dueto the closeness of the weave and the soft twist of the yarn. Thesurface is rendered smooth by undergoing a "gassing" process.

Long Ells (Woollen).—This name is given to an all-wooltwill-weave fabric woven with a worsted warp and a woollen weft,averaging in width from 28 to 30 inches and having a length of24 yards to the piece. Calendered, finished, and often dyed abright vermilion. Long Ells averaged in value during the 10years 1904-14 about 17s. per piece. They are not met with in alarge range of qualities, the most usual type answering to theabove description.

Long Stick.—This term is used to describe a yard of 36½inches in length. The abbreviated manner of writing this termon documents referring to textiles is LS. It is only used inconnexion with textile fabrics and in opposition to "shortstick," a yard of 36 inches. One authority states that "the yardis generously reckoned at 37 inches by manufacturers in theUnited Kingdom." This statement, however, should be takenwith reserve, although in the woollen trade it seems to be acommon practice. In addition to this extra 1 inch per yard, aquarter of a yard in every 10 is generally allowed, so that a nominal40-yard piece would actually measure 40 yards + 40 inches+ 1 yard = 42 yards 4 inches. The long stick measure is onlyused in the woollen trade.

Louisine.—A silk fabric having an uneven surface like thatof an Armure, but finer in effect.

Lustre Dress Fabrics.—This class of union fabric, whenwoven with a fast black dyed cotton warp and a worsted mohairweft, is representative of union fabrics in general, and the treatmentof this material when in its grey state applies to the majorityof union fabrics. The warp is generally a 2/80's,i.e., a strong yarn,and the weft, say, a 1/14's. The warp being dyed prior to weaving,there only remains the weft to be dyed after the unfinishedcloth leaves the loom. This is called cross-dyeing. The greycloth, in its loom state, possesses a visible appearance of non-lustrouscotton. This appearance is changed and replaced by thelustre effect through the process of "crabbing," or drawing outthe material in the direction of the cotton warp. The warp[49]threads when drawn straight virtually throw the lustrous weft tothe surface, whilst they themselves become embedded out of sightin the cloth. Orleans, Mohair Brilliantine, and Mohair Sicilian arefabrics which come under this heading.

Maco.—Applied to hosiery or underwear made from pureEgyptian undyed cotton.

Madras.—A light-weight cotton fabric or a cotton and silkmixture sold in widths varying from 27 to 32 inches, usuallymade from dyed yarns. Extensively used to designate light-weightshirting materials as used for men's shirts, the term is equallyapplied to similar weight fabrics printed in simple designs frequentlyelaborated in weaving by stripes or figures woven on adobby loom. In the distributing trade, comprising various subdivisionsof the trade, the names Madras, Gingham, MadrasGingham, Zephyr, etc., are so closely allied as to be impossibleof separation. The original intent of these several designationshas apparently been completely lost. Madras may either be wovenas a plain or twill or kindred weave fabric. Whilst this name isprimarily applied to an all-cotton fabric, it is also used to designatea cotton and silk mixture, when it is sometimes described as a SilkGingham. The salient characteristic of Madras is the plain whiteand fancy coloured narrow stripes running in the direction ofthe warp.

Madras Gingham.—This name is applied to all-cottonfabrics made in part or to a considerable extent of dyed yarns ofvarious colours, woven into stripes or checks woven either plain orfancy or with a combination of two or more weaves, and of a weightdistinctly suitable for a shirting material in countries lying in thetemperate zone. In the United States the introduction of a lenoor satin stripe for the purpose of elaboration or ornamentationdoes not change the trade designation of such Gingham. MadrasGingham may be woven either plain, diamond, gauze and lenoweave, or a combination of these weaves.See Madras.

Madras Handkerchiefs.—Plain-woven coloured cloths,with large bold checks. The yarns are dyed with a loose top, andthe cloth is treated with acids, which cause the colours to bleed orrun and give an imitation of block printing.

Maline.—A fine silk net of gauze-like texture. Practicallythe same as Tulle.

Market Descriptions of Standard Cloth.—Certain standardcloths are known on the market by an expression such as"36—76, 19 x 22, 32/36". This stated at length means that thecloth is 36 inches wide, 76 yards long, and contains 19 "ends"(or warp threads) and 22 "picks" (or weft threads) per quarterinch, whilst the twist (or warp) is 32's and the weft 36's—all beingactual, not nominal, particulars.

Marl.—A term applied to a particular kind of colouredtwo-fold or single yarn. In the former (the two-fold) one orboth threads making the two-fold yarn are spun from tworovings of different colours, causing the single thread to havea twist-like appearance; or the process may be begun earlier,by the two colours being run together in the thick roving, thusproducing a twist-like effect in the smaller roving immediatelypreceding the spinning. These single twist-looking threads areusually folded with a solid colour, frequently black. If foldedwith each other they are called Double Marls; a single-yarnMarl is this yarn without the folding.

Marquisette.—A sheer plain-weave fabric of silk or cotton,having a mesh more open than that of Voile.

Matelassé.—A heavy compound-weave figured cloth, havinga raised pattern, as if quilted or wadded.

Matt Weave.—Similar to a plain or one-over-one weave,with this difference, that instead of lifting one thread at a timetwo are lifted over two. It might be described as a doubleplain weave. This style of weave is noticeable in some varietiesof embroidery canvas.

Medium Cloth (Woollen).—This is an all-wool fabric, plainwoven from a wool weft and wool warp. In width it varies from54 to 74 inches and in length from 19 to 36 yards per piece.The average value of this fabric per yard for the period 1904to 1914 was 4s. 3d.

This fabric approximates to, and by some is said to be identicalwith, Broad, Habit, and Russian Cloth.

Mélange.—The French word for "mixture." Name givento a yarn produced from printed tops. This class of yarn can bedistinguished from Mixture Yarn in that many fibres have morethan one colour upon them. In Mixture Yarn each fibre wouldonly have one colour.

Melton.—Stout, smooth woollen cloth, similar to Broadcloth,but heavier. A heavily milled woollen in which the fibres havebeen raised, then the piece cut bare to obtain the typical Melton.Both light and heavy Meltons are made with cotton warp andwoollen weft.

Mercerised Cotton.—Cotton fibre roughly resembles atube which, being hollow and collapsed on itself, presents anuneven, twisted, tape-like appearance with a good many surfacemarkings.

By chemical treatment (mercerising) with caustic soda, andthe application of tension at the right period of the treatment,remarkable changes in the structure and appearance of the cottonfibre are produced. It is made to swell, to become more transparent,to lose its twisted tube-like appearance, and to becomemore lustrous, translucent, and elastic. Mercerised cotton givesan impression of silk to the naked eye, its microscopic appearancebeing changed, the fibre having swelled out and assumed arounded rod-like appearance which, whilst resembling silk, stilldiffers from silk by the absence of the characteristic swellingsso distinctive to silk.

The mercerising process improves the dyeing properties ofcotton. The most effective mercerisation is obtained with Egyptiancotton.

Mercerising.—The object of this very important operationin the manufacture of cotton goods, yarn, or cloth is to give themlustre, making them resemble silk, the use of which they havereplaced in many instances. The process, which takes its namefrom the inventor (Mercer), consists of passing the yarn or cloth,preferably bleached or partially bleached, through a concentratedsolution of caustic soda, which causes the straightening of thecotton fibres, and would also cause it to shrink considerablywere it not for the fact that the material being treated is keptunder tension, which prevents the shrinking. To this tensionmore than anything else is the lustre imparted due. Mercerisingis only applicable to vegetable fibres. Animal fibres dissolve incaustic soda. The caustic soda solution is only allowed to reacton the fibre for about two minutes, when it is washed out byabundant application of fresh water.See Mercerised Cotton.

Merino.—Applied to hosiery or underwear made of partcotton and part wool mixed together. (Note.—The word "merino"on a box label is often misleading, as it frequently happens thatgoods so called are composed wholly of cotton.)

Mesh Underwear.—All knit underwear cloth is mesh invarying degree, but the common application of the term means awoven or knitted fabric having a net-like appearance.

Mixture Yarn.—This class of yarn is spun from fibreswhich have previously, and separately, been dyed various colours.The fibres are then mixed together to produce the desired mixturetone and spun in the usual way. This class of yarn differs fromMélange Yarn, which is composed of fibres upon which more thanone colour has been printed.

Mock Leno.—Mock or imitation Lenos are ordinary wovencloths, that is, the warp threads do not cross each other, the openeffect being less pronounced than in the real Leno, resulting in afabric which is not as strong as the real or true Leno.

Mohair is a lustrous wool obtained from the Angora goat.The hair is often pure white, fine, wavy, and of good length, beingthe most lustrous of the wool or hair class fibres. It is extensivelyused in the manufacture of Plushes and lustrous dress fabrics.The name Mohair is used to designate a lustrous fabric madefrom this class of material.

Mohair Beaver Plush.—This fabric is a pile-weave materialhaving a long lustrous mohair pile and a cotton back. The mohairpile is generally a "fast" pile in the sense that it is firmly held tothe back. The pile is not as lustrous as a silk pile or even a goodmercerised cotton pile, but it will not crush as readily as thelatter. Generally measures from 48 to 50 inches in width and60 yards in length. To prevent crushing of the pile, this materialis shipped on an iron frame, on which it is fastened by a series ofhooks which hold the material by the selvedges. Generallypacked two frames to the box or case. The backs of mohairpile fabrics show a certain amount of loose pile fibres whichhave worked through during the process of weaving. This isnot found in either silk or cotton pile fabrics.

Mohair Brilliantine.—A typical lustre dress fabric, plainwoven, free from ornamentation, cotton warp and mohair weft;width, 30 to 31 inches; length, 30 to 35 yards per piece. Finerin weave appearance than Lustre Orleans, with a fairly extensiverange of qualities. Like most lustre fabrics, it is cross-dyed.

Mohair Coney Seal.—A long mohair-pile fabric, dyed black,in widths of from 48 to 50 inches. The pile of this fabric ismohair, the foundation cloth all cotton. Harsher to the touch thana silk-pile fabric, Mohair Coney Seal has, as a distinctive feature,a fuzzy appearance at the back due to the fact that certain of thepile fibres appear to have worked through. If a similar fabricwere dyed brown instead of black, it would be known as a MohairBeaver Plush. If a similar fabric were dyed black and the surfacechemically bleached till the dye was all out, producing a pile dyedtwo-thirds black and the surface third white, it would be knownas a Silver Seal or Chinchilla Plush.

Mohair Sicilian.—Similar in construction of weave andcomponents to a Mohair Brilliantine and differing from this only bythe relative coarseness of threads. Sicilian is three times ascoarse as Brilliantine, presenting a surface in which the warp andweft intersections are clearly shown, whereas the Brilliantine,being so much finer woven, does not show these so clearly,presenting as it does a smoother surface. The weft threads inSicilian are comparatively much coarser than the warp, whereas inBrilliantine this difference is not so apparent. In width Sicilianmeasures up to 54 inches and in length from 30 to 35 yards perpiece.

Moiré.—A watered design applied to silks by pressurebetween engraved rollers, or by the more common process ofpressing two fabrics together.See Watering.

Moleskin.—An all-cotton Fustian, made extra strong bycrowding the number of picks to the inch, napped before dyeingand put to the same uses as a strong Corduroy.

Mottles.—A variety of Velveteen or Velveteen Cord wovenwith a pile surface showing a distinct combination of yarn-dyedpile threads. Generally found with a pile combining black andwhite weft-pile threads; Mottles are yarn-dyed fabrics.

Mousseline de Soie.—A sheer soft fabric of silk, similar toChiffon, but of more open weave.

Mule-twist Yarn.—Mule-twist yarn can be spun up to thefinest counts; it is softer and more elastic than ring-twist yarn;it will take up more "size" than ring-twist and, generally speaking,is more regular in construction.

Mull.—A thin plain fabric usually bleached or dyed, characterisedby a soft finish, used for dress wear. Various prefixes,such as Swiss, India, and Silk, are used in conjunction with Mull.Silk Mull is made of cotton warp and silk filling, and generally ofhigher count, finished either dyed or printed. The Swiss andIndia Mulls are fine, soft, bleached cotton fabrics; Silk Mull isin point of texture twice as fine as some grades of Cotton Mull.Cotton Mull is a plain fabric free from any ornamental features orfancy weaves, depending for its beauty or attractiveness entirelyon the finish. When coarse-grade Mull, intended not for dresswear but for decorative purposes, is made, it is woven coarser thanthe dress fabric, stiffened in the finishing, and commonly knownas Starched Mull. It is 30 inches wide, and has 36 picks and 40ends per inch. Cotton Mull is generally woven from bleachedyarns and not bleached in the piece.

Mungo and Shoddy are wool products or wool fibres whichhave previously passed through the process of manufacture.

Before either Mungo or Shoddy is produced, the rags, tailors'clippings, pattern-room clippings, or samples from which they aremade have to be dusted, sorted, and ground. The last process tearsthread from thread and fibre from fibre, leaving the Mungo orShoddy ready to be once more made up into a yarn. The name isapplied to textiles made up wholly or in great part from Mungoor Shoddy.

There actually exists a technical difference between Mungoand Shoddy, due to the class of fabric from which they are made.Mungo is the product of all types of cloths which have beensubjected to the milling process. Shoddy is the product of unmilledfabrics, such as flannels, stockings, wraps, etc. Mungo isusually shorter and finer in fibre than Shoddy, because, in the firstplace, milled cloths are nearly always made from the shorter kindsof wool; secondly, because the fibres of a milled cloth are verydifficult to separate from one another and break in the process ofpulling.

Both Mungo and Shoddy are rather more comprehensiveterms than names for any special type of material; both classeshave a number of special divisions with different names.

Nainsook.—Nainsook is a light cotton fabric of plain weavewhich has a very soft finish. It may be distinguished from fineLawns, fine Batiste, and fine Cambric from the fact that it hasnot as firm a construction nor as much body, and for that reasonis not capable of retaining as much finishing material, the resultbeing that when finished it has a very soft feel when handled. Inwidth it ranges from 28 to 32 inches and in length from 20 to 60yards per piece.

Nankeen.—The original Nankeen fabric was produced inChina and was a plain-weave cotton fabric woven on a hand loomfrom a cotton yarn which had a natural yellow-coloured tinge.The name is now given to a cotton cloth produced in Lancashire,woven as a three-shaft twill and dyed a yellowish drab and othercolours, often used for corset-making.

There is a mass of evidence to show that true Nankeen is aclass of cloth having as a salient characteristic an inherent peculiarcolour which is natural and due to its being woven from cotton ofa yellow-brownish tint. The following extracts bear on this point.

"The statement that this stuff was made from a cotton ofbrownish yellow tint was for a long time discredited, but it isnow certain that the yellow preserves the colour of the cottoncomposing it rather than acquires it by any process of dyeing"(S. William Beck: "Textile Fabrics: Their History and Applications").

Sir George Staunton, who travelled with Lord Macartney'sEmbassy through the province of Kiangnan, to which province theNankeen cotton is peculiar, distinctly states that the cotton isnaturally "of the same yellow tinge which it preserves when spunand woven into cloth" ("Embassy to China," by Sir GeorgeStaunton).

Sir George Thomas Staunton (son of the above) has translatedan extract from a Chinese herbal on the character, culture, anduses of the annual herbaceous cotton plant, in which the plantproducing "dusky yellow cotton" of a very fine quality ismentioned as one of the varieties ("Narratives of the ChineseEmbassy to the Khan of the Tartars").

Van Braam, who travelled in China with a Dutch Embassyand who had been commissioned by European merchants torequest that the Nankeens for their markets might be dyeda deeper colour than those last received, says: "La toile deNanking, qu'on fabrique fort loin du lieu du même nom, est faited'un cotonroussâtre: la couleur de la toile de Nanking estdonc naturelle, et point sujette à pâlir" ("Voyage de l'Ambassadede la Compagnie des Indes Orientales Hollandaises vers l'Empereurde la Chine").

"Each family (at Woosung) appears to cultivate a smallportion of ground with cotton, which I here saw of a light yellowcolour. The Nankeen cloth made from that requires no dye"("Voyage of the ShipAmherst to the North-east Coast of China,1832," published by order of the House of Commons).

Other authors refer to a Nankeen-coloured cotton grown inIndia and state that the original Nankeen fabric was produced inNanking, in China, and was woven from a natural-coloured yellowcotton. As produced in Lancashire the cloth is a closely woven[56]three-shaft twill, dyed yellowish drab and other colours and usedfor stay and corset making and for pocketing.

An American Government publication (House of RepresentativesDocument No. 643: Report of the Tariff Board onSchedule 1 of the Tariff Law) gives the general description ofNankeens as known in the distributing trade as: "Distinguishedby their peculiar yellowish brown colour, natural to the colour ofthe cotton of which made."

From the above it would seem clear that true Nankeen is aplain native cotton cloth woven on a native hand loom from unbleachedand undyed yarn spun from cotton of a yellowish oryellow-brownish natural colour. The weave of Nankeen is a plainone-over and one-under shirting weave, such being the type ofweave most readily produced on a native hand loom. The finishedfabric is marketed in its loom state.

True Nankeen is therefore devoid of any ornamentation orfiguring produced by weave or subsequent printing, embossing,dyeing, or stencilling. The width of Nankeen has apparently beenalways recognised as not exceeding 20 inches.

The name Nankeen in China was originally used to describenative hand-loom cloths of the above variety only, but as new andslightly different makes of native cloth appeared on the marketthe practice grew of including them under this heading, untilgradually the term was used to describe not only the trueNankeen but a whole group of native cloths answering to thefollowing description: all-cotton cloths not exceeding 20 inchesin width, woven on a hand loom with a one-over and one-undershirting weave from cotton yarn which has not been previouslydyed or mercerised, and including cloths of the above varietywhich have either been bleached, piece-dyed in solid greyish orblue colour, or woven from yarn previously dyed in greyish or bluecolour, and including hand-loom-woven grey or bleached cottoncloths not exceeding 20 inches wide which have been ornamentedby the introduction in the weave of a yarn-dyed blue stripe oryarn-dyed blue checkered design.

This loose application of the term continued until the 2ndMay 1917, when the Chinese Maritime Customs, in their NotificationNo. 876 (Shanghai, 2nd May 1917) laid down an authoritativedefinition of this class of piece goods reading as follows:—

Chinese Cotton Cloth that does not fulfil the above conditionswill not be treated as Nankeen.

Noils are the rejected fibres from the process of combingthe different wools and hairs prior to making them up into yarn.The primary object of combing is to sort or separate the longfrom the short fibres.

Ombré.—Having graduated stripes in colour effect whichshade from light to dark.

Opera Hose.—Women's stockings of extra length ordinarilymeasuring 34 inches.

Organzine.—This name is given to a hard and strongfinished silk thread which has been given a great deal of twistin the throwing. Organzine is used for warps, as strength andregularity are needed in warp threads so that they may bearthe strain and friction of weaving. When silk is thrown withless twist, and is therefore softer and more or less flossy, it isknown as Tram and is used for the weft in weaving.

Orleans.—This fabric, also known as a Lustre Orleans, isone of the many varieties of lustre dress fabrics met with anddescribed elsewhere. Woven with cotton warp and lustre weft,free from ornamentation, it is a simple one-over and one-underplain-weave fabric. Average width, 30 to 31 inches; length,30 yards; price in normal times averaging, for the usual type, aslow as 8½d. per yard.

In fineness of appearance it lies midway between a MohairBrilliantine, which is of finer weave, and a Mohair Sicilian, whichis of similar weave, coarser, but more lustrous in appearance.

Ottoman.—A silk or cotton weave having thick ribs atvarious intervals. Originally, the thick cord ran crossways.When the cord runs lengthways the fabric is often known asan Ottoman Cord.

This material is also called a Persian Cord, which is a clothmade from worsted or cotton warp and worsted weft employingthe plain weave, but with the warp threads working in twos, thusgiving a rib effect.

Outsize.—When used as a knitted goods term it is appliedto women's stockings made in extra widths.

Oxford.—Originally a wool fabric in dark grey and whitemixtures. Of late years heavy cotton and linen fabrics have beenknown by this name.

Oxford Shirting.—This fabric is an all-cotton fabric wovenwith a plain-weave ground and ornamented by the introduction ofbroken twill or fancy twill weave. It is woven with white andcoloured yarns, which go to make the pattern or design—which inthe main takes the form of stripes—of broken twill weaverunning lengthways of the material. Where the design is producedby printing, the material would not be an Oxford Shirting,but would more correctly be classed as an "imitation" or"printed" Oxford.

Oxford Shirting has been described as "a matt weave ofcoloured yarns, forming small checked effects or basket effects."As the name shows, it is extensively used in the making of shirtsand ranges in quality from a low-grade to a high-quality fabric.

Padded Back Linings.—When a fabric is printed blackon one side, or backed, to prevent the printed pattern on the faceof the cloth from showing through, it is known as a Padded BackLining. A natural back lining is a solid-coloured lining printedon one side only. This class of fabric is generally woven fromall-cotton yarns, but may include fabrics which contain wool, silk,or other fibres.

Pad-dyeing.—Fabrics are generally piece-dyed after leavingthe loom by being immersed in a bath of dye or colouring material.With a view to quickening more than actually cheapening theprocess of dyeing, "pad-dyeing" was evolved. This roughlyconsists in threading the cloth to be dyed into a machine themain features of which are dye baths and rubber rollers. Thecloth is made to pass over rollers, dip into a dye bath and passthrough rollers which squeeze out the superfluous dye, allowingsame to fall back into the dye bowl or bath. In "pad-dyeing"the cloth may pass as often as six times through the dye liquorbefore it enters the first set of squeezers, and it may be given asmany as four more passes through the liquor before the second setof squeezers are gone through; this, according to experts, gives"thorough saturation to any and all goods difficult to penetrate."It is generally recognised that any degree of saturation can beattained by the process of pad-dyeing, and cloth may be runthrough a machine at the rate of some 275 yards per minuteand yet be well saturated. In a description of a pad-dyeingmachine the nature of the operation performed by this machineis called "dyeing" and not "printing." The only difference[59]therefore between piece-dyeing in a vat and in a pad-dyeingmachine is that in the one instance the cloth is made to circulatein a dye bath or through a series of dye baths instead of beingallowed to remain still in a dye vat until impregnated. Theobject aimed at and attained,i.e., the saturation of the cloth witha dye or colouring liquor, is identical.

All fabrics showing thorough saturation of ground colour (i.e.,where both sides of the fabric are equally dyed) are considered asdyed whether they have been dyed by vat-dyeing or pad-dyeing.

Panne.—A light-weight Velvet with "laid" or flattenedpile. Applied to a range of satin-faced Velvets or silk fabricswhich show a high lustre, which is produced by pressure. Thewordpanne is French for Plush.

Panung.—The nether garment of the Siamese. Made fromcloth of the Papoon style or from woven or printed Checks.Papoon is a plain-woven cloth having warp and weft of differentcolours. It is also woven in two-and-two checking.

Panama Canvas.—An all-cotton plain matt weave fabric,similar to Basket Cloth, but woven from dyed yarns.

Papoon.—An all-cotton fabric woven from coloured yarns,the warp being of a different colour to the weft or filling threads.Exported to Siam, where it is extensively used for panungs.

Paramatta.—A thin union fabric woven as a three-shaftweft-faced twill from cotton warp and Botany worsted weft, usedextensively for the manufacture of waterproof articles.

Peau de Soie.—A closely woven silk having a somewhatuneven satin-like surface. Literally, "skin of silk." A variety ofheavy, soft-finished, plain-coloured dress silk woven with a patternof fine close ribs extending weftways of the fabric. The bestgrades are reversible, being similarly finished on both sides; lowergrades are finished on one side only. The weave is an eight-shaftsatin with one point added on the right or left, imparting to thefabric a somewhat grainy appearance.

Pekiné, or Pekin Stripes.—A colour design in stripes ofequal width and with equal space between.

Pepperell Drill.—The very superior qualities of Drills,woven from the highest quality yarns, are distinguishable by theircarefully woven appearance and known as Pepperell Drills.

Percale.—A plain-weave cotton fabric of fine or mediumcount, used for shirtings, dresses, linings, etc. Percale is usuallyprinted on one side with geometrical figures, generally black, althoughother colours are sometimes used. The fabric is bleachedbefore printing and has an entire lack of gloss, differing fromPercaline, which has a very glossy finish. It is often printed instripes and, when so printed, is known as Percale Stripes.

Percaline.—A highly finished and dressed light-weight Percale,piece-dyed in solid colours and not printed. Percaline is anall-cotton, plain, closely woven fabric, generally met with in shadesof blue, green, black, brown, and tan. Highly calendered andglossed.

Persian Cord.—A worsted or cotton warp and worsted weftfabric woven with a plain weave, but with the warp threadsworking in twos, thus giving a rib effect. Also called Ottoman.

Pick.—When the word "pick" is used in connexion withweaving, it always signifies the filling or weft threads, while eachwarp thread is called an "end" or a "thread." Picks run acrossthe width of the fabric.

Piece Goods.—A usual trade reference for fabrics which arewoven in lengths suitable for retail sale by linear measure.

Pile Fabrics.—Materials of silk or cotton wherein the surfaceis woven with raised loops, which are afterwards cut, forming araised "pile." They include Plushes, Velvets, Velveteens, andCorduroys.

The threads that go towards making the pile are specialthreads independent of the warp and weft threads necessary tomake a fabric that will hold together.

If the raised loops are left uncut, as more frequently is thecase with warp piles, the fabric is spoken of as "Terry." If cut,as is sometimes the case with warp piles, and usually the case withweft piles, the fabric is spoken of as "cut-pile."

A generic name, used more in the elementary distributingtrade, covering the classes of goods known amongst retailersand consumers as Velveteen, Corduroy, Turkish Towelling,Plush, etc.

Pile Weave.—Numerous varieties of cloth woven with apile surface, such as Plush, Velvet, Velveteen, Silk Seals, PonySkin, Beaver, Chinchilla Plush, and Carpeting of various kinds, areproduced by this style of weave. The distinctive feature of thisweave is that the surface consists of threads standing closelytogether like bristles in a brush. These threads appear either asthreads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface,as in the case of Velvet, or may appear in the form of loops, as inthe case of Towelling. The threads forming the pile are fixed tothe back in a more or less firm manner and are known as "loose"or "fast" pile: the former takes the form of the letterU and thelatter of the letterW. The loose pile may be driven out of thematerial by pressure, as there are not the same binding threadsholding it as in the fast pile, or, again, they may be drawn outthrough the back of the material by relatively little scratchingwith, say, the edge of a paper-knife. The fast pile cannot be sowithdrawn, as one of the warp threads passes in each of the twosurface depressions as well as under the centre bend of theW,thus firmly binding it to the cloth. All other conditions beingequal, a fast-pile material would be the better and more expensiveof the two, and for upholstery or where there is much wear the"fast" pile is essential. Pile-weave materials are shipped on ironframes of about 60 yards, the material being hooked on to theframe by the selvedge so as to prevent the crushing of the pile.For export two frames are boxed together, separated by a woodpartition.

Piqué.—A stout cotton fabric having as a distinguishingfeature wide or fine welts, running "lengthways in the piece" andextending side by side from selvedge to selvedge. It is wovenin the unbleached state and bleached before being placed on themarket. It is also made in part of dyed yarns, forming ornamentalstripes. It is sometimes referred to as Welts or Bedford Cords.This fabric is described in the English market as a fabric having"transverse ribs or welts, produced by stitching tightly weightedwarp threads through a fine plain-woven cloth which has its warplightly tensioned." The ribs or welts are sometimes emphasised bythe introduction of wadding weft. In America this material issometimes described as "P.K."

P.K.—An American way of writing Piqué. This abbreviateddesignation of the word is limited to America and seldom met withon English invoices.

Plain.—As a weaving term the word "plain" is used todesignate the simplest weave, in which the weft thread passesunder one and over one warp thread. This system of interlacingproduces a "plain" or "one-over and one-under" or"shirting" weave. The term is also used to denote that a fabricis not figured,i.e., that it is free of ornamentation produced byeither extra threads or combination of weaves.

Plain Velvet (Cotton).—An all-cotton pile fabric, which ismore often known under the name of Velveteen. There wouldappear, however, to be a difference between the two fabrics, whichlies only in the length of the pile, the pile of Velvet being if anythinga little longer than that of Velveteen and shorter than thatof Plush. This fabric may, like Velveteen, be either of a weft orwarp pile weave, which is more fully described under "Velveteen."Being plain, it is free from any ornamentation produced by printing,embossing, or combination of weave, and of uniform colourthroughout the width and length of the material.

Plain Velveteen (Cotton).—This fabric, like all trueVelveteens, is an all-cotton pile fabric which has not beenornamented or figured in any way, either by being printed orembossed or by combination of weave, and would be of uniformcolour throughout the width and length of the material.

Plain (or Homespun) Weave.—Plain cloth is the simplestcloth that can be woven. In this weave one series of threads(filling or weft) crosses another series (warp) at right angles,passing over one and under one in regular order, thus forming asimple interlacement of the threads. This weave is used in theproduction of Muslin, Gingham, Broadcloth, Taffetas, etc.

Checks are produced in plain weaving by the use of bands ofcoloured warp and coloured filling. This weave produces a strongand firm cloth. It is also called calico or tabby weave, and referredto as a "one-over and one-under" weave.

Plated.—An American term used in connexion with goodshaving the face of one material and the back of another; forinstance, a garment having a wool face and cotton back is "plated."The face may also be of one colour and the back of another, bothof the same material.

Plissé.—French for pleated; applied to fabrics which haveas a distinctive feature a narrow lengthways fold like the pleatsof a closed fan. Also known as Tucks.

Plumetis.—A sheer cotton fabric ornamented with tufts atintervals. A Figured Muslin or Lawn of high quality and pricewhich shows on its face dots or small sprigs of flowers whichclosely imitate real hand embroidery. These designs are theresult of swivel figuring. This fabric is also known as Plumety.

Plush.—As a distinctive fabric Plush would appear to be apile fabric having a fairly long pile woven on the same principleas Velvet, but composed of wool, mohair, or mixed fibres, andsometimes from a silk pile and cotton back. Used as an adjective,the word "plush" would mean woven with a pile somewhat longerthan Velvet. It is generally used in conjunction with a prefixshowing the nature of the materials from which the pile is made.

It is generally recognised that Plushes and Velvets are sogenerally part cotton that a Silk Plush should be considered ashaving a cotton back unless it is definitely stated that it is "silkbacked." This practice is recognised by manufacturing, wholesale,and retail branches of the trade and is accepted by such authoritiesas Paul H. Nystrom and recorded in his book, "Textiles."

Plush of Silk mixed with other Fibres.—This class ofmaterial includes all pile fabrics which, in the first instance,answer to the description of Plush,i.e., have their pile longerthan that of Velvet, and the pile of which, whilst being partly ofsilk, contains other animal fibres such as wool or mohair andwhich may contain even vegetable fibres such as cotton. InPlushes belonging to the above class the nature of the back orfoundation cloth may vary, but in the great majority of casesthey would be found to be of cotton. Where it is clearlystipulated that they are "Plushes of silk mixed with otherfibres and having cotton backs," the foundation cloth must notcontain warp or weft threads wholly or in part composed of anymaterial other than cotton.

Plush Velveteen.—A plain all-cotton pile fabric, eitherweft or warp pile, but generally the former, which differs fromVelveteen only in the length of the pile. As the name Velveteenstands for "an all-cotton fabric," it would be as correct to describea Plush Velveteen as "an all-cotton Plush" or as a "long-piledVelveteen." The terms Plush and Velveteen are explainedelsewhere.

Poncho Cloth.—This name is apparently more used todescribe a class of fabric than a particular and distinctivematerial. Used presumably in the manufacture of Ponchos,which are blanket-shaped garments having a slit in the centrethrough which the head is passed, and extensively used in Mexico.Poncho Cloth was originally a fine all-wool fabric.

Poncho Cloth is now described as a union cloth,i.e., composedof two materials, such as wool and cotton, otherwise than byblending. It is also similar to what is known as Leather Cloth,produced in the Morley district, which is heavier than the boiledand teazled goods known in that district as "Unions." TruePoncho Cloth is a union cloth woven with cotton warp and woollenweft, measuring from 72 to 74 inches wide and having a distinctive1-inch hair list at each selvedge. It resembles but is lighter inweight than a Union or Leather Cloth, averages from 16 to 20ounces per yard, and is given a high finish on the face. In theBradford district such a cloth would be known and sold as a"Melton" unless shipped as a Poncho Cloth at the request of thebuyer.

Pongee.—A fine plain-woven cotton fabric, mercerised,dyed, and schreinered, having a soft handle or feel like the realSilk Pongee of which it is an imitation. Pongees are met withhaving stripes produced by coloured warp threads. The fabrichas a lustrous silky appearance. Average width, 28 inches. Theground colour of Pongees is most often of a shade similar to realSilk Pongee.

Pony Skin.—As a textile term, it is used to describe a pilefabric which is made to imitate the true Russian Pony Skin fur.Always dyed a solid black, this fabric has a mohair pile whichhas been laid and fixed by heat. The density of the pile andthe lustre are the best guides to value. Like many imitation furfabrics, it came into the market owing to the vogue of the realfur it imitates. Average width, 48 to 50 inches; length, 30 to 33yards per piece.

Poplin.—A fabric having a silk warp and a wool weft, witha corded surface. Goods in which a similar effect is produced, butmade in all silk, all wool, or cotton, are also called Poplins.

It is a warp-ribbed fabric with a plain weave and wasoriginally made with a fine silk warp and a comparatively thickgassed worsted weft which gave the ribbed effect, with the silkwarp threads thrown to the surface and completely hiding theworsted weft. It is similar to, but generally softer finished than,Repp or Rep.

Printed.—This term, when used with reference to textiles,indicates that the fabric has been submitted to a process wherebycertain designs, either simple or complex, have been impressed onthe surface of the fabric in either one or more colours. Calico isperhaps the most typical of printed fabrics. The printing offabrics is generally done by the aid of a machine, its main featurebeing a revolving cylinder on which the design has been stampedor cut out. The cloth in passing through the machine comes incontact with the impression cylinder. The cylinder revolving ina colour trough takes up the colour and leaves the impression ofthe design on the cloth. When fabrics are printed by hand fromblocks, the design never joins so perfectly that it cannot bedetected, and, if looked for, certain marks will be found that areused as "guides" to show the operator where the next impressionwith the block is to be made. Roller-printed designs, being continuous,show no such marks or irregularities.

A recent process known as the "Lithographic" or transferprocess has been introduced, and it is a modified form of blockprinting, an engraved stone being used as for lithographic work.

A fabric that is printed will not show continuous colouredthreads, but threads coloured in places and not in others; whereasin fabrics having the pattern woven the coloured threads are continuous.

An "indigo print" is distinguished from a regular print byhaving a printed figure on a solid indigo blue ground, whereas theground of an ordinary print-cloth pattern is white or of a lightcolour. An indigo-print pattern is obtained either by indigoblock printing, indigo discharge printing, or indigo resistprinting.

Printed Balzarines.—The general structure and appearanceof Balzarines is given under that heading. The cottonvariety would be an all-cotton fabric having a gauze weave andnet-like appearance. The printed variety would consist of similarfabrics which had been subjected to a process whereby certainsimple or complex designs had been impressed upon the surface ofthe fabric in either one or more colours. The fabric wouldapproximate 30 inches in width and probably from 28 to 30 yardsin length per piece.

Printed Cambrics.—As the name shows, Printed Cambricsare Cambrics which have been submitted to a process wherebycertain simple or complex designs in either one or more colourshave been impressed on their surface.

Cambric being a light-weight, soft-finish, plain-weave fabric oflinen or cotton, the term Printed Cambric is therefore applicableto either a linen or cotton fabric. The more correct designationwould be either Printed Linen Cambric or Printed Cotton Cambric.The majority of Cambrics met with are Cotton Cambrics,and, unless specially designated, a Printed Cambric would be acotton fabric. Whereas in the plain white a Cambric is finer thana Lawn, Printed Cambrics, on the other hand, are coarser thanLawns.

Printed Chintzes.—This fabric is essentially a multicolouredprinted cotton fabric. It is the style of printing andthe large bright and gay coloured patterns of flowers and othersubjects used for ornamentation of the fabric that are the distinctivefeatures of this material, which is mainly used for curtainsand furniture coverings. Chintz is but a plain-woven fabricelaborately ornamented with designs by means of the printingmachine. After printing, the fabric is passed through a calenderpress, the rolls of which are well heated and tightly set, whichgives the glazed finish which the fabric in most cases possesses.

Printed Cotton Drill.—A strong all-cotton warp-faced orwarp sateen faced fabric which, after leaving the loom, has beensuitably prepared for and subjected to a process whereby certainornamentation in the form of simple or complex designs ineither one or more colours has been impressed on its surface.For particulars of weave,see Drills;Florentine Drills;SatinDrill.

Printed Cotton Italians.—This name is given to an all-cottonfabric woven generally with a weft-faced satin weave havingan even, close, smooth surface, upon which—for the purpose ofornamentation and to enhance the value of the fabric—certainsimple or complex designs in either one or more colours havebeen impressed. Whilst the name of this fabric does not indicatewhether it is a grey, white, or dyed one, nevertheless, as an ItalianCloth itself is a dyed cotton fabric, so a Printed Cotton Italian isa dyed and printed cotton fabric.

Printed Cotton Lastings.—This fabric is essentially aplain all-cotton twill or kindred weave fabric firmly woven fromhard-twisted yarns, piece-dyed after leaving the loom, and subsequentlysubjected to a printing process whereby certain designs,whether simple or complex, are impressed upon the surface of thecloth in either one or more colours.

Printed Crapes.—Any all-cotton Crape Cloth, which hasbeen ornamented by having certain designs or patterns impressedupon its surface in one or more colours, is termed a Printed Crape.The crinkled appearance—which is the distinctive feature of CrapeCloth—remains unchanged in the Printed Crape. The variousmethods of obtaining this crinkled effect is given under "CrapeCloth, Plain."

Printed Crimp Cloth.—Any all-cotton Crimp Cloth whichhas been ornamented by having certain designs or patternsimpressed upon its surface in one or more colours is known as aPrinted Crimp. The "cockled" stripes—which are the distinctivefeature of Crimp Cloth—remain unchanged in the Printed Crimps.The method of obtaining these "cockled" stripes is given under"Crimp Cloth, Plain."

Printed Furnitures.—This name, like many others usedwith reference to textiles, denotes more a class of goods than anygiven fabric. Chintz, Cretonne, and any other printed cottonfabrics which enter into the manufacture of chair or sofa coverings,curtains, hassocks, screens, etc., may be termed Printed Furnitures.This name, however, seems to be unknown to both manufacturerand distributor, and it is not in use in any of the many branchesof commerce concerned with textile fabrics. As a generic term ithas its value; but if it was ever used as the name of any givenfabric, it is so used no longer.

Printed Lawns.—As the name shows, Printed Lawns areLawns which have been submitted to a process whereby certainsimple or complex designs in either one or more colours have beenimpressed on their surface. Lawn being a light-weight, soft-finished,plain-weave fabric woven from cotton yarns varying from1/40's to 1/100's or from a linen yarn, the term Printed Lawn istherefore applicable to either a cotton or linen fabric. The morecorrect designation would be either Printed Cotton Lawn or PrintedLinen Lawn. The majority of Lawns met with are Cotton Lawns,and unless specially designated, a Printed Lawn would be a cottonfabric. Whereas a plain White Lawn is coarser than a WhiteCambric, a Printed Lawn, on the other hand, is finer than aPrinted Cambric. It varies in width from 27 to 45 inches.

Printed Leno.—When a Leno has been submitted to aprocess whereby certain simple or complex designs in either oneor more colours have been impressed on its face, it is then knownas a Printed Leno.

Printed Muslin.—As the name shows, Printed Muslins areMuslins which have been submitted to a process whereby certainsimple or complex designs in either one or more colours have beenimpressed on their surface. Muslin, like Lawn and Cambric, is anopen, plain-weave, light-weight, soft-finished cotton fabric. Thebetter qualities of Muslin may be recognised by their evenness ofweave and fineness of yarn, whilst in the lower grades occasionalwarp or weft threads will be irregular, having the appearance ofbeing thicker in some parts than in others.

Printed Reps.—As the name indicates, this class of fabricis essentially of rep construction,i.e., having as a predominantfeature a rep or rib running transversely across the face of thecloth, which is described in detail under "Rep." When a cloth orfabric of rep construction has had its face ornamented by havingcertain designs or patterns impressed on it in either one or morecolours, it is known as a Printed Rep. This class of fabric isgenerally met with as an all-cotton fabric, and unless speciallydesignated, the material so described would be a printed plain (inthe sense of not figured) cotton fabric.

Printed Sateens.—These are essentially light-weight cottonfabrics finished to imitate Silk Satin, and the common Italian Clothis a sateen fabric. The ornamentation of Printed Sateens is theresult of a printing process whereby certain designs are impressedon the surface in contradistinction to Coloured Sateens, in whichthe ornamentation is produced by combination of coloured warpand filling threads.See also Sateens;Satin.

Printed Satinets.—An imitation of the true Satin in mercerisedcotton or other yarns which has been printed after leavingthe loom. The four-shaft satin weave, which does not fulfil theconditions of the real Satin as regards order of intersections, isknown as a satinet weave and is the basis of this class of fabric.Similar to Sateen, but somewhat lighter in weight.

Printed Sheetings.—This name is given to an all-cottonfabric woven either as a four-shaft two-and-two twill or with aplain weave, as in the case of low-grade sheetings, in which wasteand condenser wefts are used. The actual fabric is woven asdescribed under "Grey Sheeting," then "singed," "bleached,"and "calendered" to prepare it for the process of printing, whichconsists of impressing on the face of the material certain designsin either one or more colours. This term is very seldom met within the trade and is considered a misnomer.

Printed Shirtings.—Printed Shirtings are essentially anall-cotton fabric woven with a plain weave, having the warp andweft approximately of the same count, which have had theirsurface ornamented by being submitted to a process wherebycertain simple or complex designs in either one or more colourshave been impressed upon them. Printed Shirtings, like all othercotton fabrics, undergo a process of "singeing," "bleaching," and"calendering" prior to being printed. The first process removesthe surface hairs, which form a sort of nap to the surface of thecloth, which if allowed to remain would interfere with the uniformapplication of the colours, and the other two processes furtherprepare the fabric for printing.

Printed T-Cloth.—This fabric is an all-cotton plain-wovenfabric, generally woven from poor-quality yarn, which, after leavingthe loom, has been bleached and printed. This fabric answers thedescription of a Printed Calico and would by many be known underthat name. Beyond the actual manufacturer, the jobber orexporter, and those merchants in such markets as Manchester andChina where the term is currently used, few even in the textilebusiness would know the value of the termT-Cloth.

Printed Turkey Reds.—Fabrics designated as PrintedTurkey Reds are essentially all-cotton fabrics of good quality dyedturkey red (see Dyed Real Turkey Reds) and subsequently ornamentedby having certain designs impressed on their surface ineither one or more colours. They are usually plain woven or ofsmall twill weave.

Printed Twills.—This term is applied to all cotton fabricsof twill weave, having the diagonal effect or twill running acrossthe face of the fabric, which subsequent to being woven havebeen ornamented by having certain designs, either simpleor complex, impressed on their surface in either one or morecolours.

Printed Velvet (Cotton).—Like a Plain Cotton Velvet,this fabric is virtually a Velveteen,i.e., an all-cotton pile fabric,which has been ornamented by having certain designs or patternsimpressed on its face in either one or more colours.

Printed Velveteen (Cotton).—This fabric, like all trueVelveteens, is an all-cotton pile fabric which has been ornamentedby having certain designs, whether simple or complex, impressedon its surface in either one or more colours.

Printers.—Plain-woven cotton cloths either exported plainor more often used for printing. Burnley Printers, or "Lumps,"are usually 32 inches wide by 116 yards in length and 16 square,i.e., 16 ends and 16 picks to the quarter inch. Glossop orCheshire Printers are about 36 inches by 50 yards and average19 ends and 22 picks to the quarter inch. Printers are generallywell woven from pure yarns of good quality. A variety wovenfrom low-grade yarns is also manufactured.

Pure Silk Plush.—A pile fabric, not often met with wovenentirely from silk,i.e., having both pile face and back warpthreads of silk. Woven as a Velvet but with a somewhat longerpile. Most branches of the trade consider a Pure Silk Plush to bea fabric having an all-silk pile, irrespective of whether the foundationfabric is silk or not.

Paul H. Nystrom, in his book, "Textiles," states that Velvetsand Plushes are so generally part cotton that a Silk Velvet or aSilk Plush should be considered as having a cotton back unless itis definitely stated that it is "silk backed." The term "pure silk"when applied to a plush qualifies the pile of the fabric and notthe fabric as a whole; it does not mean that the fabric is composedentirely of silk.

Pure Silk Velvet.—An all-silk pile fabric, not often metwith woven entirely from silk, similar to an all-silk Plush, fromwhich it differs only in length of pile. The pile of Velvet isshorter than that of Plush. A Pure Silk Velvet is generallyunderstood to be a pile fabric having an all-silk pile, irrespectiveof the nature of the foundation fabric. Velvets are so generallypart cotton that a Silk Velvet should be considered as having acotton back unless it is definitely stated that it is "silk backed.""Silk," or "pure silk," refers to the pile and the pile only, inthe general acceptance of the trade, and not to the fabric as awhole; it does not mean a fabric composed entirely of silk.

Raised Back Cloths.—Fabrics requiring a "raised back"are usually warp faced and weft backed. By constructing the clothin this manner, the raising machine, in the subsequent processes,partially disintegrates the weft fibres and gives that soft andwoolly feel which one is accustomed to in such cloths as Swansdown,Cotton Trouserings, and some classes of fabrics used fordressing-gowns, pyjamas, etc.

Raised Cotton Cloth.—Any material woven in all cottonand having either one or both sides "raised " or "napped" wouldbe a Raised Cotton Cloth. The "raising" or "napping" of thecloth is a process which the fabric is put through with the view[71]of giving it a soft "woolly" feel. By passing the fabric, whilstit is tightly stretched, over a revolving cylinder which has itssurface covered with small steel hooks or teasels, the surface ofthe fabric is scratched and the short fibres of the yarn used inthe weaving are opened up and raised, resulting in a nap coveringthe whole of the surface. Raised Cotton Cloths allow of the useof coarse inferior yarns and are better looking than had they notbeen raised. The raising hides defects of weave and produces awarmer, better-looking cloth than could be produced by any otherprocess at the price. Raised Cloths, like certain Flannelettes, aresometimes chemically rendered "fireproof."

Ramie, Rhea, China Grass.—A fibre obtained from aplant of the nettle family which grows in India and China. Thefibre is strong and lustrous and lends itself to the weaving ofvarious materials, especially underclothing, and it is used alsoin the manufacture of incandescent gas mantles.

The diameter of ramie and china grass fibres is from two tothree times that of flax. Ramie and china grass are not absolutelyidentical, the latter containing 78 per cent. of cellulose as comparedwith 66 per cent. in ramie. When spun into threads they producea lustrous effect. Effects resembling silk-woven textures areproduced with the finest yarns, and when dyed in delicate shadesthey give a brilliancy comparable with silk.

Ratine.—A wool material similar to a Chinchilla, but havingsmaller tufts with wider spacings between. This material is alwaysplain woven and is of comparatively recent creation; it canbe described as a very rough surface dress fabric, properly in partof wool, but now also made entirely of cotton. The characteristicrough surface is caused by the use of special fancy weft threadswhich are composed of two or more different size yarns so twistedtogether as to produce knob effects at intervals in the thread. Amore expensive fabric is made of filling threads composed ofbraided yarns. The trade now applies the name to imitationeffects produced by terry weaves, Turkish Towelling fabrics,bouclé and bourette effects.

Rayé.—This is the French term for "striped" and is appliedto patterns running longitudinally with the warp in textile fabrics,produced by employing a special weave or two or more colours ofwarp specially arranged.

Reed and Pick are terms applied in the cotton industryto the number of threads in a given space—usually ¼ inch or1 inch—in the warp and weft respectively. These terms are[72]not generally employed, however, in all textile districts; the term"make" or "ends and picks per inch" is applied to worstedcloths, whilst "sett" and "shots" are used with the same meaningin the linen industry.

The word "counts," which refers to the number or thicknessof yarn, is sometimes erroneously used in this connexion, probablyowing to the fact that the expression "counts to the 1-inch glass"is also used in reference to reed and pick.

Rembrandt Rib.—Applied to women's stockings havinggroups of five drop-stitches, separated by 1 inch of plain knittingrunning the full length.

Rep.—The name Rep is used to designate certain fabricsthat have as a predominant feature a rep or rib running transverselyacross the face of the cloth. The term may also be appliedto the actual weft rib which appears in the material.

Reps are what is known as warp-ribbed fabrics,i.e., fabricswith the rib or rep running weftways, and for that reason may beconsidered the opposite of cords. The term "warp-ribbed" mightat first sight appear to designate a rib running warpways, that isto say, in the longitudinal direction of the cloth, whereas a warprib is a warp surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of theweft picks or to the grouping of a number of weft picks together,the warp threads are made to bend round them, and being thusthrown to the surface produce a ribbed appearance across thepiece. Reps, unless specially designated, are dyed plain cottonfabrics with an average width of 32 inches and a length of 32 yardsper piece.

Resist or Reserve Printing.—This style of printing is aprocess used to obtain white figures on a coloured ground by meansof printing the designs in substances that are impervious to the dyeinto which the cloth so printed is subsequently placed. The clothis dyed, but all parts of it which were covered by the resist agentremain white.

Reversible Cretonnes.—The salient features of Cretonnesare the bold type of highly coloured designs with which the fabricis ornamented through printing. The weave employed for thisstyle of fabric is either plain, twill, satin, or oatmeal weave; thewidth of the material varies from 25 to 50 inches. Sometimes,though rarely, a small brocaded effect of fancy weave is introduced.Reversible Cretonnes differ from ordinary Cretonnes inthat they are printed on both sides of the fabric. A recentvariety of Reversible Cretonne, called a Shadow Cretonne, ispurely a warp-printed fabric, sometimes containing yarn-dyed[73]threads. A Cretonne printed with the same design on face andback would be known as a Reversible Cretonne, whilst the samefabric printed with one pattern on the face and a different patternon the back would be known as a Duplex Printed Cretonne.

Rib.—The name given to any kind of cord effect or to aweave in which either, owing to the interlacing or to the yarnsused, warp or weft is the stronger and remains comparativelystraight while the weaker does all the bending. Thus, in warpribs the weft is the stronger and causes the warp to bend andform a warp surface rib running from selvedge to selvedge, whilein weft ribs the warp is the stronger and develops a weft surfacerib running lengthways of the piece.

Rib Crape Effect.—This term is used to designate theeffect produced by breaking up the regular order of weave so as toproduce a warp-rib effect on a fabric which is of the Crape variety,the crape weave being distinguishable by the interlacing of warpand weft in a more or less mixed or indiscriminate order, so as toproduce an appearance of a finely broken character. Rib crapeeffect is found in fabrics known as Crepoline.

Richelieu Rib.—Applied to women's plain stockings havinga single drop-stitch at intervals of three-quarters of an inchrunning the full length of the stocking.

Right and Wrong Side of Fabrics.—In certain goods itis difficult to tell the right from the wrong side. In plainworsteds the diagonal ought always to run from right to left, thatbeing the right side. In all textiles which are not reversible, butare similar on both sides, the right side can be detected by thequantity of down, which is less on the right side than the wrongside. To determine this it is often necessary to hold the clothunder examination to the light. When both sides are well finished,but with different patterns, it is the neater of the two whichis generally the right side. In a comprehensive way, shaving andneatness indicate the right side.

Ring-spun Yarn.—Ring-spun cotton yarn is generally aharder spun thread than mule-twist, which is more fibrous andmore elastic. Ring-spun yarn will not take up as much "size" asthe more fibrous and softer spun thread of the mule.

Ring-spun yarn is rounder than a mule-spun thread. Ring-spinningdiffers from mule-spinning in this essential: the formeris spun on the "continuous system" upon spindles that are fixed,whereas in mule-spinning the spindles are mounted on a carriage[74]which moves backwards and forwards for a distance of some5 feet. When the spindles reach their greatest distance the rollsproducing the yarn are automatically stopped, and the thread thathas been spun during the outward move of the carriage is woundon the spindles while the carriage is being moved back towardthe rolls.

Robes.—A name given to printed twill cotton fabrics madefrom 64-square printing cloth. Originally made for use as wraps,they were made in Cashmere effects. Now, although madein large bright-coloured furniture coverings, curtains, etc., theystill retain the name Robes when made from 64-square printingcloth.

Russian Cloth (Woollen).—An all-wool fabric, plain wovenfrom a wool weft and wool warp, the weave being a plain one-overand one-under weave. Owing to the finish of the cloth, the weaveis non-apparent. It varies in width from 54 to 74 inches and inlength from 19 to 36 yards. It does not differ materially fromBroad, Medium, and Habit Cloth. Average value for period 1904to 1914, 4s. 3d. per yard.

Russian Prints.—This class of fabric does not differmaterially from any other print. They originate in Odessa,whence they come by steamer to Chinese ports or to Vladivostock,from which points the majority are brought overland into Manchuria.Many of the designs on Russian Prints are similar tothose on American prints. Measuring 24/25 or 26 inches wide,88 by 68 or 88 by 64 ends and picks, and 30 yards per piece,they are generally packed 30, 40, and sometimes 60 pieces to abale. On the whole, Russian Prints are not a high-grade material.

Samples and their Classification.—Unless some definitesystem, which provides means for ready reference to any of theindividual samples forming part of the collection, is adopted fromthe very start, sample collections are of comparatively smallvalue. The successive pasting into a book of samples whichrepresent fabrics of different materials, different weaves, anddifferent finishes—and under the heading "finishes" would beincluded dyeing, printing, embossing, etc.—is of no great value,for it becomes impossible after a time to readily turn up anygiven sample. Even with an index to the collection so formedit is only possible to turn up a sample of material the name ofwhich is known. A person wishing to turn up in such a collectiona sample of a certain type of fabric the name of which he did notknow at the time could not do so, and the more specimens orsamples were added to the collection the more difficult it would[75]become to turn up a given sample, and the value of the collectionwould lessen instead of increase.

If fabrics are divided into 17 headings representing the maindivisions into which they may be classed, and each division orsection is subdivided into numbered sub-sections, the task becomessimpler, and there results therefrom a series of key-numberedcollections each containing samples of fabrics of a similar typebut of varying quality and value. Each collection (or sub-section)becomes known by a combination of two numbers, one of which isthe main division or section number and the other the numberof that particular sub-section. These numbers precede the nameof the division and the name of the subdivision.

The 17 main divisions or groups, together with their respectivesubdivisions, which will in practice be found to be ample are asfollow:—

Whether the loose-leaf system with folders to contain the samplesis used or whether they are entered into special books is a matterfor the individual, but the loose-leaf or card-index system withfolder is infinitely preferable, admitting of the removal of anygiven sample for reference or comparison. The index to such acollection of samples would be alphabetical (even though notabsolutely so), and if a sample of Italian (of the plain variety)were added to the collection, it would be added under section 4,Dyed Plain Cottons. If the sample of Italian thus added to thecollection was the fifth sample of Dyed Plain Cottons (with finish),it would appear in the index to the sample collection under 1 andwould be entered as follows:—

A sample of Bunting, on the other hand, would be filed undersection 14, sub-section 2; and if it were the thirty-first samplefiled under that sub-section, it would be indexed under theletter B as Bunting, 14: 2: 31.

This decimal system of numbering and classifying sampleslends itself to a refinement of subdivision unattainable in any other.

Generally speaking, samples, unless accompanied by certaindescriptive information, are of little value, and care should betaken to describe briefly any salient feature connected with thefabric. This information may concern either the trade-mark, theimporter, the value, or the date when the sample was entered intothe collection, and brief particulars of the shipment of which it is asample. This kind of information is of material value where thesample concerns a class, style, or quality of fabric not hithertomet with. With a comparatively small amount of trouble itwould be possible to get together very valuable collections ofsamples. And if the individual would but give a little time andthought to the question of textile samples, and but a tithe ofthe time devoted to any hobby he may have, he will be amplyrepaid by the added knowledge he will acquire. All samplesshould be of uniform size (7 inches by 4 inches will be founda very useful size) and should invariably be in duplicate—one[79]to use in obtaining all particulars necessary for classificationand the other for the actual sample collection. Weave structure,nature of yarns, etc., may be studied and tests for componentsmade and recorded.

Nothing will give a better idea of relative values of fabricsthan knowledge of components, style of weave, etc. This, ofcourse, does not apply to extrinsic values,i.e., values due tofashion, exclusive designs, or proprietary articles. There isnothing to go by in such cases better than market values; butin the plainer staples knowledge of construction, finish, etc.,means ability to classify fabrics and estimate their approximaterelative values.

Provisions for an index to sample collection have been madeat the end of this book, enabling the ready adoption of the systemnow advocated.

Sateens.—This material is a light-weight cotton fabricfinished to imitate Silk Satin. In weaving Cotton Sateens thesame style of weave is adopted as in weaving Silk Satin, the objectaimed at being an even, close, smooth surface and one capable ofreflecting light to the best advantage. In a "warp sateen" weavethe warp only appears on the surface, the filling or weft threadsbeing effectually and completely hidden by the warp threads. Inpassing over the filling the warps do not interweave at regular,but at irregular, intervals—thus they may pass over five, eight,ten, twelve, or sixteen, then under one and over eight more, andso on. Sateens average 30 inches wide and from 30 to 60 yardsin length per piece.

Sateens are woven on the same principle as Italians. Thecommon Sateen cloth is produced on a "five threads and picks"system. Sateens are woven either as "Warp Sateen" or "WeftSateen"; the peculiarities of these weaves are given under thoseheadings.

Satin.—A term applied to silk goods woven on the sameprinciple as Sateens, either Warp Sateens or Weft Sateens. Inweaving most silk fabrics the warp and weft, or filling, are madeto intersect each other every alternate time (as in plain weaving) orevery third or fourth time in regular order (as in ordinary or plaintwill weaving). In weaving Satin the same style of weave isadopted as in weaving Cotton Sateens, the object aimed at beingan even, close, smooth surface and one capable of reflecting lightto the best advantage. In a warp-weave Satin the warp only appearson the surface, the filling or weft threads being effectuallyand completely hidden. In passing over the filling the warps donot interweave at regular intervals; thus, they may pass over five,[80]eight, ten, twelve, or sixteen, then under one and over eight more,and so on. Common Satin is what is technically known as aneight-leaf twill, the order in which the filling thread rises beingonce in eight times. The filling in the better qualities of Satin isof silk, whilst in the lower grades of this fabric cotton is generallyused for the filling. Rich Satins may be woven on almost anynumber from five to twenty leaf twills. Satin at the time of leavingthe loom has a somewhat flossy and rough surface—this isremoved by passing the fabric over heated metal cylinders, whichdestroy the minute fibrous ends and increase the brilliance of thesilk. Black Satins are often woven with a selvedge which is of adifferent colour to the piece.

Satin Drill.—When a Drill is woven with a warp-facedsateen weave it is known as a Satin Drill, to distinguish it from aDrill woven with a twill weave, which is known as a FlorentineDrill.

Satin Weave.—In weaving a satin design the filling threadis made to pass under one and over eight, ten, twelve, or a greateror lesser number of warp threads, and the order in which this isdone is irregular. The filling by this process is thus placedpractically all on the face of the cloth, and this style of weave issometimes called a filling-face satin weave. By reversing theprocess and bringing practically all the warp to the surface or faceof the cloth a warp-face satin is produced. Cloth produced bythis system of weave has a close, smooth surface reflecting light toa high degree and giving it the appearance of Satin Cloth, a fabricwhich is best described as a cloth made of silk woven with a satinweave.

Satinet or Satinette.—An imitation of the true or SilkSatin woven from mercerised cotton or other yarns. It is similarto Sateen, but somewhat lighter in weight. The term is used todescribe the four-shaft satin weave, which does not fulfil theconditions of the real Satin as regards the order of intersection ofwarp and weft.

Schreiner Finish.—This, like all other special finishes, isthe result of a process through which a fabric is passed with theview of rendering its face more lustrous,i.e., capable of betterreflecting light and hence having a more silky appearance. ASchreiner finish is given to a woven cloth by means of a speciallyengraved steel roller. This roller is engraved with minute linesrunning parallel to each other. When this roller has beensuitably heated and set with the right amount of pressure the[81]cloth is run between it and a plain backing roller. The engravedroller which comes in contact with the cloth impresses on itminute lines, which can readily be distinguished by means of acounting-glass.

Scribbled.—When any two or more kinds of fibres have beenthoroughly mixed together prior to being spun into a thread theyare said to be "scribbled."

Seamless.—Applied to hosiery knitted in one piece on acircular machine, leaving an opening at the toe to be loopedtogether. The shaping of the leg, heel, and toe is done bysteaming and then drying on boards of proper form.

Seamless Bags.—All-cotton bags woven on looms whichautomatically measure the length of what is practically a tubularcloth required for each bag. What are virtually two cloths are"condensed" and woven together to form the bag bottom. Informing the body of the bag the loom weaves two fabrics, oneover the other, and in weaving the bottom these are combinedinto one.

Selvedge.—The edge of any piece of woven fabric. Theterm is synonymous with "list." The warp threads which gotowards the weaving of selvedges are in some cases made of astronger material than that used for the bulk of the fabric.Folded yarns are often used for this purpose, because during theprocess of weaving single selvedge yarns are liable to break outoftener than any other, generally on account of the pulling actionof the weft thread in the shuttle as it is "picked" across. Thisis more particularly the case with cottons. Selvedges are thatpart of the fabric by which it is held out in a stretched position inmany of the stages of finishing. In the textile trade generally itis often stated that "a good selvedge shows a good cloth."Velvets and Velveteens that are mounted on iron frames, to whichthey are attached by means of series of hooks penetrating theselvedges, have these selvedges reinforced by stronger warpthreads.

Selvedges, or lists, of a colour different but of a materialsimilar to that of the bulk of the fabric denote that the fabric hasbeen woven of dyed yarns and that it has not been piece-dyed.Obviously, if piece-dyed, the selvedge would be of the same colouras the bulk of the fabric. Distinctive styles of selvedges have givenrise to special names of fabrics, such as Spanish Stripes. Theactual quality of a fabric cannot be always told by the selvedge,[82]but other conditions being equal, it then becomes a good guideto quality. A silk selvedge thread or threads, or the initialsof the manufacturer in silk, appearing on the selvedge of anall-wool fabric generally denotes a superior quality of fabric. Thefollowing, from a work dealing with cotton fabrics, shows thegenerally accepted value of selvedges as an indication of quality:"Advertising has educated the retail dealers and consumers to thefact that cotton warp goods with a white selvedge, the groundbeing of colour, are more to be depended upon not to crockthan similar cloths of solid colour."

Serge (Cotton).—All all-cotton fabric woven with a decidedtwill and having a special finish imitating wool; usually printedwith hair-line stripes to imitate woven effects.

Shadow Cretonne.—A fabric of comparatively recentcreation having as a distinctive feature the design printed onthe warp threads. The filling is generally white, but issometimes yarn-dyed to a shade approximating the general toneof the large floral decorations which are generally used in thisclass of fabric. The warp threads take the colouring matterin such a way that when woven the design or pattern appearsequally on both sides of the fabric in somewhat blurred andsoftened tones. From the fact that the fabric is reversible,i.e.,shows a design on both sides, it has sometimes been called aReversible Cretonne, but the true Reversible Cretonne is theresult of printing on a woven fabric and not on the warp threadsonly prior to weaving. The blurred effect, resembling that ofa fabric which might have run in the washing, is at times intensifiedby the introduction here and there of yarn-dyed warp threadsof solid colour. They are not always an all-cotton fabric; flaxenters sometimes into their composition.

Shantung.—The real Shantung is a Chinese silk fabric ofthe Pongee class. This fabric has now been imitated in cottonyarns suitably finished. The yarns used in imitation Shantungare spun with thick soft places at irregular intervals in the yarn;this irregularity is more noticeable in the filling yarns.

Sheeting.—A light or medium weight plain-woven all-cottonfabric woven from coarse or medium yarns. The name applies toboth bleached and unbleached cloth. Under the heading "GreySheeting" will be found a description of the two distinct varietiesof fabric known as Sheeting. In the trade it would appear that,should a Sheeting be dyed or printed, it is never sold as aSheeting, but under some other name.

Shirtings.—A generic term applied to any material originallyand usually employed for the making of shirts and covering suchvarieties as Grey, Harvard, Oxford, Zephyr, Sateen, Grandelle,etc. The term Shirting, if used by itself, would in most instancesbe used with reference to the Grey Shirting so largely exportedfrom England and America. This Grey Shirting is a plain-wovencloth of low-quality and heavily sized yarns which has not beenbleached.

Short Stick.—This term implies a yard of precisely36 inches, in opposition to the term "long stick," which is bytrade custom a yard of 36½ inches in length.

Shot.—A weaving term having the same value as "pick."When a fabric is described as having so many "shots" to the inchit means that there are so many weft threads to the inch. Whenused to describe a colour effect in fabrics, it applies to fabricswhich are woven with different coloured warp and weft, andwhich, according to the way they are held when looked at, appearto change in colour.

Silence Cloth.—A heavy all-cotton backed fabric, used tocover the table under the linen cloth, to withstand heat or toprevent damage to the finish of the table. Made in widths from54 to 64 inches. The fabric is a double fabric, reversible, andmade from coarse yarns; it is also known as Table Felting.

Silesia.—A cotton fabric woven with a twill or sateen weave,usually printed in stripes and highly finished. The high finishfound in this class of fabric is often a "Beetle" finish imparted tothe fabric after weaving by subjecting it to a rapid successionof elastic blows from a series of hammers whilst the fabric iswound upon a cast-iron beam. Generally woven as a three-shafttwill from single 30's to 40's in warp and filling so as to producea 45-degree right-hand twill. Silesia is essentially a tailoringfabric used for linings. A variety of yarn-dyed striped Silesia isalso on the market.

Silk Beaver.—Silk Beaver is a pile fabric woven so as toimitate the prepared fur of the beaver. Like many other fabricsof this style the pile is all silk and the foundation cloth or backis all cotton. This fabric appears to be dyed invariably a richbrown, and this differentiates it from such similar fabrics as SilkSeal, which are dyed black. The quality of Silk Beaver depends[84]upon the depth and closeness of pile. If looked at from behind,the pile threads will distinctly show as small shiny spots wherethey are bound into the back. The closer these little silk dotsare to each other the heavier the pile and the better the quality.The value prior to 1914 ranged from 5s. to 12s. per yard but hassince increased. The pile may have a length of as much as halfan inch in the best grades. Generally framed in lengths of from30 to 33 yards. As this is bulky material when framed, thelanded cost in the East is greatly increased. Average width,48 to 50 inches.

Silk Gingham.—This class of fabric is similar to Gingham,Madras, Madras Gingham, Zephyr, etc., except that the fabriccontains more or less silk in the filling. It sometimes happensthat through inadvertence such material is found described simplyas a Gingham, hence the presence of silk should be looked for ingoods so described.

Silk Mull.—Like Mull, this fabric is a plain-woven, soft-finishedmaterial, but is made from cotton warp and silk fillingand is generally finished undyed. Silk Mull is finer in texturethan Cotton Mull. The silk filling used in this fabric is raw silk,viz., tram silk.

Silk Pongee.—A light-weight fabric made of the silk producedby wild silkworms that feed on oak leaves.

Pongee is a soft, unbleached, washable silk, shipped fromChina to Europe in large quantities, where it is bleached, dyed,and ornamented in various styles of designs. The name is alsoapplied to a variety of dress goods made in Europe woven with awild-silk warp and a fine worsted weft. This material is ofcomparatively recent make and is made mostly with narrowstripes, produced by the insertion of certain yarn-dyed threads.

Silk Seal (Cotton Back).—This is an imitation fur fabricmade in a range of quality, length, and closeness of pile. In thisfabric the pile only is of silk, the foundation cloth being allcotton.

Silk Seal might be mistaken for Silk Beaver if not judgedfrom the point of view of colour. Silk Seal is black, Silk Beaveris brown. There is a variety of this fabric known as a Fancy SilkSeal, similar in construction and components but having stampedin outline by means of rollers a design resembling the irregularscales on a crocodile's skin. Along the lines demarcating these[85]scales the pile has been crushed and fixed down by heat. Thisfabric is not a true Silk Seal. Quality in this, as in other pilefabrics, depends on the closeness and depth of the pile. There is apossibility of mistaking Silk Seal with cotton back for a Silk Plushwith cotton back, but generally the pile of Plush is shorter thanthat of Silk Seal. Average width, 48 to 50 inches.

Silk Yarns.—There are two distinct classes of silk yarns,i.e., (a.) pure, or net, silk and (b.) spun silk.

(a.)Net Silk Yarns.—These are constructed from fibres reeledstraight from the cocoon, and in the case of organzine (or warp)yarns three to eight fibres are lightly twisted together; subsequently,two or more of these compound threads ("singles" asthey are termed) are folded together to form the silk yarn employedas warp. Weft yarns, known as tram silk, are made fromtwo or more strands, each made from three to twelve cocoon fibres,which have not undergone any preliminary twisting, so that tramsilk is much straighter, softer, and more lustrous than organzine.

(b.)Waste and Spun Silk Yarns.—The fibre is obtained from"pierced" cocoons,i.e., cocoons through which the silk moth hasforced a way at the time of emerging from same, also from "wild"cocoons. The low qualities are short-fibred and are only suitablefor weft yarns, while the longer drafts produce higher qualityyarns well suited for warp.

Counts of spun silk are based upon two distinct systems ofnumbering. In the French system the number is based on thesingles, by metres per kilogramme; two and three cord yarns haveone-half, one-third, etc., the length the numbers indicate thus:—

The other and more general system is the English. The hankis 840 yards and the number of the hanks in 1 pound avoirdupois isthe count of the yarn. It is based on the finished yarn, and singlesand two and three cord yarns of the same number have all thesame number of yards per pound. Thus:—

Sliver.—A continuous strand of cotton or other fibre in aloose, untwisted condition, ready for the further process of slubbingor roving, preparatory to being spun.

Spanish Stripes, Cotton.—A plain-woven all-cotton fabric,sometimes woven from dyed yarns, but oftenest met with as apiece-dyed material woven with a simple one-over and one-underweave. The selvedge is often woven with black warp threads to thewidth of about 1 inch. The filling weft threads are soft and full, thewarp threads are much finer and hard-twisted. The surface is raisedand the general appearance of the fabric is similar to Flannelette.Often met with in bright vermilion. Average width, 56 inches;length, 25 yards per piece; and value (nominal), 7d. per yard.

Spanish Stripes, Woollen.—Essentially an all-wool fabric,free from any ornamentation of weave, printing, or embossing, thisclass of fabric is woven with a plain one-over and one-under weave.Soft of handle, Spanish Stripes are generally dyed bright red andhave as a distinguishing feature a selvedge of coarser warp threadsfrom 1½ to 2 inches in width, some of which are dyed, prior toweaving, a different colour (generally black) to the rest of thewarp threads or weft filling threads. These coloured warp threadsgo towards making generally three separate coloured stripes in theselvedge and have given rise to the name of this particular fabric.In width measuring up to 62 inches and with a length of 29 to 30yards per piece, Woollen Spanish Stripes are met with in alimited range of quality and the average price of same taken overthe period 1904 to 1914 was 1s. 8½d. per yard.

Spanish Stripes, Wool and Cotton.—This class of fabric,being a mixture and not a union fabric, answers to the descriptionof a Woollen Spanish Stripe but differs from it in that it is wovenfrom yarns which are composed of a mixture of wool and cotton.The "handle" is very nearly that of an all-wool fabric, the averagewidth some 62 inches, and the length per piece 29 to 30 yards.The distinctive selvedge of this class of fabric is maintained in thewool and cotton variety.

Split Foot.—Refers to black or coloured hosiery having awhite or unbleached sole.

Sponge Cloth.—A fine cotton or wool fabric having a surfaceresembling that of a small sponge.

Spun Silk.—Applied to a low grade of silk used in thecheaper lines of silk hosiery. It is made from floss, injuredcocoons, husks, and waste from reeling, and bears the same relationto silk as cotton waste to cotton or shoddy to wool.

Staples.—Staples is a term used to designate those fabricswhich are woven in the same way year after year, varying onlyin the colouring given to them, which may change in accordancewith the demands of fashion and of the buyer.

The principal dress goods staples are Brilliantines, Sicilians,Mohairs, Imperial Serges, Storm Serges, Cheviots, Panamas, Batistes,Taffetas, Voile, Muslins, Nun's Veiling, Cashmere, andShepherd's Checks.

Swansdown.—Like Cotton Flannel and Flannelette, Swansdownis a fabric made of cotton with a "raised" or "napped"surface. Being raised but on the back of the cloth, it is "singleraised": heavy and closely woven Swansdown is a typical raisedcotton cloth. The weave is on the satin-weave principle.

Swiss Embroidery.—This process of ornamentation closelyresembles lappet spots, but, unlike lappet spots, they are inreality the result of a subsequent process of weaving. Theessential difference in the manner of attaching the thread which isused for the figuring to the cloth can readily be seen. In SwissEmbroidery there is an equal amount of floating thread used toform the spot on the face of the cloth and on the back, thusproducing what may be termed a solid spot on both sides andtherefore reversible.

Swivel Figures.—High-class fabrics are often ornamentedwith swivel spots and figures, which are easily distinguished fromthe lappet or extra warp figures. In this style the figure isinterwoven with extra weft by small shuttles into the groundcloth structure. Each figure is produced by an independent weftthread quite distinct from the weft pick forming the groundstructure or body of the fabric. The figure threads are wellbound into the cloth, the bulk of the material being on thesurface. Where no figure is required in the space between, theshuttles remain idle in the loom, and the single thread from eachshuttle joining the swivel figures is often cut away. Often usedwhere a silk figure or a mercerised cotton figure is required on acotton or worsted ground.

Tapestry.—A yarn-dyed figured fabric composed of two setsof warp and weft threads, woven on a Jacquard loom.

T-Cloth.—An all-cotton plain-woven fabric, usually wovenfrom low-quality yarns, generally sold in the grey or unbleached[88]state. Most of theT-Cloth imported into China is a heavilysized cheap grey cloth, usually 30 to 32 inches wide, 24 yardsper piece, with a woven coloured heading somewhat similar to theheading in Grey Shirtings. SomeT-Cloth is imported measuring36 inches wide by 24 or 40 yards per piece. These GreyT-Clothsare generally packed 50 to 75 pieces per bale. BleachedT-Cloths,31 and 36 inches wide, are also imported in small quantities.These are generally packed in cases of 50 pieces. The fabricderives its name from the markT under which it was first exported.T-Cloth is also known as "Mexican."

Teasels, or Teazels.—Thistleheads with curved bracts, usedin cloth raising.

Terry Cloth.—A weave in looped effect. A Velvet inwhich the loops have not been cut. Frequently applied to cottonfabrics of the order of Agaric and Sponge Cloth.See TurkishTowelling.

Tests by Burning.—Yarns or fibres of different origin burnin different manner. Cotton, linen, ramie, rhea, china grass, etc.,ignite and burn readily with a bright smokeless and odourlessflame, leaving but a small amount of ash, this being the characteristicof vegetable fibres. Animal fibres, on the other hand, areslower to ignite, the appearance of the flame is lifeless, and thefibres burn more slowly than vegetable fibres. Wool, when burnt,emits a disagreeable odour, and the residue or ash takes the formof a bead or knob. Silk burns in the same way as wool when it isfree of "weighting." When artificially weighted, silk may haveits weight increased to almost any desired extent—from 80 to 200per cent. increase in weight can be obtained without creatingsuspicion. When such weighted silk is burnt, instead of formingitself into small black beads or knobs, it burns leaving a distinctash, which retains somewhat the shape of the original material.Artificial or cellulose silk burns readily and in burning does notgive off any odour.

Test for Artificial Silk.—The burning test should in mostcases be sufficient to distinguish artificial from true silk, but if achemical test is necessary, by immersing the suspect sample ina caustic potash solution it will be seen that artificial silk turnsyellow, whereas true silk does not change colour. Artificial silk,which is a nitro-cellulose, burns very rapidly, leaving practicallyno ash whatever. A simple way of recognising artificial silk isby testing the threads under moisture. Unravel a few threads of[89]the suspected fabric and place them in the mouth and masticatethem thoroughly. Artificial silk readily softens under thisoperation and breaks up into minute particles, and when pulledbetween the fingers shows no thread, but merely a mass ofcellulose or pulp. Natural silk, no matter how thoroughlymasticated, will retain its fibrous strength.

Tests for Linen.—Linen, like cotton, burns when a light isapplied, leaving a white ash. Linen yarns are more irregular intheir thickness longitudinally than cotton thread taken fromsimilar woven fabrics. This difference makes the detection oflinen in a woven cloth comparatively easy. The fibres arestraighter, longer, and stronger when separated in the thread thancotton. The threads often snap sharp and clear when breakingthem in the fingers. The oil test for linen is based upon theproperty which linen has of more readily absorbing oil than cottondoes. When a linen and cotton mixture fabric which has beenfreed from dressing by washing and boiling is dipped in oil andthen held up to the light it will be seen that the linen fibres looktransparent, whereas the cotton remains more nearly opaque. Thisis due to the linen having absorbed the oil more readily than thecotton. All the cotton contained in a linen and cotton fabric canbe readily dissolved by dipping the fabric in a concentratedsulphuric acid bath for one or two minutes. The sample is firstfreed of dressing. After washing and drying a sample so testedthe linen fibre only will remain.

Test for Mercerised Cotton.—Prepare a solution madeby dissolving 1¼ ounces of iodide of potassium in 5 ounces ofwater, then add to this solution ½ ounce of iodine, and mix withanother solution made by dissolving 7½ ounces of zinc chloridein 3 ounces of water. The test is applied as follows: take thesuspect sample and free it from any dressing or sizing by soakingit in water; then, after freeing the sample from any superfluouswater, place it in some of the prepared solution for three minutes,and then rinse the sample in water. Should the cotton testedhave been mercerised it will appear of a deep blue colour. Onwashing with water the blue colour fades very slowly and needslong washing, whereas ordinary cotton rapidly becomes whiteon washing. Even dyed piece goods will show the deep bluereaction, which is the result of the testing solution acting uponthe caustic soda used in the process of mercerisation. Whenmaking this test it is best to treat a "known" unmercerisedcotton at the same time as the suspect sample so as to have abasis for comparison.

Tests for Silk.—If a silk and wool mixture or union fabricis boiled in strong hydrochloric acid for 15 minutes, it will befound that the wool merely swells, whilst the silk acted upon bythe acid completely dissolves. By careful weighing before andafter the test it becomes a matter of simple calculation to arriveat the percentage of silk present in the fabric.

Test for Wool.—If a fabric suspected of containing wooland cotton or other vegetable fibre is boiled for 15 minutes in asolution made by dissolving either 1 ounce of caustic soda or causticpotash in a pint of water it will be found that all the wool will bedestroyed and only the vegetable fibres remain. This test, whichis based upon the well-known fact that caustic soda dissolves wool,may be used to ascertain the percentage of wool in a cloth if thesample tested is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed before thetest is applied. After testing and drying, the loss in weightrepresents the amount of wool which was present and destroyedduring the test. This test may be reversed and the cottondestroyed by treating the sample with an 80 per cent. sulphuricacid solution. This, however, is a longer test, necessitating thesample being kept in the sulphuric acid solution for about 10 or12 hours. Prior to drying and weighing the sample should be wellwashed in alcohol.

Textile Fibres.—The principal fibres which enter into theconstruction of textiles can be divided into the following sixclasses:—

Thickset.—One of the many varieties of Fustian, whichcomprise Corduroys, Velveteens, Moleskins, Thickset, etc.

Thread.—In general, a twisted strand of cotton, flax, wool,silk, etc., spun out to considerable length is called thread. In aspecific sense, thread is a compound cord consisting of two or more[91]yarns firmly united together by twisting. Thread made of silk istechnically known as sewing thread; that made of flax is knownas linen thread; while cotton thread intended for sewing iscommonly called spool cotton. These distinctions are generallyobserved by the trade.

Three-quarter Hose.—A variety of ribbed-top stockingsmade for children and reaching nearly to the knees.

Ticks, or Ticking.—Ticking is a single cloth of eithermedium or heavy weight woven from cotton yarns of from 14'sto 22's in warp and filling or from yarns which would give thesame weight material, such as 18's warp and 20's filling. Usuallywoven with two-over-one or three-over-one twill weave. Tickingbelongs to the class of stiff, hard-faced cotton fabrics. Thisfeature is due to the warp-faced twill weave. These goods aremade usually in two coloured warp patterns, dark blue and whiteand red and white. One feature which is worthy of mention inregard to Ticking and other similar lines is that they are to-daybeing stock-dyed in increasing quantities. This method consistsof dyeing the cotton or bleaching it, as the case may be, inthe raw state and then carding, drawing, and spinning just as if agrey fabric were to be made. Stock-dyeing results in the dyeaffecting the fibres which form the very centre of a yarn, and forthis reason is a better process than dyeing the finished yarn.Brushed, sheared, sized, and calendered Ticking is either packedlapped or rolled into bolts.

Tire Cloth.—A fabric made from strong slackly foldedyarns of good-quality cotton used in the lining of tires. Thewarp threads are very closely set, so as best to withstand strain.The weft threads are very openly set, so as to prevent unduepressure on the warp threads, which should lie straight and soavoid friction or cutting which might arise from the action of theinflated inner tube and the tire whilst in use. The yarn used inthis type of cloth is usually made from 30's to 34's count, doubled11 or 12 fold, necessitating great care in the subsequent twistingto ensure evenness of strength and elasticity, which in this classof cloth is essential. Tire fabrics, as used in the manufacture ofautomobile and bicycle tires, are made from long-staple Sea Islandcotton, the yarn being combed and of a comparatively coarsenumber, usually 8's to 40's, and from single yarn to 12-ply. Awide range of weights is found in these fabrics, varying from 3 to20 ounces per square yard. This fabric forms the base of thefinished rubber tire.

Tram.—A thrown silk thread taking its name from theFrenchtrame, meaning weft, softer and more flossy and havingless twist than organzine. It is generally used for weft, which,as it bears little strain in weaving, need not be as strong as thewarp, but should be soft and bulky, so that when beaten insuccessive threads will lie close together and fill up the intersticesof the web.

Tram and organzine are, with the exception of spun wastesilk, the only kinds of silk thread used for weaving—varying,however, in quality of silk, amount of twist, and in size.

Trunk Length.—Applied to women's hosiery midwaybetween ordinary and opera length, usually widened graduallyabove the knee.

Tubular Cloth.—The most commonly met with examplesof Tubular Cloths are the ordinary pillow slip, tubular lampwick,tapes, etc., which are in common use.

Turkish Towelling.—Essentially Terry Cloth woven asan all-cotton fabric having as a salient feature an uncutloop-pile surface. Sold by the linear yard for the making ofbath robes, etc. Woven unbleached or with some colouredyarns for bordering effect and subsequently bleached, thecoloured yarns used resisting bleaching. Otherwise woven insizes suitable for cutting into lengths, which are then sold asTurkish Towels.

Tussore, or Tussah.—The wild silk from which Shantungand Pongee are made. Applied to these fabrics when heavily andcoarsely woven.

Tweed.—Rough, unfinished fabric of soft, open, and flexibletexture, woven on a plain weave from wool or cotton and wool,usually of yarn of two or more shades. Originally the product ofthe weavers on the banks of the River Tweed. The face of thecloth presents an unfinished appearance rather than a sharp andclearly defined pattern.

Twill Weave.—A twill weave is a weave that producesdiagonal lines across the cloth. In this class of weave the fillingthreads pass over one and under two, or over one and underthree, four, five, or six, or over two or three and under one,two, three, or four, or over four and under four, three, six, etc.Where there are the same number of warp and filling threadsto the inch, twill lines will form an angle of 45 degrees; if thewarp threads are closer together than the filling threads, thetwilled lines produced will approach more the horizontal. Twillweaving permits the introduction of more material into the cloththan a plain weave and produces, therefore, a closer and heavierfabric. A twill effect in a material is also called a diagonal,from the direction it has in relation to the length of the cloth.This diagonal effect is continually produced by the warp and weftintersections traversing one thread and one pick further fromtheir respective positions each time a pick of weft is inserted.Twill weaves may be divided into four common classes: (1) regular,(2) broken, (3) fancy, (4) figured.

Regular Twills.—A regular twill is referred to as a twill of somany "ends" or "shafts"; by this is meant a twill which containsa number of warp and weft threads which, added together, equalthe number of "ends." Thus a five-end twill can either have(a) four warps and one weft, (b) three warps and two wefts, or(c) two warps and three wefts—this form of twill will be seen tobe a reverse weave to (b).

Broken Twills.—A twill effect produces a twill line which,when the number of warp and weft threads are equal, is at anangle of 45 degrees. In a broken twill effect this line, which maybe compared to the left-hand stroke of a letterV, is combinedwith another twill line running in an opposite direction and whichis simply a turning or "reversing" of the threads in the regulartwill weave. Broken twill effect enters largely into the weavedesign of Harvard Shirting.

Fancy Twills.—As the term indicates, fancy twills is a styleof weave which, whilst always retaining the main features andessentials of a "regular" twill, has been made fancy by alternatingthe arrangements of the thread and thus producing "elongatedtwills," "corkscrew twills," or "combination twills." The descriptionof fancy twills could only be attempted by the use of illustrationsand pages of explanations.

Figured Twills.—Figured twills are regular twills with asmall figure introduced between the diagonal lines. The designsintroduced are generally small figures produced by plain weave or asmall diamond-shaped spot made by either the warp or the weftthreads being brought to the surface and made to form the design.The designs are never very elaborate.

Twin Needle.—A double row of interlocked machine stitchingused for covering raw edges and seams of knit underwear.

Unclassed Native Cotton Cloth (China).—All NativeCotton Cloths, whether woven on a hand or power loom, whichare not—

are grouped under the heading "Unclassed Native Cotton Cloth."This group comprises:—

The term "Native Cotton Cloth" (China) is applied to hand-loomfabrics other than Nankeen, unclassed native cotton clothsor fabrics that are specifically enumerated in the General Tariffof 1858 for the Trade of China. The name is given to a groupof cloths which answer to the following description:—

Union Broadcloth.—This fabric, also known under thename of Poncho Cloth, is a plain-woven cotton warp and woollenweft fabric, woven in the unusual width of 74 inches and averagingin length of piece from 36 to 38 yards. The selvedge of this class offabric is distinctive, showing a long unshorn hairy surface. Theface of the cloth does not show the weave or yarn intersection points,as it has a typical Broadcloth finish, but these are distinctly to beseen on the back of the fabric. A Union Broadcloth of the abovedescription, typical of that generally exported to China, averagedin value during the years 1904 to 1914 about 1s. 6d. per yard.

Union Cloth.—As the name implies, Union Cloths arewoven with warp and weft of different fibres. They are alsocalled "mixed cloths," and the union of the two different kindsof fibres may be arrived at by intermingling the wool and cottonfibres to form the warp or weft of a fabric or, as in most cases,each kind of fibre may be confined to separate threads, formingpart or the whole of the warp or weft. Union Cloths are generally"cross-dyed," although they may also be "dyed in the grey." Inthe case of "cross-dyeing," the cotton warp is dyed the desiredcolour and interlaced with a wool weft, which is in a grey orundyed condition, and subsequently the weft only is dyed, thisbeing possible as the affinity of cotton and wool are different.When light colours are desired in the fabric the cotton warp andwool weft are woven in a grey or undyed condition, and then bothare dyed in the fabric: this method is styled "dyeing in thegrey." In some cases the wool and cotton are treated separately,in others union dyes are employed.

The principal Union Cloths met with are: Brilliantines,Glacés, and Sicilians, plain-weave materials with cotton warp andmohair weft; Alpacas, plain or twill weave, cotton warp andalpaca weft; Lustres, plain or twill weave, cotton warp andlustre or demi-lustre weft; Italians, five-shaft weft, sateen weave,cotton warp, fine Botany weft; Cashmeres, 2/1 weft twill weave,cotton warp, fine Botany weft; Beatrice Twill, five-end (four weftand one warp) twill, cotton warp, demi-lustre weft. All authoritiesdo not agree as to what constitutes a Union, the following definitionhaving been met with: "Fabrics are union when composedof two materials otherwise than by blending." In the Morley(Yorkshire) trade a "Union" is a cotton warp cloth of boiledand teazled finish superficially resembling Broadcloth.

Union Yarns.—These yarns, as the name indicates, are theproduct of combining two or more different materials into a yarn,generally wool and cotton or wool, and any of the many vegetablefibres capable of being spun.

Union Yarns may be produced by the mixing together ofthe two or more different fibres when they are still in the stateof loose fibres; in such a case the cotton fibres act as binders uponthe rest of the fibres. When the various fibres are thoroughlymixed together, the mixture obtained is spun: this produces thevariety known as Carded Union Yarns. Another form of UnionYarn is obtained by twisting together two threads of differentmaterial. Some Union Yarns have the appearance of pure woolthreads, and only careful scrutiny will reveal the presence of cottonfibre; this type of yarn is known by the name of Angola yarn.

Union Yarns, being composed of materials that are notaffected by dyes in the same way, can be recognised when foundin a so-called wool fabric from the fact that the wool in the yarnwill have taken up the dye, whereas the cotton will not havedone so to the same extent, but will have retained more or less itsoriginal colour.

Velour.—This name is given to a soft, thick, nappy flannelused in the making of dressing-gowns, etc., made from either woolor cotton or a combination of both. As a cotton fabric, it is ofthe coarse, stiff, pile variety. The name is French for Velvet,hence its use in connexion with a pile-surface fabric. As awoollen and worsted term, there is a considerable diversity ofopinion as to the precise cloth designated by the term Velour.Some manufacturers would class as Velours any cloth having asoft velvety nap, others make finer distinctions, classing one asa "face-finished Cashmere," a second as a "Saxony," with Velourslightly different from either of these.

Velvet.—This name is given to a pure all-silk pile fabricwith a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that thesurface consists of silk threads or fibres standing closely togetherlike the bristles in a brush. These threads appear as threadssheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface."All-silk" in this definition of Velvet applies to the pile only,for Velvets are so generally woven with a cotton back that aSilk Velvet should be considered as having a cotton back unlessspecially designated as "silk backed."

Velvet Finish.—A finish produced upon woollen fabrics bywet-raising in various directions and subsequently cropping thepile thus raised level, which leaves the velvet-finished material witha fairly dense pile of a velvety appearance.

Velvet of Silk mixed with other Fibres.—This classof fabric includes all pile fabrics which, in the first instance,answer to the description of Velvet,i.e., have their pile shorterthan that of Plush, and the pile of which, whilst being partly ofsilk, contains other animal fibres, such as wool or mohair, or evenvegetable fibres, such as cotton. Where it is clearly stipulatedthat they are "Velvets of silk mixed with other fibres and havingcotton backs," the foundation cloth must not contain warp orweft threads wholly or in part composed of any material otherthan cotton.

Velveteen.—This name is given to the class of fabrics thatin reality are but Cotton Velvets. Like true Velvets, they arewoven with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is thatthe surface consists of threads or fibres standing closely togetherlike the bristles in a brush. These threads appear as threadssheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface.Velveteens are generally woven on the weft-pile basis, that is tosay, that the "pile floats" or "flushings" are produced withthe weft threads—which are afterwards cut—additional to and ona firmly constructed woven ground texture. Weft pile can berecognised by removing from the fabric a weft thread, when,upon withdrawing this thread, it will be seen that the bits of"cut pile" are not looped round it or attached to it but remainentangled among the warp threads. Common Velveteen, whichis "all cotton," will be identified as a weft pile in this manner.Velveteens are also known as Velverets or Fustians. Standardwidths for Velveteens are 19 inches, 22½ inches, 24½ inches, and27½ or 28 inches.

Venetians.—A wool fabric, closely woven in a fine twill.As applied to a cotton fabric, it is used to designate a heavy,warp-face, Dress Satin (or Sateen) of strong texture and closelywoven, dyed in the piece, silky and lustrous in appearance. Lightweights would be sold as Sateen or Dress Sateen. Woven withabout 200 to 250 threads to the square inch, the style of weave initself tends to produce lustre; this is intensified by calenderingand sometimes by mercerising the fabric. The weave is of an uprightwarp twill character, and the name was first applied to adress face woollen cloth; later, worsted dress Venetians weremade, and later still the name was applied to an all-cotton fabricof similar weave.

Vesting (Vestings).—A generic term embracing a widerange of fabrics more or less ornamented, used in most countriesfor men's vests, but used in China for either men's or women's outeror inner garments. Fabrics of several combination of weaves[98]showing fancy stripes or small checkings, and often coloured tothe extent of some coloured warp threads appearing here andthere on the surface and left floating (where not used) on theback of the fabric are common in this class of goods. Thisheading covers Welts, Piqué, Fancy Piqué, etc.

Vigogne.—The French form of the word "vicuña"; appliedto a soft woollen dress material.

Vigoreux.—A worsted material, printed in the yarn so asto produce a mélange, or mixture, effect in colouring. This differsfrom Beige in that the yarns are printed before being spun, givingthe finished goods the appearance of having been woven frommixed yarns.

Viyella.—A light cloth, largely made from cotton and woolscribbled together. It is similar to Ceylon Flannel and differsfrom it only in name. This fabric is one of many known under"trade-marks 'patented' or 'registered' names," which are sometimessufficiently popular to embrace many different weaves underone head.

Voile.—This name is used to designate a more or lesstransparent light fabric made generally of cotton. Woven with asquare mesh produced by plain one-over and one-under weaving,Voile averages 55 meshes per inch, with an average width of 42inches, and generally in pieces of 60 yards.

Voile when dyed is piece-dyed and not woven from yarnwhich was dyed previously to being woven. The yarn used in theweaving of Voiles is a hard-twisted yarn.

Woollen Voiles are also woven, the characteristics beingsimilar to Cotton Voile, but in weaving Voiles with worsted yarns,if the yarn is not very free from loose fibres, the fabric is finishedby having its face singed or sheared very close, so as to ensure aclear-faced material.

Wadding Pick.—A thick weft thread of low quality insertedoften without interlacing between the two fabrics ina double cloth and between the two warps in a warp-backedstructure. This gives weight and solidity to the fabric. Thewadding pick remains out of sight, and the appearance of thefabric is not affected thereby.

Wale.—This term has the same meaning as "warp welt," or"welt," and is used to describe a fabric having thick raised cordsat close intervals.

Warp.—Warp is the name given to that set of threads thatruns lengthways of a piece of cloth. When the word "end" isused in connexion with weaving, it always signifies the warpthread, while each filling or weft thread is called a "pick."

Warp Pile.—Warp pile can be recognised by simply withdrawingfrom the fabric being examined a few "picks," or weftthreads. If the material is a warp-pile weave, then it will be seenthat the loose bits of "cut pile" remain entangled or looped andadhering to some of the drawn weft threads. This can be easilyseen if a common Velvet ribbon is experimented with, when, upondrawing out the weft threads separately from selvedge to selvedge,it will invariably be seen that each alternate weft thread will havethe loose bits of "cut warp pile" attached. Where the materialis extra closely woven it is possible for every weft thread that iswithdrawn to have the loose bits attached in the manner described.

Warp-pile fabrics include two varieties, the "uncut pile,"such as Turkish or Terry Towels and Towelling, Brussels Carpets,Patent Tapestry Carpets, etc., and "cut pile," like warp-pilePlushes, Velvets, ribbons, etc.

Warp Print.—A fabric wherein the design, being printedon the warps prior to weaving, appears somewhat faintly andin an indefinite outline.See Chiné.

Warp Ribs.—The term "warp ribs" is used to designate awarp-surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of theweft threads (or picks) or to the grouping together of a numberof weft picks, the warp threads are made to bend round themand, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce aribbed appearance running from selvedge to selvedge in whichthe warp threads are on the face of the fabric. Poplin is atypical warp-ribbed fabric.

Warp Sateen.—A common form of Cotton Sateen clothis that woven with a "warp sateen" weave on the five threadsand picks system, which results in four-fifths of the warp threadsappearing on the face of the fabric and therefore four-fifths of theweft threads appear on the back of the fabric. The object ofweaving on this principle is to obtain a smooth cloth surface bydistributing the interlacing points and so destroying the common"twilled" effect. A Warp Sateen will be much closer in thewarp threads than in the weft threads, and therefore stronger inthat direction.

Warp Welt.—A fabric having thick raised cords at closeintervals, as in the case of Bedford Cords and Piqués. In cotton[100]goods, when the cords run lengthways of the piece, the fabric isknown as a "warp welt." Sometimes called "wale."

Warp-faced Cloth.—A fabric which shows on its face agreater number of warp threads than "picks," or weft threads.

Waste and Condenser Wefts.—These are made fromcertain waste cotton which accumulates in certain parts of themachinery during the process of spinning yarn. This waste istreated by special machinery, which spins it into a full, level,and soft yarn, which is used for weft in weaving Sheetings.

Waste and Flocks.—Cotton mill waste is the by-productderived from the cotton in its various processes through the mill.Each pound of cotton before it becomes cloth loses on an average15 per cent. visible and invisible waste. The visible waste is oftwo kinds, hard and soft; hard waste, which has been made onspinning and subsequent machines, and which bears a slighttwist; soft waste, which includes that part of the fibre rejectedby all machines up to the spinning frame. The invisible wasteis equal to the amount of evaporation of moisture in the cottonduring the process of manufacture. Flocks are short fibresremoved from cloth during the process of napping.

Waste Cloths.—Cotton fabrics woven from waste yarns,generally plain woven and of low grade. The weft thread iscoarse and is spun from waste or short-fibre cotton.

Watering.—As a textile term, it is used to designate theprocess whereby certain distinctive effects are produced on theface of plain-woven fabrics—especially silks. The process ofgiving a wavy or wave-like appearance in fabrics by eitherpassing them through suitably engraved metal rollers which,bearing unequally upon the fabric, render the surface unequal,making it reflect light differently. The same result is obtainedby pressing two plain-woven fabrics together, when the coarserweft threads of the fabric produce the wave-like indentationson the face of the fabric it is pressed against. A fabric is saidto be "watered" when ornamented by either of the aboveprocesses. The principle of this operation is that two fabrics ofprecisely similar build, when pressed together, naturally "water"each other, owing to the coincidence or non-coincidence of thethreads or picks causing flatness or ribbedness of a sufficientlymarked character under conditions of heat and pressure. "Totabby" is another expression for "to water," and the adjective"tabby," usually referring to a brindled cat, signifies streakedwith wavy lines.

Weaving.—Every woven piece of cloth is made up of twodistinct systems of threads, known as the warp and the filling(this latter is also known as weft), which are interlaced with eachother to form a fabric. The warp threads run lengthways of thepiece of cloth, and the filling, or weft, threads run across from sideto side. The manner in which the warp and filling interlace witheach other constitutes the weave. The term "end" in weavingis used to designate the warp thread, while each weft or fillingthread is called a "pick." The fineness of a cloth is expressed bysaying that it has so many "ends" and "picks" to the inch. Thecharacter of the weave offers the best basis for classification ofwoven goods, and nearly all varieties of cloth may be classifiedunder the following weaves:—

Web.—Web is the name given to a piece of cloth at themoment it is taken from the loom and previous to its havingbeen treated to produce the special feature of the class of cloth theweb belongs to.

Weft.—When the word "weft" is used in connexion withweaving or woven fabrics, it always signifies the filling threads,each of which is also called a "pick." Weft threads run acrossthe width of the fabric.

Weft Pile.—Weft pile can be recognised by withdrawingfrom the fabric under examination a few "picks," or weft threads.If the material is a weft-pile weave, then it will be seen that theloose bits of "cut pile" are not entangled or looped round oradhering to the weft thread that has been drawn out, but thatthey remain entangled among the warp threads.

If, however, a few warp threads are withdrawn separately, itwill be found that every alternate warp thread, as a rule, will havethe loose bits of "cut weft pile" attached or looped round.

Weft Ribs.—The only difference between these and warpribs is that the weft bends and the warp lies straight. Theterm "weft rib" is used to designate a weft surface weave inwhich, owing to the thickness of the warp threads or to thegrouping together of a number of warp threads, the weft threadsare made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to thesurface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance with the ribsrunning lengthways, in which the weft threads are on the face ofthe fabric.

Weft Sateen.—A Weft Sateen is woven on the five threadsand picks system, which results in four-fifths of the weft threadsappearing on the surface of the fabric, and therefore four-fifths ofthe warp threads appear on the back of the fabric. The objectof weaving on this principle is similar to that aimed at whenweaving a Warp Sateen, that is to say, it is done to obtain asmooth cloth surface by distributing the interlacing points andso destroying the common "twilled" effect. A Weft Sateen willbe closer in the weft threads (or picks) than in the warp threads,and therefore stronger in that direction.

Weft-faced Cloth.—A fabric which shows on its face agreater number of "picks," or weft threads, than warp threads.

Weight and Thickness of Woollen Cloths.—The acceptedstandard of weight and thickness of woollen cloth is—

Naturally, also, the relation of weight to thickness varies with thecomposition of the cloth and the style of make, some "woolly"makes of 20 ounces being very thick.

Weighting.—The process of adding to the natural weightof a fabric by making it take up certain chemical or other substances.

Cotton fabrics are generally weighted by subjecting them toa process which causes them to absorb either zinc chloride,magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride, glue, gelatine, starch,or alkali silicate. Woollens and worsteds are generally weightedwith zinc chloride. Silk is generally weighted with muriate oftin, and few of the silks on the market are free from weighting.Modern methods make it possible to increase the weight of pureboiled silk to five or six times its original weight. Hooper, in hisbook on "Silk," states: "It was early found that silk wouldabsorb about one-third its own weight of water without feelingwet to the touch. The dyer found that it would absorb otherthings besides water, muriate of tin amongst them. As a matter[103]of fact, it may be, and indeed it is, made by the dyer to take up,with the dye, so much of that metal that 12 ounces of boiled silkcan be increased in weight to 80 ounces, and yet look like verybright silk."

Whipcord.—This name is given to hard-twisted worstedtwills in either solid or mixed colours. The twill or diagonal inthis class of fabric is well marked and slightly raised, somewhatresembling the hard-twisted fibre lash of a whip.

White.—As a textile term, this word is applied to fabricswhich are not in their loom state,i.e., in the grey, but which havebeen bleached and rendered white.

White Brocades.—Under this name would be classedbleached fabrics of different weaves or combinations of weavein which the design appearing on the surface of the fabric isof a fancy, figured, or floral effect, usually of elaborate design.Soft spun wefts are generally used in the weaving of Brocadesand other figured cloths, as they fill and throw up better thefigure produced than a hard-twist yarn would do. White Brocadesare all-cotton goods unless otherwise stated. Lappet and swivelfigured fabrics would not come under the heading "Brocades";such style of figuring is not brocaded.

White Cambric.—Cambric is a plain-weave fine linen fabricof light weight and soft finish. Cotton Cambric, in which theyarn used is of fine cotton, is mostly met with. It is wovenwithout a selvedge and generally leaves the loom in pieces of120 yards, which are cut to shorter lengths. In plain white,a Cambric is finer than a Lawn. Cambric of French origin isgenerally finer in texture than the Manchester Cambric. Cambricvaries in width from 32 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 40yards per piece. The finer qualities are made from hard-twistedcotton. The warp yarn is often of a different thickness to thatused for the filling, and it is generally finished with a smoothglazed surface. The term Cambric is also commonly applied toMuslins. White Cambric is a bleached material.

White Drills, or Drilling.—White Drills are, when nototherwise specified, all-cotton medium and heavy weight singlecloths woven as a three-shaft twill (two warp and one weft), whichhave been bleached but not dyed or printed. The better qualitiesof warp-faced sateen-weave Drills are known as Satin Drill, andthese are extensively exported to the Far East; their distinctivefeatures lie in the closeness of weave, smoothness of surface, andfinish.

White Goods.—A generic term covering a great variety ofbleached fabrics, plain or fancy, covering various weaves or combinationof weaves.

White Irishes.—The term Irishes originally was applied tolinen fabrics which were mainly produced in and around Belfast.It is now used to describe certain cotton fabrics of plain weavesimilar to white cotton Calico. Generally in pieces 36 incheswide and 42 yards long, finished with a heavy starch finish.

White Italian.—The name White Italian is not generallyapplied to a white cotton fabric woven and finished as an Italian.Such a fabric is a White Mercerised Sateen; however, occasionallyan invoice covering Coloured Italians will be found to includeso-called White Italians. In such cases the colour assortment list(which generally accompanies, if it does not form part of, theinvoice) will show the number of white pieces included in theshipment. The ordinary Italian is essentially a coloured or piece-dyedmaterial, and, as white is not, in the piece goods trade,considered to be a colour, a White Italian cannot be considered ascoming under the classification of Dyed Plain Cottons.

White Jean.—A White Jean is an all-cotton fabric wovenas a three-end twill, similar in weave to a Grey Jean, but whichhas been subjected to a process of bleaching to turn it into whatis known as a "market white" fabric. The process of bleachingproper is always preceded by a series of operations that have fortheir object the improving of the surface of the cloth by removingloose fibres, motes, and ends of yarn, and by cleaning and singeingthe surface so as to free it from all "nap." The distinctive weaveof this fabric is given under "Grey Jeans," which is the class ofJean most often met with.

White Lawn.—Lawn is a plain-weave light-weight cottonfabric of soft finish made from yarns varying from 1/40's to1/100's. Lawn has a soft, smooth feel, which is due to theabsence of sizing or starching and to the process of brushing andcalendering,i.e., passing the fabric through heavily weighted[105]steam-heated rollers. Lawns vary in quality and weight similarlyto other fabrics, their weight varying between 1¼ and 2¼ ouncesper yard; in width they vary from 27 to 46 inches and inlength from 12 to 42 yards per piece. Lawn in plain white iscoarser than a Cambric. The yarn used in the weaving ofLawn is generally of fine Egyptian cotton. White Lawns arealso made of linen yarn, and when so made would be calledLinen Lawn. India Lawn is a calendered fabric, about 12 yardsto the pound and 28 to 36 inches wide in book-fold or 40 inchesin long-fold. Victoria Lawn has a very stiff finish. Bishop'sLawn is slightly heavier in weight than "Linon" or "IndiaLinon," bleached and finished to a bluish tint, and derives itsname from the style of finish. The same fabric finished differentlywould be known under other names. White Lawn is ableached material.

White Muslin.—Muslin is a light-weight, open, plain-weavecotton fabric made generally of low-count yarns, that is to say, offairly coarse yarn. Muslins, Lawns, and Cambrics are all materialswhich are similar in construction but vary by their quality, Muslinbeing the lowest grade of the three. A very common kind ofMuslin is known as Butter Muslin or Cheese Cloth. Muslins varyin width from 32 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 40 yardsper piece. Foundation Muslin, Book Muslin, and Butcher's Muslinare varieties of Muslin so dissimilar to the true Muslin that theyshould not be considered as coming under the classification of trueMuslin, which, whilst it varies considerably, should always answerto the description of "a fine, soft, thin, open, plain-woven cottonfabric." White Muslin is a bleached material.

White Sheetings.—A bleached light or medium weightplain-woven all-cotton fabric. Under the heading "Grey Sheeting"will be found a description of the two distinct varieties offabric known as Sheeting. Where such Grey Sheetings havebeen rendered white by being bleached and are no longer intheir loom state, they are known as White Sheetings.

White Shirtings.—Essentially a bleached all-cotton fabricwoven with a plain one-under and one-over weave, having thewarp and weft threads approximately equal in number of threadsand counts. It differs from Grey Shirtings only in finish, WhiteShirting having been subjected to a bleaching process afterleaving the loom, whereas Grey Shirting remains in its loomstate,i.e., in the same condition as when it was taken off theloom. The same remarks as to the similarity between a GreyShirting and a Grey Sheeting applies to White Shirtings andWhite Sheetings. Similarly, a White Shirting may be termed[106]a White Calico, which is a term used to designate practicallyany cotton cloth coarser than Muslin. Varying in width andweight, they are generally put up in pieces of from 36 to 40yards. The length marked on the outside of the piece maynot always correspond to the number of yards in the piece ifthe yard is taken as one of 36 inches.

White Spotted Shirtings.—Like White Striped Shirtings,the ornamentation in this class of fabric would be produced bycombination of weave and would not be the result of printing orbe due to the presence of coloured yarns. The essentials of thisclass of fabric are similar to those of White Striped Shirtings,i.e.,the fabric is all cotton and the ornamentation due to weave andweave only.

White Striped Shirtings.—The fabric which would properlycome under this classification would be essentially all-cottonfabrics containing stripes, produced by a combination of weaveand not the result of printing or due to the presence of colouredyarns. A plain-weave ground may be combined with a sateen-weavestripe. Such a fabric would not be called a Fancy Shirting,which in the trade is generally understood to be "either printedon the woven, bleached fabric, or of fast colours, dyed upon thewarp, or combination of each." White Striped Shirtings aremostly made on a Jacquard loom, and in the white conditionthe woven pattern constitutes the only effect or ornamentation inthe finished cloth.

White T-Cloth.—A bleached all-cotton fabric, plain wovenfrom low-quality yarns. An ordinaryT-Cloth which has beenbleached. Generally sold in lengths of 24 yards and varying inwidth from 32 to 36 inches. The name is said to be derived fromthe markT of the original exporters.

White Venetians.—What has been said of White Italiansholds goodmutatis mutandis of White Venetians. Such fabricsare in reality White Warp-faced Sateens, and, white not beingconsidered a colour, they do not come under the classification ofDyed Plain Cottons.

Widow's Lawn.—A better quality of Lawn made fromlinen, well woven, very clear and even in texture.

Width.—The practice has grown up in the trade to referto the width of a fabric either as "actual" or "nominal." Theformer term explains itself and means that the width as given isactually that of the piece referred to, and that it is not less than[107]stated. "Nominal," on the other hand, is understood to meanthat the fabric referred to may vary by as much as half an inchbelow the width specified on the contract.

Window Holland.—A plain-woven all-cotton cloth, stiffenedafter weaving with about one-fifth of its weight in starch or othersizing material. It is used as window shades.

Wolsey.—A proprietary name applied to certain all-woolmaterials, especially underwear.

Wool.—Wool is the soft, curly covering which forms thefleecy coat of the sheep and other similar animals, such as thegoat, alpaca, llama, vicuña, and camel.

The chief characteristic of wool is its felting or shrinkingpower. This felting property, from which wool derives its chiefvalue and which is its special distinction from hair, depends inpart upon the kinks in the fibre but mainly upon the scales withwhich the fibre is covered. The process of felting consists in thefibres becoming entangled with each other, and the little projectingscales hooking into each other and holding the fibres closelyinterlocked.

Combing wools take their name from the process of "combing"which they undergo when being prepared for spinning into yarn.Combing wools are longer than carding wools; they are also harderor more wiry and less inclined to be spiral or kinky.

Carding wools—made to cross and interlace and interlockwith one another—are shorter than combing, and, in addition,they possess the power of felting (that is to say, of mattingtogether in a close, compact mass) to a much greater degree.

The first and finest clip of wool is called lamb's wool; it istaken from the young sheep at the age of eight to twelve monthsand, never having been clipped before, it is naturally pointedat the end. All subsequent cut fleeces are known as wether wooland are less valuable than the first clip. The ends of such woolare thick and blunted on account of having been previously cut.

Wool, unlike cotton, is not capable of being worked into ayarn without first being thoroughly cleansed of its impurities.

Wool-dyed.—A term applied to fabrics dyed in the loose ortop form—as distinct from yarn-dyed or piece-dyed.

Woollen.—This term is used in contradistinction to worsted,and implies difference of material and method of manufacture.Wastes, shoddy, and blends of material other than wool arereferred to as "woollen," in opposition to "all wool."

Woollen and Cotton Flannel.—A fabric answering to thedescription of true Flannel, usually woven with either a plain ortwill weave, soft finished, but which is made from carded unionyarn,i.e., yarn composed of wool and cotton in varying proportionsaccording to the quality of the material it is intended to produce.If a Woollen and Cotton Flannel were described as a UnionFlannel it would be composed of distinct yarns, some of whichwere all cotton and some all wool. In its broad acceptancethe term is applicable to any fabric woven partly of wool andpartly of cotton to resemble true All-wool Flannel.

Woollen and Cotton Mixtures.—This term is used todesignate fabrics which are composed of the fibres of wool andcotton which have been blended or scribbled together ratherthan to fabrics composed of distinct threads which are all-cottonand all-wool yarns woven together. A cotton warp and woolweft fabric is a union, not a mixture. Mixtures may berecognised, when dyed, by a careful examination of the fibresconstituting the yarn. When such fibres are not of the samecolour, it will be found to have been due to the difference ofaffinity for the dye between cotton and wool. The burningtest is not close enough. Carbonising is the surest test thatcan be applied to determine the presence and percentage of cottonin any Woollen and Cotton Mixture fabric.

Woollen Fabric.—The typical woollen is a full-handlingfabric in which structure and colouring cannot always be definedon account of the threads and picks, and even the fibres, havingbecome thoroughly intermingled in passing through the operationsof finishing. Strictly speaking, a woollen fabric should be madeof fine wool (possibly noils included); but in the English LawCourts a definition of "woollen" fabrics as being composed ofmungo, shoddy, cotton, etc., has been accepted.

Woollen Lastings, Craped.—A fabric similar in the mainto a Plain Lasting, but which, owing either to special process ofweaving, chemical process during finishing, or to the action of[109]suitably engraved rollers through which the material is madeto pass, has a face finish resembling Crape Cloth, Plain, underwhich heading will be found the distinctive characteristics of CrapeCloth.

Woollen Lastings, Figured.—Like Cotton Lastings, thisfabric is essentially a plain twill or kindred weave fabric, firmlywoven from hard-twisted yarns. It is woven from strong wooland can be described as a fine, durable fabric of a somewhat hardhandle, but smooth in appearance and ornamented by the introductionof a figure, pattern, or design produced either by means of anextra thread or by combination of warp and weft threads.

Woollen Lastings, Plain.—A plain twill or kindred weavefabric firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns. It is woven fromstrong wool and can be described as a fine, durable fabric of asomewhat hard handle, smooth in appearance, and free from anyornamentation produced either by weaving or printing. Usedextensively in the manufacture of boot and shoe uppers.

Woollen Yarn in appearance possesses a fringe-like coveringwhich gives it a fuzzy appearance. This is arrived at by usingshorter wool than in the manufacture of worsted yarn and bygiving it a twist. This fuzzy appearance distinguishes it fromworsted yarn, which is a straight yarn in which the componentfibres lie smoothly and parallel to each other. Woollen yarnis particularly suitable for the manufacture of cloths in whichthe colourings require to be blended, the fibres napped, as inTweed, Cheviot, Doeskin, Broadcloth, Beaver, Frieze, Chinchilla,Blanket, and Flannel. Woollen yarn may be said to be a threadin which all the component fibres are entangled into each otherand are in all different directions: this results in a yarn which isrough in appearance, non-lustrous, and more irregular than worstedyarn. It is only in this type of yarn that low-grade materials,such as mungo, shoddy, or extract, can be utilised. The fibreswhich constitute a woollen yarn are not as readily separatedfrom the body of the yarn or cloth as in the case of worsted.

In the case of woollen yarn there are numerous systemsfor denoting the count, varying with the locality in which itis spun and the character of the product. In the United Statesthere are two systems employed, but the one in most generaluse is known as the "American run counts." This is based onthe number of "runs," each containing 1,600 yards, to the pound.Thus, a yarn running 8,000 yards to the pound is called a"5-run" yarn, a yarn with 5,200 yards to the pound is equalto a "3¼-run." In the vicinity of Philadelphia woollen yarn isbased on the "cut," each cut consisting of 300 yards, and the[110]count is the number of cuts in a pound. Thus, No. 30 cutyarn consists of 9,000 yards to the pound. A similar systemprevails in England, where 200 yards go to the "cut," and thenumber of "cuts" per pound equals the count. In certain partsof England (Yorkshire) 256 yards go to the hank. The count isalso arrived at on the basis that the number of yards per dramequals the count.

Worsted Diagonal.—The name explains itself and isapplied to a worsted cloth having as its chief characteristic aprominent weave effect running diagonally—from left to right—acrossthe face of the cloth. Generally in solid colours and finishedso as to bring the weave into prominence.

Worsted Lastings.—A smooth, warp-faced, sateen-weavefabric woven from worsted warp and weft, having a plain-weaveeffect on the back of the fabric. Generally piece-dyed black.Worsted Lastings average 30 to 31 inches in width and 29 to30 yards in length per piece. Met with in three grades ofquality. Average Bradford price for the best grade was, forthe 10 years ended 1914, about 31s. 5d. per piece.

Worsted Yarn is a straight yarn,i.e., a yarn producedfrom straight fibres; it is invaluable in the production of textilefabrics in which lustre and uniformity of surface are the chiefcharacteristics. They enter into the manufacture of Zephyr,Saxony, Serge, Bunting, Rep, etc. Yarn is measured by asystem of "counts"—the number of yards of yarn to thepound. It is put up in hanks of 560 yards each, and thenumber of such hanks that are necessary to weigh 1 pounddetermines the count, so that if No. 30 yarn is mentioned, itis a yarn 30 hanks of which, or 16,800 yards, weigh 1 pound.The main characteristic of worsted yarn is the arrangement ofthe fibres, which are so arranged that they are parallel to eachother in a longitudinal direction.

The yarn thus produced is a smooth, lustrous, and levelyarn, these qualities being absent in woollen yarn. The fibreswhich constitute a worsted yarn are more readily separatedfrom the body of the yarn or cloth than in the case of a woollenyarn.

W-Pile.—This term is used to designate a fast pile andoriginates in the form taken by a piece of fast pile when removedfrom the fabric. In a fast-pile fabric the pile cannot be drivenout through the back of the fabric by pressure applied to thepile, owing to the fact that the pile is virtually bound into thematerial and held in place by two threads from the top and onefrom behind.See Pile Weave.

Wright's Underwear, Imitation.—This class of underwearis essentially a knit cotton underwear made from a combinationof bleached cotton yarn and dyed yarn. The knit fabric israised on the inside. The dyed yarn used in the manufacture ofthis class of underwear is often of a blue or brown colour.

Yarn, Cotton, Grey or Bleached.—In its unqualifiedform the term Cotton Yarn is used to describe "single" yarns,and Cotton Yarn, Grey or Bleached, is understood to be cottonthread and carded yarn, warps or warp yarns, in singles, whetherin bundles, skeins, or cops, not advanced beyond the condition ofsingles by grouping or twisting two or more single yarns togetherand not advanced beyond the condition of bleached by dyeing,colouring, printing, gassing, or mercerising.

Cotton yarn is subdivided into three groups,—coarse, medium,and fine—according to count:—

Cotton yarn is sometimes found as a Mercerised Grey Yarn.The fact that cotton yarn is in the unbleached state does notnecessarily mean that it has not been advanced beyond thatstage; it may be in the grey and at the same time be mercerised.See "Cabled Yarns" and"Folded Yarn."

Yarn-dyed.—Yarn-dyed goods are made of yarns that aredyed before being woven or yarns spun from wool that haspreviously been dyed. Yarn-dyed may be distinguished frompiece-dyed fabrics by unravelling the threads of each kind. Yarn-dyedfabrics show that the dye-stuff has penetrated through theyarn, while in the case of piece-dyed fabrics the dye-stuff has notthe same chance of penetrating the yarn as completely.

Zephyrs.—Lightly constructed, coloured, plain-woven cloths,well finished, in the pure state, principally woven from fine cottonyarns. There are also silk and cotton woven Zephyrs and woollenZephyrs.See Madras.

Zibeline.—The French name for Sable, used to designate adress or cloaking material having a hairy surface.

INDEX.

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Plain Weave	Figure	1.
Three-end Twill Weave	"	2.
Four-end Twill Weave	"	3.
Four-end Weft Twill Weave	"	4.
Two-and-two Twill Weave	"	5.
Irregular Twill Weave	"	6.
Five-end Warp Sateen Weave	"	7.
Five-end Weft Sateen Weave	"	8.
Simple Plain Gauze Weave	"	9.
Weft-pile Weave	"	10.

		Weight.	Density per Cubic Foot.
		——	——
Egyptian	about	700 lb.	34 lb.
American	"	500 "	24 "
East Indian	"	400 "	30 "
Brazilian	"	250 "	20 "

1. Fair.	5. Low Middling.
2. Middling Fair.	6. Good Ordinary.
3. Good Middling.	7. Ordinary.
4. Middling.

54	inches	=	1 thread (or circumference of wrap reel).
4,320	"	=	80 threads = 1 lea.
30,240	"	=	560 " = 7 lea = 1 hank.
	1 hank	=	840 yards.
	1 bundle is usually 10 lb. in weight.

1,000	metres	weighing	500	grammes	=	No. 1's.
1,000	"	"	250	"	=	No. 2's.
1,000	"	"	50	"	=	No. 10's.
1,000	"	"	25	"	=	No. 20's.

1. Raw material dyeing.	4. Mixed dyeing.
2. Yarn dyeing.	5. Piece dyeing.
3. Cross dyeing.

Two-fold 40's,	written	2/40	=	20	folded	hanks	per	pound.
Three-fold 30's,	"	3/30	=	10	"	"	"	"
Three-fold 60's,	"	3/60	=	20	"	"	"	"
Four-fold 60's,	"	4/60	=	15	"	"	"	"
Four-fold 120's,	"	4/120	=	30	"	"	"	"

1. Warp beam.	4. Reed or beater-in.
2. Heddles.	5. Cloth roll.
3. Shuttle.

Section Number.			Sub-section Number.
——			——
	{	1.	Shirtings and Sheetings.
	{	2.	Drills and Jeans.
1. Grey Cottons	{	3.	Shirtings and Sheetings, Native.
	{	4.	Drills and Jeans, Native.
	{	5.	Not specially enumerated.

	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Plain (with finish).
	{	3.	Brocades.
	{	4.	Brocades (with finish).
	{	5.	Striped or Spotted Shirting.
2. White Cottons.	{	6.	Striped or Spotted Shirting
	{		(with finish).
	{	7.	Crimps and Crapes.
	{	8.	Crimps and Crapes (with
	{		finish).
	{	9.	Lenos.
	{	10.	Not specially enumerated.

	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Plain (with finish).
	{	3.	Furnitures.
	{	4.	Crapes.
	{	5.	Crimps.
3. Printed Cottons.	{	6.	Muslins, Lawns, and Cambrics.
	{	7.	Lenos and Balzarines.
	{	8.	Duplex or Reversible.
	{	9.	Blue and WhiteT-Cloth.
	{	10.	Not specially enumerated.
[76]
	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Plain (with finish).
	{	3.	Crimps.
	{	4.	Crimps (with finish).
	{	5.	Drills, Twills, and Jeans.
4. Dyed Plain Cottons.	{	6.	Lawns, Muslins, and Cambrics.
	{	7.	Hongkong-dyed.
	{	8.	Lenos and Balzarines.
	{	9.	Native.
	{	10.	Native (with finish).
	{	11.	Not specially enumerated.

	{	1.	Figured.
	{	2.	Figured (with finish).
5. Dyed Figured Cottons	{	3.	Native.
	{	4.	Native (with finish).
	{	5.	Not specially enumerated.

	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Dyed.
	{	3.	Printed.
	{	4.	Duplex Printed.
6. Raised Cottons.	{	5.	Dyed and Printed.
	{	6.	Dyed and Duplex Printed.
	{	7.	Yarn-dyed.
	{	8.	Figured White.
	{	9.	Not specially enumerated.

	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Plain (with finish).
	{	3.	Figured.
	{	4.	Figured (with finish).
7. Coloured Woven (i.e., yarn-dyed) Cottons	{	5.	Crimps.
	{	6.	Crimps (with finish).
	{	7.	Plain Native.
	{	8.	Plain Native (with finish).
	{	9.	Figured Native.
	{	10.	Figured Native (with finish).
	{	11.	Not specially enumerated.

	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Plain (with finish).
	{	3.	Crimps.
	{	4.	Crimps (with finish).
8. Dyed and Printed Cottons	{	5.	Figured.
	{	6.	Figured (with finish).
	{	7.	Native.
	{	8.	Not specially enumerated.
[77]
	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Printed or Embossed.
9. Velvets and Velveteens (Cotton).	{	3.	Embroidered.
	{	4.	Dyed Cords and Corduroys.
	{	5.	Undyed Moleskins.
	{	6.	Not specially enumerated.

	{	1.	Plain Pure Silk.
	{	2.	Figured or Embossed.
	{	3.	Silk Seal (with cotton back).
	{	4.	Silk with cotton back.
10. Plushes and Velvets	{	5.	Silk mixed with other fibrous
	{		materials (with cotton back.
	{	6.	All-cotton Plush (including
	{		with finish).
	{	7.	Not specially enumerated.

	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Figured.
	{	3.	Plain Native.
11. Silk Piece Goods	{	4.	Figured Native.
	{	5.	Ribbons (all silk and mixtures).
	{	6.	Not specially enumerated.

12. Silk and Cotton Fabrics	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Figured.

	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Figured.
	{	3.	Poncho Cloth.
13. Woollen and Cotton Mixtures	{	4.	Spanish Stripes.
	{	5.	Union Cloth.
	{	6.	Plain Lustres.
	{	7.	Figured Lustres.
	{	8.	Not specially enumerated.

	{	1.	Habit, Medium, Russian, and
	{		Broad Cloth.
	{	2.	Bunting.
	{	3.	Camlets, Dutch.
14. Woollen Fabrics	{	4.	Camlets, English.
	{	5.	Flannel.
	{	6.	Lastings (all kinds).
	{	7.	Spanish Stripes.
	{	8.	Long Ells.
	{	9.	Not specially enumerated.
[78]
15. Linen and Linen Unions	{	1.	Plain.
	{	2.	Figured.

16. Hemp and Hemp Mixtures	{	1.	Plain and Figured.
	{	2.	Yarn-dyed.

17. Miscellaneous.

Name of Fabric.	Section	Sub-section	Sample
	Number.	Number.	Number.
——	——	——	——
Italian	4	2	5

No.	100 singles	has	100,000	metres	per kilogramme.
"	2/100	"	50,000	"	"
"	3/100	"	33,333	"	"

No.	50 singles	has	42,000	yards	per pound.
"	50/2	"	42,000	"	"
"	50/3	"	42,000	"	"

Plain weave.	Double-cloth weave.
Twill weave.	Pile weave.
Satin weave.	Gauze weave.
Figure weave.	Lappet weave.

For Ladies' Wear:—

4	ounces	per yard	represents a	"very thin" cloth.
8	"	"	"	"thin" cloth.
For Men's Wear:—

12	ounces	per yard	represents a	"thin, or "tropical," cloth.
16	"	"	"	"thin medium" cloth.
20	"	"	"	"medium" cloth.
30	"	"	"	"thick" cloth.
40	"	"	"	"very thick" cloth.

No. 20's count and under	=	coarse.
Nos. 21's to 40's	=	medium.
No. 41's and over	=	fine.

30 ÷ 30	=	1
30 ÷ 20	=	1½
		—
		2½ )	30
			12	Answer.

A.
	Page.
Actual,	1
Agaric,	1
Albatross,	1
Alhambra Quilt,	1
All Wool;see Woollen,	108
All-over Leno;see Dyed Lenos,	29
Alpaca,	1
Alpaca Wool,	1
Alpacianos,	2
American Run Counts;see Woollen Yarn,	109
American Sheetings,	2
Angola,	2
Angola Yarn or Wool,	2
Angora,	2
Angora Goat,	2
Animalised Cotton,	2
Armure,	3
Artificial Silk,	3
Astrakhan,	3

B.
Back Cloth,	3
Backed Cloth,	4
Baffetas,	4
Baize,	4
Balbriggan,	4
Bale of Cotton,	4
Baline,	4
Balzarine Brocades, Dyed,	4
Balzarines,	5
Bandanna,	5
Barré,	5
Basket Cloth,	5
Batiste,	5
Bayadère,	6
Bayetas,	6
Beavers,	6
Beaverteen,	6

Cotton Yarn, Coarse, Medium, and Fine;see Yarn, Cotton, Grey or Bleached,	111
Cotton Yarn, Grey or Bleached;see Yarn, Cotton, Grey or Bleached,	111
Cotton Yarn Measures,	17
Counts,	17
Counts of Spun Silk;see Silk Yarns,	85
Coutil,	18
Covert,	18
Crabbing,	18
Crape Cloth, Plain,	18
Crape Weave;see Crape Cloth, Plain,	18
Crash,	19
Cravenette,	19
Crêpe de Chine,	19
Crêpe Meteor,	19
Crepoline,	19
Crépon,	19
Cretonne,	19
Cretonne, Shadow;see Shadow Cretonne,	82
Crimp Cloth, Plain, or Crimps,	20
Crinkle, or Seersucker,	20
Cross-dyed,	20
Crossover,	20
Cut;see Woollen Yarn,	109
Cut Goods,	20
Cuttling,	21


D.
Damask,	21
Damassé,	21
Delaine,	21
Denim,	21
Derby Rib,	22
Descriptions of Standard Cloth;see Market Descriptions of Standard Cloth,	50
Diagonal,	22
Diaper,	22
Diced;see Diaper,	22
Dimity,	22
Discharge Printing,	22
Dobbie, or Dobby,	22


E.
Elongated Twill;see Twill Weave,	93
Embossed Velvet (Cotton),	32
Embossed Velveteen (Cotton),	32
Embroideries,	33
End,	33
English Foot,	33
English System of Silk Cords;see Silk Yarns,	85
Eolienne,	33
Éponge,	33
Equestrienne Tights,	33
Étamine,	33
Extract,	33
Extracted,	33

F.
Face-finished Cashmere;see Velour,	96
Façonné,	33
Faille,	33
Fancies,	34
Fancy Shirtings;see White Striped Shirtings,	106
Fancy Silk Seal;see Silk Seal,	84
Fancy Twill;see Twill Weave,	93
Fast Pile;see Pile Weave,	61
Fents,	34
Figured,	34
Figured Cretonne;see Cretonne,	19
Figured Muslin,	34
Figured Twill;see Twill Weave,	93
Figure Weaving,	34
Filled Cotton Cloth,	35
Filling,	35
Filling (finishing term),	35
Flannel (Woollen),	35
Flannel, Cotton;see Cotton Flannel,	16
Flannelette,	35
Flat Underwear,	36
Fleece-lined,	36
Flocks;see Waste and Flocks,	100

	Page.
Bishop's Lawn;see White Lawn,	104
Bleached,	7
Bleached Domestics,	7
Bolting Cloth;see Étamine,	33
Bolton Sheeting;see Grey Sheeting,	39
Bombazine,	7
Book Muslin;see White Muslin,	105
Book-fold Muslin,	7
Botany,	7
Bouclé,	7
Bourette,	7
Broadcloth,	8
Brocade,	8
Brocades, White;see White Brocades,	103
Brocatelle,	8
Broché,	8
Broken Twill;see Twill Weave,	93
Brown Sheeting,	8
Brown Shirting,	8
Bugis,	8
"Bump" Yarns,	9
Bundle;see Cotton Yarn Measures,	17
Bunting,	9
Burlaps,	9
Butcher's Linen,	9
Butcher's Muslin;see White Muslin,	105

C.
Cabled Yarns,	9
Cabot,	9
Cabot;see American Sheetings,	2
Calico,	9
Cambric;see White Cambric,	103
Cambrics, Dyed;see Dyed Cambrics,	26
Camel's Hair,	10
Camlets (Woollen),	10
Camlets, Dutch (Woollen),	10
Camlets, English (Woollen),	11
Caniche,	11
Canton Flannel,	11

Canvas,	11
Carbonising,	12
Carded Union Yarns;see Union Yarns,	96
Carding Wools;see Wool,	107
Casement Cloth,	12
Cashmere,	12
Cashmere Double,	12
Cashmere Wool,	12
Castor,	13
Cellular Cloth,	13
Ceylon or Ceylon Flannel,	13
Challis,	13
Chambray,	13
Charmeuse,	13
Checks,	13
Cheese Cloth,	13
Cheviot,	14
Chiffon,	14
China Grass;see Ramie,	71
Chinchilla,	14
Chiné,	14
Chinese Customs Definition of Nankeen;see Nankeen,	55
Chintz,	14
Classification of Samples;see Samples,	74
Clip Spots,	14
Coated Cotton Cloths,	14
Collarette,	15
Coloured,	15
Coloured Crimp Cloth,	15
Coloured Lists,	15
Coloured Sateens;see Printed Sateens,	68
Coloured Woollen and Worsted Yarns,	15
Combination Twill;see Twill Weave,	93
Combing Wool;see Wool,	107
Continuous or Pad-dyeing Process;see Dyeing,	25
Corduroy,	15
Corkscrew Twill;see Twill Weave,	93
Côtelé,	16
Cotton,	16
Cotton, Animalised;see Animalised Cotton,	2
Cotton Duck,	16
Cotton Flannel,	16
Cotton Plush,	17
Cotton Velvet, Plain;see Plain Velvet (Cotton),	62

Double Sole, Heel, and Toe,	23
Double Warps,	23
Drap d'Été,	23
Dresden,	23
Drill, Pepperell;see Pepperell Drill,	60
Drills,	23
Drills, Grey;see Grey Drills,	39
Drillette,	24
Drilling;see White Drills, or Drilling,	104
Duchesse,	24
Duck,	24
Dungaree,	24
Duplex Prints,	24
Dyeing,	25
Dyed and Printed,	25
Dyed Alpacianos,	25
Dyed Balzarines,	26
Dyed Cambrics,	26
Dyed Corduroys (Cotton),	26
Dyed Cotton Lastings,	26
Dyed Cotton Spanish Stripes,	26
Dyed Crimp Cloth,	27
Dyed Drills,	27
Dyed Figured Cottons,	27
Dyed Figured Cotton Italians,	27
Dyed Figured Cotton Lastings,	27
Dyed Figured Cotton Reps,	28
Dyed Figured Ribs,	28
Dyed Fustians,	28
Dyed Imitation Turkey Reds,	28
Dyed in the Grey;see Dyed in the Piece,	29
Dyed in the Grey;see Union Cloth,	95
Dyed in the Piece, or Piece-dyed,	29
Dyed Lawns,	29
Dyed Lenos,	29
Dyed Leno Brocade,	29
Dyed Muslins,	30
Dyed Plain Cottons,	30
Dyed Plain Cottons;see White Italian,	104
Dyed Plain Cotton Italians,	30
Dyed Real Turkey Reds,	30
Dyed Reps,	31
Dyed Ribs,	31
Dyed Sheetings,	31
Dyed Shirtings,	31
DyedT-Cloths,	32
Dyed Velvet Cords (Cotton),	32
Dyed Velveteen Cords (Cotton),	32

Foundation Muslin;see White Muslin,	105
French Cambric;see White Cambric,	103
French Foot,	37
French System of Cotton Counts;see Cotton Yarn Measures,	17
French System of Silk Counts;see Silk Yarns,	85
Full Regular,	37
Full-fashioned,	37
Fustian,	37

G.
Galatea,	38
Gauge,	38
Gauze Weave,	38
Genoa Plush;see Cotton Plush,	17
Gingham,	38
Gingham, Madras;see Madras Gingham,	49
Gingham, Silk;see Silk Gingham,	84
Glacé,	38
Granité,	39
Grenadine,	39
Grey, in the Grey, or Grey Cloth,	39
Grey Drills,	39
Grey Jeans,	39
Grey Sheeting,	39
Grey Shirting,	40
GreyT-Cloths,	40
Grosgrain,	40

H.
Habit Cloth (Woollen),	40
Habutai,	41
Hair-cord Muslin,	41
Hand Looms and Power Looms,	41
Handle,	41
Hank;see Cotton Yarn Measures,	17
Hank;see Counts,	17
Hard Waste;see Waste and Flocks,	100
Harvard Shirting,	41
Henrietta,	42
Herring-bone,	42
Hessian,	42
Hog, or Hoggett Wool,	42

Honeycomb,	42
Huckaback,	42

I.
Imitation Oxford;see Oxford Shirting,	58
Imitation Rabbit Skin,	42
Imitation Wright's Underwear;see Wright's Underwear, Imitation,	111
India Lawn;see White Lawn,	104
India Linon;see White Lawn,	104
India Mull;see Mull,	54
Indigo Print;see Printed,	65
Ingrain,	43
Irishes,	43
Irish Cambric,	43
Italian Cloth,	43
Italian Cloth, Figured, Cotton Warp and Wool Weft,	43
Italian Cloth, Plain, Cotton Warp and Wool Weft,	44

J.
Jaconet,	44
Jaconettes;see Jaconet,	44
Jacquards,	44
Jaeger,	44
Jean,	45
Jean;see Galatea,	38
Jeanette,	45
Jouy,	45

K.
Kerseymere,	45
Khaiki,	45
Khaki,	45

L.
Ladies' Cloth,	45
Lamb's Wool;see Wool,	107
Lappet Weave,	45
Lastings,	46
Lawn;see White Lawn,	104
Lawns, Dyed;see Dyed Lawns,	29
Leas,	46
Leather Cloth,	46
Leno,	46

Leno Brocades, Dyed;see Dyed Leno Brocade,	29
Liberty,	47
Linen Cambric;see White Cambric,	103
Linen, Tests for;see Tests for Linen,	89
Linen Thread;see Thread,	90
Linen Yarn,	47
Lingerie,	47
Lining,	47
Linon;see White Lawn,	104
Lisle Thread,	47
List;see Selvedge,	81
Loading Worsted and Woollens,	47
Longcloth,	47
Long Ells (Woollen),	48
Long Stick,	48
Loom State;see Grey,	39
Louisine,	48
Lustre Dress Fabrics,	48
Lustre Orleans;see Orleans,	57

M.
Maco,	49
Madapolams,	49
Madras,	49
Madras Gingham,	49
Madras Handkerchiefs,	49
Make;see Reed and Pick,	71
Maline,	49
Market Descriptions of Standard Cloth,	50
Marl,	50
Marquisette,	50
Matelassé,	50
Matt Weave,	50
Medium Cloth (Woollen),	50
Mélange,	50
Mélanges (Yarns);see Coloured Woollen and Worsted Yarns,	15
Melton,	51
Mercerised Cotton,	51
Mercerising,	51
Merino,	51
Mesh Underwear,	52
Messaline,	52
Mexican;seeT-Cloth,	87
Milled Finish;see Schreiner Finish,	80
Millerayes;see Grosgrain,	40
Mixed Cloths;see Union Cloth,	95

Mixed Dyeing;see Cross-dyed,	20
Mixture Yarn,	52
Mixtures (Yarns);see Coloured Woollen and Worsted Yarns,	15
Mock Leno,	52
Mock Seam,	52
Mohair,	52
Mohair Beaver Plush,	52
Mohair Brilliantine,	52
Mohair Coney Seal,	53
Mohair Sicilian,	53
Moiré,	53
Moleskin,	53
Mottles,	53
Mousseline de Soie,	53
Mule-twist Yarn,	53
Mull,	54
Mungo and Shoddy,	54
Muslin;see White Muslin,	105

N.
Nainsook,	54
Nankeen,	55
Nankeen;see Galatea,	38
Nankeen, Chinese Customs Definition of,	56
Native Cotton Cloth;see Nankeen,	55
Native Cotton Cloth;see Unclassed Native Cotton Cloth (China),	94
Net Silk Yarn;see Silk Yarns,	85
Noils,	57
Nominal;see Actual,	1

O.
Ombré,	57
Opera Hose,	57
Organzine,	57
Orleans,	57
Ottoman,	57
Outsize,	57
Oxford,	58
Oxford Shirting,	58

P.
Padded Back Linings,	58
Pad-dyeing,	58
Panne,	59
Panung,	59
Panama Canvas,	59

Papoon,	59
Paramatta,	59
Pastel,	59
Pastille,	59
Peau de Cygne,	59
Peau de Soie,	59
Pekiné, or Pekin Stripes,	60
Pepperell Drill,	60
Pepperell Drill;see Grey Drills,	39
Percale,	60
Percaline,	60
Persian Cord,	60
Pick,	60
Piece Goods,	60
Pile Fabrics,	60
Pile Weave,	61
Piqué,	61
"P.K.",	61
Plain,	62
Plain Velvet (Cotton),	62
Plain Velveteen (Cotton),	62
Plain (or Homespun) Weave,	62
Plated,	62
Plissé,	62
Plumetis,	63
Plumety;see Plumetis,	63
Plush,	63
Plush of Silk mixed with other Fibres,	63
Plush Velveteen,	63
Pointillé,	63
Pompadour,	63
Poncho Cloth,	64
Pongee,	64
Pony Skin,	64
Poplin,	64
Print Cloth;see Printers,	70
Printed,	65
Printed Balzarines,	65
Printed Calico,	65
Printed Cambrics,	65
Printed Chintzes,	66
Printed Cotton Drill,	66
Printed Cotton Italians,	66
Printed Cotton Lastings,	66
Printed Crapes,	67
Printed Crimp Cloth,	67
Printed Furnitures,	67
Printed Lawns,	67
Printed Leno,	67
Printed Muslin,	68
Printed Oxford;see Oxford Shirting,	58
Printed Reps,	68

Printed Sateens,	68
Printed Satinets,	68
Printed Sheetings,	68
Printed Shirtings,	69
PrintedT-Cloth,	69
Printed Turkey Reds,	69
Printed Twills,	69
Printed Velvet (Cotton),	69
Printed Velveteen (Cotton),	69
Printed Warp;see Warp Print,	99
Printers,	70
Pure Silk Plush,	70
Pure Silk Velvet,	70

R.
Raised Back Cloths,	70
Raised Cotton Cloth,	70
Ramie, Rhea, China Grass,	71
Ratine,	71
Rattine;see Ratine,	71
Rattinet;see Ratine,	71
Rayé,	71
Reed and Pick,	71
Regatta Twill;see Galatea,	38
Regular Twill;see Twill Weave,	93
Rembrandt Rib,	72
Remnant;see Fents,	34
Rep,	72
Resist or Reserve Printing,	72
Reversible Cretonnes,	72
Rhea;see Ramie,	71
Rib,	73
Rib Crape Effect,	73
Richelieu Rib,	73
Right and Wrong Side of Fabrics,	73
Ring-spun Yarn,	73
Robes,	74
Russian Cloth (Woollen),	74
Russian Prints,	74

S.
Samples and their Classification,	74
Sateens,	79
Satin,	79
Satin Drill,	80
Satin Weave,	80
Satinet, or Satinette,	80
Satin faced Velvet;see Panne,	59
Schreiner Finish,	80
Scribbled,	81

Seamless,	81
Seamless Bags,	81
Seersucker;see Crinkle, or Seersucker,	20
Selvedge,	81
Serge (Cotton),	82
Sett;see Reed and Pick,	71
Sewing Thread;see Thread,	90
Shadow Cretonne,	82
Shantung,	82
Sheeting,	82
Sheetings, American;see American Sheetings,	2
Sheetings, Dyed;see Dyed Sheetings,	31
Sheetings, Grey;see Grey Sheeting,	39
Sheetings, White;see White Sheetings,	105
Shirtings,	83
Shirtings, Dyed;see Dyed Shirtings,	31
Shirtings, Grey;see Grey Shirting,	40
Shirtings, White;see White Shirtings,	105
Short Stick,	83
Shot,	83
Shot Silks;see Glacé,	38
Sicilienne,	83
Sifting Cloth;see Étamine,	33
Silence Cloth,	83
Silesia,	83
Silk Beaver,	83
Silk Gingham,	84
Silk Mull,	84
Silk Plush;see Pure Silk Plush,	70
Silk Pongee,	84
Silk Seal (Cotton Back),	84
Silk Velvet;see Pure Silk Velvet,	70
Silk Yarns,	85
Silver Seal;see Mohair Coney Seal,	53
Singles;see Yarn, Cotton, Grey or Bleached,	111
Sliver,	85
Soft Waste;see Waste and Flocks,	100
Spanish Stripes, Cotton,	86
Spanish Stripes, Woollen,	86
Spanish Stripes, Wool and Cotton,	86
Split Foot,	86

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The Project Gutenberg eBook ofPiece Goods Manual

PIECE GOODS MANUAL.

PREFACE.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PIECE GOODS MANUAL.

INDEX.

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

Sponge Cloth,	86
Spool Cotton;see Thread,	90
Spun Silk,	86
Spun-silk Yarns;see Silk Yarns,	85
Standard Cloth;see Market Descriptions of Standard Cloth,	50
Staples,	87
Stock-dyed;see Ticks, or Ticking,	91
Striped;see Rayé,	71
Surah,	87
Swansdown,	87
Swiss Embroidery,	87
Swiss Mull;see Mull,	54
Swivel Figures,	87

T.
Tabby;see Watering,	100
Tabby Plush;see Cotton Plush,	17
Table Felting;see Silence Cloth,	83
Tapestry,	87
T-Cloth,	87
T-Cloths, Dyed;see DyedT-Cloths,	32
T-Cloths, Grey;see GreyT-Cloths,	40
Teasels, or Teazels,	88
Terry Cloth,	88
Tests by Burning,	88
Test for Artificial Silk,	88
Tests for Linen,	89
Test for Mercerised Cotton,	89
Tests for Silk,	90
Test for Wool,	90
Textile Fibres,	90
Thickness of Woollen Cloths;see Weight and Thickness of Woollen Cloths,	102
Thickset,	90
Thread,	90
Three-quarter Hose,	91
Ticks, or Ticking,	91
Tire Cloth,	91
Tram,	92
Trunk Length,	92
Tubular Cloth,	92
Tucks;see Plissé,	62
Tulle,	92
Turkey Reds, Dyed Real;see Dyed Real Turkey Reds,	30

Turkish Towelling,	92
Tussore, or Tussah,	92
Tweed,	92
Twill Weave,	93
Twin Needle,	94
Twists;see Coloured Woollen and Worsted Yarns,	15

U.
Unclassed Native Cotton Cloth (China),	94
Union Broadcloth,	95
Union Cloth,	95
Union Flannel;see Woollen and Cotton Flannel,	108
Union Yarns,	96
U-Pile;see Pile Weave,	61

V.
Velour,	96
Velveret;see Velveteen,	97
Velvet,	96
Velvet (Cotton), Printed;see Printed Velvet (Cotton),	69
Velvet Finish,	96
Velvet of Silk mixed with other Fibres,	97
Velveteen,	97
Venetian Coverts;see Covert,	18
Venetians,	97
Venetians, White;see White Venetians,	106
Vesting,	97
Victoria Lawn;see White Lawn,	104
Vigogne,	98
Vigoreux,	98
Viyella,	98
Voile,	98

W.
Wadding Pick,	98
Wale,	98
Warp,	99
Warp Pile,	99
Warp Print,	99
Warp Ribs,	99
Warp Sateen,	99
Warp Welt,	99

Warp-faced Cloth,	109
Waste and Condenser Wefts,	100
Waste and Flocks,	100
Waste and Spun Silk Yarns;see Silk Yarns,	85
Waste Cloths,	100
Waste Sheeting;see Grey Sheeting,	39
Watered;see Watering,	100
Watering,	100
Weaving,	101
Web,	101
Weft,	101
Weft Pile,	101
Weft Ribs,	101
Weft Sateen,	102
Weft-faced Cloth,	102
Weight and Thickness of Woollen Cloths,	102
Weighting,	102
Welt,	103
Wether Wool;see Wool,	107
Whip Thread,	103
Whipcord,	103
White,	103
White Brocades,	103
White Cambric,	103
White Drills, or Drilling,	104
White Goods,	104
White Irishes,	104
White Italian,	104
White Jean,	104
White Lawn,	104
White Mercerised Sateen;see White Italian,	104
White Muslin,	105
White Sheetings,	105
White Shirtings,	105
White Spotted Shirtings,	106
White Striped Shirtings,	106
WhiteT-Cloth,	106
White Venetians,	106
Widow's Lawn,	106
Width,	106
Window Holland,	107
Wolsey,	107
Wool,	107
Wool, Alpaca;see Alpaca Wool,	1
Wool-dyed,	108
Woollen,	108
Woollen and Cotton Flannel,	108
Woollen and Cotton Mixtures,	108
Woollen Fabric,	108

Woollen Flannel;see Flannel (Woollen),	35
Woollen Lastings, Craped,	108
Woollen Lastings, Figured,	109
Woollen Lastings, Plain,	109
Woollen Yarn,	109
Worsted Diagonal,	110
Worsted Lastings,	110
Worsted Yarn,	110
W-Pile,	110
Wright's Underwear, Imitation,	111


Y.
Yarn, Cotton, Grey or Bleached,	111
Yarn-dyed,	111

Z.
Zephyrs,	111
Zibeline,	111