Title: Clothing and Health: An Elementary Textbook of Home Making
Author: Helen Kinne
Anna M. Cooley
Release date: December 8, 2014 [eBook #47585]
Most recently updated: October 24, 2024
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Chris Curnow, Jane Robins and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
file was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)
IN OLDEN TIMES THE WOMEN PREPARED ALL THE TEXTILE YARNS AT HOME
THE HOME-MAKING SERIES
AN ELEMENTARY TEXTBOOK OF HOME MAKING
BY
HELEN KINNE
PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, AUTHOR OF "FOOD AND HOUSEHOLD
MANAGEMENT" AND "SHELTER AND CLOTHING"
AND
ANNA M. COOLEY, B.S.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, AUTHOR OF "FOOD AND HOUSEHOLD
MANAGEMENT" AND "SHELTER AND CLOTHING"
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1920
All rights reserved
Copyright, 1916,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1916.
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
This volume, like its companion,Food and Health, isintended for use in the elementary schools in those sections of thecountry where the home life is of the type described. It is hoped thatboth volumes will be used by the home people as well as by those at theschool.
This volume treats largely of the clothing problems and of theelementary work in sewing which precedes garment making. It alsoincludes the subject of the leading textile materials,—where theyare grown and how they are manufactured ready for our use. Such topicsas the hygiene of clothing, buying materials and clothing wisely, theclothing budget, the use of the commercial pattern, the care and repairof clothing, color combinations, and attractiveness in dress, arewoven in with the lessons on sewing and textiles, in a very simple andelementary way.
The authors are indebted to the United States Department ofAgriculture, to the Smithsonian Institution, to the Draper Company,Hopedale, Massachusetts, to the York Street Flax Spinning Company,Belfast, to the Whittall Rug Company, to Cheney Brothers, silkmanufacturers, and to others, for kind permission to use the pictures[iv]shown. We acknowledge, also, the permission of the Corticelli SilkMills of Florence, Massachusetts, for use of their copyrightedphotographs of silkworms. Teachers will be glad to know that they canobtain from the Corticelli Mills, at slight expense, specimen cocoonsand other helps for object lesson teaching.
This is a story of the way in which the mothers and fathers, theteacher and pupils, and their friends in the township work together tomake the broad valley in which they live truly a Pleasant Valley. Thenew school stands where the little red schoolhouse was built for thosewho are now grandmothers and grandfathers, when the town was firstsettled. The old building had become too small for all the young folk,but everybody loved the place and it was not until a fire had destroyedit that money was voted for larger and better housing for the schoolgirls and boys.
These small books can describe only a part of everything that isbeing done in and for the school, and for the home people too, for youknow that no town can prosper and no country be great unless the homes are[2]healthful and happy, where all the members of every family work andplay together. Do you not want to help, too, in your home, and in yourtown?
THE PLEASANT VALLEY GIRLS LEARN TO SEW.
Fig. 1.—Marjorie Allen, President ofthe Girls' Sewing League.
Our clothes are important for they help to keep us well. Shall welearn how to choose the materials for them, and how to make some usefularticles of clothing? Sewing is an art which all girls should learn. Ifwe know how to sew, we can keep our clothes in order and always be neatand attractive in appearance. We can, also, make acceptable articlesand gifts for others. It is useful, too, to know about materials andabout their costs and uses; for, when we buy our clothing and householdarticles ready-made, we should know how to tell whether the material isdurable and will wear. The women of the home should know how to[4]make a dollar buy the very best things. The mothers and grandmothersof Pleasant Valley are delighted to know that their children are tobe taught at school. If we understand about materials, we will beable to help a great deal. Do you know that the women of the UnitedStates spend a billion of dollars every year for textile materialsalone? Isn't it interesting to know, too, that our clothing materialscome from plants or animals? Do you know how they are obtained andmanufactured? Do you belong to a sewing club or society? Perhaps youcan form a sewing club at your school or in your town as the girls ofPleasant Valley did.
Marjorie Allen (Fig. 1) has been made President of the Girls'Sewing League of Pleasant Valley. All the school girls belong; theymeet once a week and usually sew for their annual fair. Sometimes theymake garments for the little children who come during the summer tothe Fresh Air Home near their town. Marjorie[5] buys all the materials; soshe must know how to buy. She goes once a month with her mother, Mrs.Allen, to town where there is a good store. Sometimes she orders bymail.
Fig. 2.—Miss James and some of the Pleasant Valley girls. They are sewingfor the League fair.
The girls of the league have decided to make some kitchen towelsand potlifters. These are useful and always sell well. As the girls donot yet know how to make these articles, they have promised to makea towel for themselves for school use, on which to learn. Then theywill make others for the sale. Cooking, sewing, and housewifery are apart of the school work. Besides Miss James, the teacher, will givecredit for the[6] sewing done by the Girls' League. The girls are anxiousto prove to Miss James (Fig. 2) that they can really work outside ofschool.
Later the girls hope to make aprons and caps to wear for theirschool work in housewifery, and also some petticoats for the childrenat the Fresh Air Home. Miss James says she will help them at school toget started.
TOWELING AND OTHER COTTON SAMPLES
Marjorie sent for samples of toweling materials. She also went tothe town store to see what it had to offer, and to look for materialsfor petticoats and aprons. One day at school all the girls wrote forsamples. Miss James criticized the letters, and chose the best one tobe sent. Perhaps you can do this at your school.
What material is best for toweling? As soon as all thesamples arrived at Pleasant Valley, Marjorie took them to school, andMiss James spent an hour with the girls studying the materials. Thetoweling samples were examined first. What a difference in them! Someare smooth and feel cold and look almost shiny, and others feel softand look more fuzzy on the surface. Do you know why? It is because someare woven of linen fibers made from the flax plant, and others fromcotton which comes from the cotton plant. Which do you think are madefrom cotton? Then, there is a difference in width: some are only 15inches wide, and others are 18 inches.[7]Some have a red or blue edge, and others are plain. There is alsodifference in price. Which costs more, linen or cotton? Are the pricesnot given on the samples? Marjorie and the girls decided that thetowels are to be one yard long. They would like to make four dozenfor the sale and plan to tie them up attractively, half a dozen in apackage. They had $25 left in the treasury from last year. As they willhave many other things to buy, they decided to purchase cotton towelsthis year. Later, if there is enough money, they can add some linentowels. Cotton towels do not absorb the water as easily as the linen.We call this a difference in the properties of the two materials.Barbara Oakes said her mother always buys linen towels. Cotton fibershave a kind of waxy coating which throws off the water. Linen fibersdraw in moisture quickly, and linen materials dry very rapidly. Why,then, is linen really better for dish towels?
Fig. 3.—The girls made brownpaper books for their textilesamples.
Gingham, calico, and chambray are pretty and useful. Letus look at some of the other cotton materials. Miss James had manysamples for the girls to see. Grandmother Stark sent over some from herpiece bag. Perhaps your teacher will bring some, and your mother maysend some, too. There are several samples of material for the apronsand caps. The blue and white, and pink and white stripes and checksare ginghams; the white with the little spots and thin stripes arepercales. The plain blues and pinks are[8]chambray; the plain blues and pinks of cheaper grade are ginghams.Those with printed designs on one side are calicos. The dark brown andblue samples are heavier and are called denims. Suppose we make a bookof brown paper and mount all the cotton materials we can find. Thisbook can be kept at the school for reference. Everybody must help. Seeif it is possible to write under each sample the name and common usesof the material as well as its price. Miss James had some smooth brownpaper to fold for a book. She suggested ways to bind it. If each girlwishes her own book, a number can be made if so many samples can beobtained. Barbara and Marjorie decide to make their books at home.
There are several varieties of cotton flannel. Thefuzzy soft cotton samples are outing flannels and canton flannels. Whatis the difference in their appearance? The canton flannel is heavier,and it has one twilled surface and one fuzzy surface. It costs 12 centsa yard and comes about 30 inches in width. Outing flannel, which isfuzzy on both sides, can be bought from 10 to 35 cents a yard, and itis 36 inches wide. The flannelette samples are also soft and cost from 8[9]to 12 cents per yard; but flannelette is only 27 inches in width. Ithas a slight nap or fuzzy surface, and is sometimes plain in colorand sometimes printed on one surface. Compare these three materials.Outing flannel is very dangerous unless treated with ammonium phosphate.Dissolve one quarter of a pound of ammonium phosphate, which costs about25 cents, in one gallon of cold water. Soak the clothing in this solutionfor five minutes. This is easily done and may prevent much trouble. Canyou tell why outing flannel is dangerous unless it is treated?
Many other cotton materials are useful. Miss James has ever somany more cotton materials. She told the girls the use and name of each.Can we learn them all?
Cheesecloth. Thin, sheer, plain weave. Costs from 5 to 12cents per yard, and comes 1 yard wide. It is used for wrappingbutter or cheese, for curtains, and for many other purposes. Itmay be used for baby, too, because it is so soft. The unbleachedcheesecloth costs from 4 to 12 cents and is 1 yard wide.
Crinoline. Something like cheesecloth in appearance andstiffer in texture. It is used by dressmakers for stiffening parts ofgarments. It comes from about 19 to 36 inches wide and costs12½ cents up.
Scrim. An open mesh weave but heavier than cheesecloth. Itis used for curtains and household furnishings, and comes bleachedor unbleached. What is the difference in their color? Cost, from12 to 90 cents. Width, from 36 to 45 inches.
Cretonne and Chintz. Printed materials with flowers or designson one side, sometimes on both. They cost from 12 to 75 cents peryard and are used for curtains, covers, cushion tops, etc. Theyvary in width from 25 to 36 inches.
Denim. Strong material and has an uneven twilled weave. Itis used for furniture covers, for aprons, and for floor covering. Itcosts from 18 to 30 cents per yard and comes about 1 yard in width.Your big brother or father wears overalls of this material; perhapssome of the boys in school do, too.
Gingham. A material used for aprons or dresses, skirts, etc.It is from 24 to 30 inches wide and costs from 10 to 50 cents peryard. Fine ginghams are very beautiful. Sometimes they areplain in color or striped or in plaids.
Percale. A good piece can be bought for 12½ cents per yard, 36inches wide. It comes plain or printed, and is firm and closelywoven. It is good for aprons or summer dresses.
Ticking. A material used for pillows or mattress covers. It isstriped, is twilled in weave, and wears very well. It costs from12½ cents per yard up to 50 or 60 cents per yard, and is woven 36inches wide.
Fig. 4.—The surprise box.
Do you understand what is meant when we read that cloth is woven 36inches wide? Do you know how cotton cloth is made and where it comesfrom? Grandmother Allen told some of the girls; for she knows about allsuch things. In our next lesson we shall study where cotton is grown, andin another learn how it is woven. Another day we will learn the names ofother cotton materials and their uses. Then, we can add them to our bookof cotton samples. The little white box on Miss James' desk is a surprisebox (Fig. 4). Any one who finds a new cotton material different fromthose studied at school, Miss James says,[11]may drop it through the little hole in the cover of the box. What fun thegirls of Pleasant Valley will have when it is opened.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. If you were buying kitchen toweling for use at home, whatmaterial would you buy?
2. Name three fuzzy cotton materials and tell their uses.
3. Decide whether you are to make a sample book. Begin tocollect samples of cotton materials for it.
4. Write quickly on the blackboard the names of six commoncotton materials. Ask mother to name six.
THE STORY OF COTTON GROWING
Do you know that our country produces three-fourths of the cotton ofthe world? Where is it grown? Have you heard the story of cotton? Let uslearn about it.
While the girls of Pleasant Valley school waited for the cottontoweling to come from the store, they studied about where cotton isgrown. Cotton is the cheapest and most important textile fiber. What doesthe word textile mean? Look up the word in the school dictionary. Moreclothing is made from cotton than from any other fiber.
Where does cotton grow? Perhaps you have lived in the SouthernStates. Can you name them without looking at your geography? Can you tellwhy it is warmer in those states and why cotton grows[12]so well there, and not in Northern States? Texas produces more cottonthan any other state. In what other countries of the world do you thinkcotton is grown? John Alden and Frank Allen heard the girls studyingabout cotton, and they told Miss James that they thought the boys wouldlike to learn, too.
Courtesy of the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture.
Fig. 5.—The flower and leaf of thecotton plant. The size of the flower is about four inches across.
How cotton grows. The farmer plants the cotton seeds inrows,—you have seen corn planted in that way. What color is corn?The cotton seeds do not look like kernels of corn; but some are fuzzy andsoft and gray or green in color, and others are black and smooth. This isbecause there are many varieties or kinds of cotton. Some grow to be fivefeet tall like corn; others, ten feet in height. The flowers are yellowat first and then turn brown or purplish red. There are over one hundredvarieties of cotton. If you do not live near a cotton field, perhaps youcan ask some boy or girl in your school to write to the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture at Washington. This department will send yousome cotton seeds. Perhaps you can plant the seeds in the school gardenand see if they will grow. In the South the planter prepares the fieldsabout February and plants in April or May. By the middle[13]of August, the plants are five or six feet high and are covered withfuzzy little white balls, soft and dry. The cotton fields, or plantationsas they are called, look like fairyland. In the picture (Fig. 6) you willsee the men, women, and children busy picking the cotton and putting itinto baskets. The cotton bolls, as they are called, are brown and drylooking: but when ripe, they burst, and the woolly looking white ballpops out of its brown house, or shell (Fig. 7). In each cotton boll thereare about thirty or forty seeds, and the cotton fibers are all attachedto these seeds. The fibers are made into thread and clothing, and theseeds are used for many purposes.
Courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture.
Fig. 6.—Picking cotton.
Cotton fibers differ. We shall learn how the fiber is pulledfrom the seeds. This process is called ginning and is done by a machine.If you have a microscope in your school, look at a cotton fiber underthe glass. Miss James will send for some fibers. You will see that itlooks like a ribbon which has been twisted. The natural twist helps verymuch when cotton is twisted or is manufactured into yarn. Cotton is awonderful little fiber and varies in length from ½ to 2 inches. Thecotton called Sea Island cotton is the long fiber cotton, and is grownnear the sea, for it needs the sea air. The cotton called Upland growsaway on the uplands and is shorter. These are the principle kinds grownin the United States.
Courtesy of the United States Department ofAgriculture.
Fig. 7.—Cotton bolls when burst areabout the size of a small apple.
Fig. 8.—Cotton fibers magnified.
The cotton seeds are taken from the fiber. After thepickers have gone up and down the long rows and filled their bags orbaskets, they empty the cotton into wagons which carry it to the ginhouse, where[Pg15] the seeds are separated from the fibers and the brownpieces of the pod are blown away as it is separated and cleaned. Longago in India and other countries, cotton was ginned by hand. What a longtedious process, for only one pound could be separated by a person in aday. The picture (Fig. 9) shows a little girl at school trying to ginsome cotton with a little ginning machine which she has made at school.While George Washington was President of the United States, a man namedEli Whitney invented a machine, called the saw gin, for separating cottonfibers from the seed. This invention has saved much time. To-day cottonis all ginned by machinery; and so great quantities can be separatedin a day. The machine works in such a way that the cotton fibers arepulled away from the seeds, and the seeds are kept separate for otherpurposes.
The cotton seeds are used, too. Some of the seedsare kept for planting, just as you keep corn and oats[16]on your farm; and others are pressed. Cottonseed oil comes from theseeds when pressed, and is very useful for many purposes, such as saladoil, soaps, cooking fats, and used for cattle feed. The seed is coveredwith a fuzz which is first removed and used for lint. Then the hullsare removed, and the dry cake which is left, after the oil has beenextracted, is also used for feeding the cattle. Isn't cotton a veryvaluable plant? How poor we should be without it, for silk and wool andlinen cost so much more. Cotton is the cheap, useful fiber.
Courtesy of Speyer School, New York.
Fig. 9.—A Pleasant Valley girl tryingto gin some cotton with a little ginningmachine which she has made at school.
Fig. 10.—Bales of cotton on a steamboat dock ready for shipping.
The cotton is baled and shipped to manufacturers.After cotton has been freed from the seed, it is sent to the cotton millsall over the world; some in this country and some in Europe. It is sentby boats and sometimes by train. In the picture (Fig. 10) you will seebales on the dock ready to be shipped. In order to ship it safely afterit is ginned, it is pressed into bales like the hay you have on yourfarm; and it is covered with coarse cloth to keep it clean, and is boundwith iron bands. The American cotton bales weigh about 500 pounds. Thisis the size of a bale: 54" × 27" X 45". See if you can measure off inyour schoolroom a space which will show the size of the bale. When thesebales are taken to the steamboat piers, they are again made smaller by amachine, called a[18]cotton compress, which reduces them to 10 inches in thickness. This is sothe bales will not take up so much room in being transported. Sometimes,however, this pressing injures the fiber. The United States ships cottonto Liverpool, Bremen, Havre, Genoa, and many other places. Can you findthese on the map and see what a long journey the cotton takes? JohnAlden went to the map and traced the journey. He used the pointer andstarted from one of the ports of Louisiana. Can you imagine which one?Which way do you think the steamer sailed in order to reach England assoon as possible? Perhaps you live near a shipping port and can go withyour teacher to see the cotton loaded on the ships. Notice how the balesare lowered into the hold. There are large exporting companies whichtake charge of shipping bales of cotton. What is the difference betweenimport andexport We import some cotton from Egypt, because it isa very long fibered cotton and is good for thread, hosiery, and cottongloves. Another day we shall study how the manufacturer at the mill opensthe cotton bale and makes it into cloth.
Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture.
Fig. 11.—Bales of cotton from different countries. The third from the leftis the American bale. The second is Egyptian; the fourth, East Indian.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Where is cotton grown in the United States? Find thestates on the map. Tell why cotton is grown in these states.
2. Examine a cotton fiber with the microscope. How does itlook? Draw a picture of it.
3. Look up the story of Eli Whitney's invention. Why was itimportant?
THE HEMMING STITCH
Let us begin to make the dish towels. What must we think about inorder to hem them very neatly?
Why is the hemming stitch useful? The hemming stitchis a very useful one to learn, for it can be used for so many purposes.Let us learn on something simple—a dish towel or dish cloth formother. Then you can perhaps hem something for the sale of your Girls'League. Mrs. Oakes says she has a dozen new towels ready for Barbara whenshe learns how to hem.
The raw edges of material would ravel unless turned and hemmed. Theturning is called a hem. It is held with a temporary stitch calledbasting, and then with the hemming stitch which remains. If the edgeswere not hemmed, the material would ravel away or look very untidy. Thewarp threads run lengthwise of the cloth. The firm selvedge is made bythe filling thread passing around the warp as the cloth is made. It isthis filling thread which will ravel in dish toweling or other materialunless a hem is made.
How is the hemming stitch made? This is how MissJames taught the girls of Pleasant Valley to hem:
1.Turn hem of desired width. For the towels, one-fourth inch willbe about right when finished. There are two turns because one wouldravel. Turn towards the worker. First, turn one-eighth inch to wrong sideof material. Second, turn one-fourth inch. Turn and pinch to hold untilbasted.
2.Baste. Use one-fourth inch stitches. No. 8 needle is a good sizefor this work, and basting thread can be used for this temporary stitch.Be sure to wear a thimble on the middle finger of the right hand. LittleAlice Allen says she never will learn to use a thimble, but she will ifshe keeps on trying. The picture (Fig. 12) shows the even basting stitchwith needle in position. Baste on the edge of the hem. Begin with a knot,and end with two tiny stitches placed one on top of the other to holduntil hemmed. Remember basting is a temporary stitch.
Fig. 12.—The basting stitch.
3.Hem the edge with the hemming stitch. Look at the pictures (Figs.13-16) and then follow carefully the directions.
Fig. 13.—The way to hold thecloth while hemming.
Fig. 14.—This shows how
to start the hemming.
Fig. 15.—The hemming stitch.
Notice the slant of the needle.
Hold the cloth slanting over the fingers of the left hand, withthumb on top (Fig. 13). Begin without a knot. Put the needle up throughedge of hem and allow one inch of end of thread to lie under the hemas you pull thread through (Fig. 14). This end will be worked over andheld securely.[21] Now you are ready for the stitch. Point the needle whichis in your right hand towards the left shoulder. The point of the needleis passed first through the cloth under the edge of the hem, with a tinystitch which shows on the right[22]side. The needle, at the same time,catches the edge of the basted hem. This makes a tiny slanting stitch onthe right side, so:/. The next stitch is taken about one-sixteenth of aninch from the first, in exactly the same way. As the thread carries fromone stitch to the next, it makes a slanting line on the wrong, or hem,side but in the opposite direction from the stitch which shows on theright side. It slants like this:\
Together these two make this:
The part marked 1 shows on the right side of the cloth; and 2 on thewrong, where the hem is turned (Fig. 15). When the end of hem is reached,fasten with two or three tiny stitches. If the thread breaks, ravel outa few stitches and let the old end of thread lie under the hem. The newthread can then be started as at the beginning by putting needle in thehole of last stitch. There will be two ends under the hem to work over.The picture (Fig. 16) shows how to join a new thread. Find out how manyplaces the hemming stitch can be used. Try it at home on something beforenext lesson.
Fig. 16.—The hemming stitch. Startinga new thread.
When this stitch has been well learned, it will be possiblefor the Girls' Sewing League to make many things.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Practice turning hems neatly on a scrap of cloth beforestarting to turn them on the dish towel.
2. Study the pictures carefully so as to have the stitch exactlythe right slant.
3. Practice hemming on a scrap of cloth for a few stitches beforebeginning the towel.
THE STITCHING STITCH
Shall we try to make a potholder and learn another new stitch?
Holders are very useful to the housekeeper. Mrs. Stark has a bagwith pockets hanging near the kitchen stove and says it makes such aconvenient place to keep holders, for they are always at hand ready foruse. They can be made many sizes. For the cooking class at school, it isconvenient for each girl to have a holder on a tape attached to the bandof her apron (Fig. 17). It is always with her, then, for use. This canbe done by making a loop at the end of the tape and slipping the holderthrough the loop. A hand towel attached at the same place is convenient,too.
Fig. 17.—The holder.
Planning, cutting, and basting the holders. Holderscan be made from old scraps of woolen cloth, from either pieces ofgarments which have been worn and cast aside, or new scraps from thepiece bag. Six inches square is a good size. Place several squares, oneon top of the other, according to the thickness of the cloth. Can youtell why wool makes a better holder than cotton? For appearance we cancover the holder with some pretty piece of chintz or cretonne; perhapsyou have in the piece bag some pieces which are large enough. Denim isstrong for a covering. A piece of asbestos might be placed inside. Why?Pin all these thicknesses together, with a cover top and bottom. Nowbaste from corner to corner and from side to side. This is good practice.Make basting stitches of even length such as you made on the towels.Then baste carefully all around the four sides so that the edges areheld securely. We are going to bind the edge to prevent it from ravelingand to make it strong. Tape is good for binding; and so is a bias stripof the cretonne cover, or of a pretty contrasting color. What doescontrasting mean?
Cutting and placing a bias strip. Can you learn tocut a true bias strip of cloth? You have learned that the warp threadsare the strong threads of the cloth and run lengthwise of the material.To prepare to cut a true bias strip (Fig. 18), fold the warp of the clothover so that the warp threads lie exactly on the filling threads. Thefold is a true bias edge. Cut[25] through the fold. A true bias edge ismade by cutting a square from corner to corner. Does it cut the warp orthe filling threads? To make one-inch strips for binding the holder,measure at right angles to the fold you have just cut. Make a dot, andrule a light line which will be one inch from the cut edge. These aretrue bias strips. Baste the strip or tape carefully around the four sidesof the holder, and allow a little fullness at the corner. The edge of thestrip or tape should be even with the edge of the holder, and the bastingshould be one-fourth of an inch from the edge in a straight line for aguide for the next stitch. Miss James showed the girls how to turn thecorners by taking a tiny plait.
Fig. 18.—Cutting a true bias.
Making the stitching stitch. Now we are ready for anew strong stitch. It is called stitching stitch, for it is used wheremachine stitching might be used, and resembles it in appearance on theright side. Ask your Grandmother if she remembers when there were nosewing machines and all Grandfather's shirts were stitched by hand?Grandmother Allen and Grandmother Stark of Pleasant Valley remember.
Look at the picture (Fig. 19) and follow the directions carefully, andyou will be able to make this stitch.[26] It is started with two or threetiny stitches, one over the other for strength. The row of stitches youare to make should be in a straight line just below the straight row ofbasting stitches. Hold the cloth in the same way as for hemming, withthe material over the fingers and the thumb on top. Now you are readyto make the new stitch. The stitch is started at the right-hand end ofthe cloth. Make a stitch back over the two starting stitches and carrythe needle forward twice the length of this starting stitch. You willhave a tiny space on the right side between the place where the needlecomes up and the end of the starting stitch. Each time your thread shouldfill this space, for your needle should go back into the end of the laststitch and twice the length forward on the opposite side as it comesup. See the needle in the picture (Fig. 19). Notice the space.[27]Look at your work. What is the appearance of the stitch on the wrongside? On the right side? This stitch is also called the backstitch.Why?
Fig. 19.—The stitching stitch.
Finishing the holder. Make a row of stitching stitches allaround the edge of the holder, holding the binding securely. Be carefulto catch the corners well. Remove your basting stitches. Turn the tape orstrip over to the other side of the holder and baste. If you have used abias strip, the edge must be turned under one-fourth of an inch or morebefore basting. This edge is to be held with the hemming stitch. I amsure that you can all make the hemming stitch by now. If you wish a loopor long tape for holding the holder, hem it neatly at one side, turningin the end of the tape to prevent raveling. If you have some colored silkthread, it will look well to make tiny stars like this * at the center ofthe holder and at four places about two inches from the corners on thediagonals. These will hold the materials firmly together.
Other uses for the stitching stitch. The stitching stitch canbe used for many other purposes. It is a strong stitch for seams. Doyou know what a seam is? Two pieces of cloth sewed together may form aseam. Look for seams in your skirt, in your sleeve, in your waist. Canyou find any? Some one tell the difference between a hem and a seam.After this lesson Mollie Stark helped her Grandmother sew some longseams. Mr. Stark's overalls had ripped, and the sewing machine was beingrepaired.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Practice cutting some bias strips. Be sure they are true biasedges. How can you tell?
2. Try to make the stitching stitch on teacher's demonstrationcloth, with the large needle and red worsted.
THE OVERHANDING STITCH
A new game and a new stitch. Let us make the bags with the new stitchbefore we learn to play the game.
Perhaps, instead of a potholder, you had rather make iron holders orbean bags for your League Fair. Have you ever played bean bag game? ThePleasant Valley school children often play this game at recess. You caneasily make the bags and also the board.
Fig. 20.—The overhanding stitch.
Fig. 21.—The bean bag board.
Making the bean bag. Bean bags can also be sewedwith the stitching stitch, as it is strong. Cut the bags of denim 14 ×7 inches, or so as to make a bag 7 inches square. Fold, baste the edgeson three sides, sew them with stitching stitch, and turn inside out.Fill with beans. Two inches at the middle of one side should not besewed until after the beans have been put in. Would you like to learnthe overhanding stitch for closing the edges of that side? The two edgesof the bag are turned in, and the overhanding stitch is made on thevery edge. It is a very simple stitch, and is used for sewing seams oredges together firmly. The edges are held in the left hand between thethumb and first finger. The needle in the right hand is pointed straightthrough towards the worker as in the picture (Fig. 20), and the needle ispassed through the two edges. The end of the thread is drawn carefully,and one-half of an inch allowed to lie on the edge. This is worked over.The needle is pointed with each stitch towards the worker, and thestitches are placed about one-eighth of an inch apart. Be very careful tocatch both edges, but do not make your stitches too deep. The overhandingstitch is a strong stitch and is easy to make. It is finished by workingbackwards from left to right on the edge with three or four of the samestitches.
Playing the bean bag game. The boys will surely wish to helpprepare the board for the bean bag game. Frank Allen and John Alden madethe one used at Pleasant Valley school. Perhaps there is an old boxsomewhere which can be braced with sticks and made to stand slanting. Thebottom of the box will have to be cut in holes (see Fig. 21). Each holecan be a different shape and numbered 5, 10, 25, or 50. The object ofthe game is to see how high a score can be obtained by throwing the bagsthrough the holes. One should stand six feet or more from the board. Eachshould have ten turns. Some one must keep the score.
Courtesy of Mrs. E. J. Esselstyn.
Fig. 22.—John Alden's little brother trying for a high score.
The boys will have to help saw or whittle to get theholes just right. Do you think you can make both[31]the bags and the game board? The picture (Fig. 22)shows John Alden's little brother playing the game.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Try to make the bean bag board. Perhaps you can think of an easierway.
2. Find five places where the overhanding stitch is used and report atthe next lesson.
PLANNING TO MAKE AN APRON
The girls of Pleasant Valley school decided to make caps and aprons.They help every day with the preparation of the school lunch. The apronswill keep their dresses clean, so the girls will look neat and tidy.The aprons can also be used at home. Let us too learn how to cut themcarefully.
The samples which Marjorie Allen brought from the store have beenexamined and studied carefully. The girls know now the difference inappearance between percales, calicos, ginghams, chambrays, and also howmuch they cost. Most of the girls have decided to make pink and white,or blue and white, checked aprons of gingham. It costs 12½ cents a yard;and the girls require from two and one-half to three yards, according tosize. They are to make their own pattern for the aprons, as they are sosimple. When they make the petticoats for the Fresh Air children, theywill learn to use a commercial pattern.
Fig. 23.—The plan for the yoke of theapron.
Cutting the skirt part. Each girl will need twolengths for the skirt part of the apron, measuring from[32] thearmhole at chest, to the desired length. No pattern is necessary for thisskirt part. On each length allow four inches extra for hem. Tear onelength, lengthwise; be careful not to tear it crosswise of the material.The two pieces torn down are to be placed one on each side of the wholewidth, with selvedges together.
Planning the pattern for the yoke. Now the yoke pattern is tobe made. Miss James helped the Pleasant Valley girls with the patterns.You will need a good-sized piece of paper, pencil, and a tapeline.Measure the width of chest from side to side, just at the armhole infront. Look at diagram (Fig. 23); this measure is the bottom of theyoke. Draw a line the length of chest measure across the bottom of yourpaper. Measure up six inches, and draw a line at right angles to eachend of the chest line. This is to find the shoulder. Draw a dotted linethree inches at right angles to this, as shown in the diagram. Then drawa line three inches to form a third side of the square. Do this for theother shoulder and connect the two lines with a line parallel to thechest line. You will have a yoke three inches wide in front. The shoulderlines are too straight; so draw slanting lines just a little towards theoutside or armhole side, taking[33] off one-half inch on shoulder edge. Thisis the only pattern needed; for the back pattern is exactly the same, butis divided in half and cut straight through the center for the opening inback.
Fig. 24.—Four of the Pleasant Valleygirls wearing their finished aprons.
Cutting the yoke. Lay the pattern on the cloth so that thewidth of chest line is on the filling threads of the cloth. Four pieceswill be needed. Can you double your cloth and cut two at once? The yokeis made double of two thicknesses; that is why we must cut two piecesfor the back and two for the front. Cut the two back portions throughthe center back, on the thread of material. Now our aprons are all cut.Carefully roll up the pieces and material left, for you will need them ifyou make the caps.
Basting the skirt part. Let us make the skirt of the apronfirst. Pin the widths together, selvedge to selvedge, to form seams. Youall know what the selvedge is. Look in the dictionary. How is it made sofirm? The whole width is for the center front; the half width for eachside. Pin together and baste one-fourth inch seams, to within 8 or 9inches of each[34] length; this will be left open under each arm. Baste alsoone-fourth inch hems at the outside edges of the side lengths which areraveling. Turn the hems to the same side as the seams, the wrong side.Now all the basting is done, and next time we shall be ready for a newstitch. The picture (Fig. 24) shows some of the Pleasant Valley girlswearing their aprons. Can you guess which is Mollie Stark or BarbaraOakes?
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Look up these words in the dictionary:selvedge,warp,woof,pattern.
2. Name other materials, besides gingham, suitable for workaprons.
USING THE RUNNING AND BACK STITCH ON THE APRON
A new stitch called running and back stitch is very useful for seams(Fig. 25). It is a quick stitch, and it is strong. Let us learn tomake it on the seams of the aprons. We shall need it later for otherthings.
The apron seams are all basted with one-fourth inch seams. Theselvedges have not been removed. Some day we shall learn to make a seamwhich will be sewed twice, and then we shall remove the selvedges. Aseam made with one sewing is called a plain seam. The basting is only atemporary stitch.
Fig. 25.—A new stitch called the running and back stitch.
To sew seams. Hold the material in the left handover the fingers, with thumb on top. You will sew from right to left.Start with two or three tiny stitches, one over the other, without knot.Pull needle through after the starting stitches. Now take two or threetiny running stitches; they are like basting, only much smaller. As youmake the running stitches, the last one is to be twice the length of theothers as the needle is pulled through. This is because the next stitchis to be backwards—a backstitch to cover half the space. On theside towards you, your row of stitches should look like running stitches;on the wrong side, it will be different because of the backstitch. Youshould have the stitches in a straight row under the line of basting. Thebackstitch, which covers half the space left by the running, is twicethe length of the running stitch on the wrong side. This will bring theneedle up ahead of the stitch and ready for the next group of runningstitches. Both seams of the skirt of the apron are to be sewed to within 8 or 9[36]inches under the arm. Finish with three tiny stitches, one over another.Remove bastings, and press open the seams. Can you not take this home andsew the other long seam there, now that you know how; or can you not doit at the meeting of the Sewing League? The girls of Pleasant Valley did.Sometimes they sat under the big oak trees on Friday afternoons and hadtheir sewing lessons outdoors.
Fig. 26. A gauge for the apron hem.
To hem sides. Hem sides of apron which you have basted, makingsmall stitches. You know how.
To hem bottom of apron. Turn hem at bottom of apron. Thecloth should be even. Four inches were allowed. The first turn may beone-fourth of an inch; the second, three and one-half inches. The otherquarter inch allowed is for gathering at top of apron. Pin carefullyand measure, with a tapeline or a gauge. Can you make a gauge? A pieceof cardboard with a notch for one or three inches according to measuredesired, is a gauge. The diagram (Fig. 26) shows how to cut a one-inchgauge. Can you make a three-inch gauge, and keep your hems even byfollowing the marked notch? Baste hems carefully after pinning. Hemneatly.
To gather the top of apron. You are now ready togather the top of the widths. They are to fit into theyoke; and, as they are too wide, we shall have to make[37]them fit. Gathering is done by making two rows of running stitches (smallbasting stitches), one under the other. This is done on each width withthe rows of running stitches one-fourth of an inch apart. Begin witha knot and have your thread a little longer than the width you aregathering. You can then draw the material on the gathering threads, andmake it fit the yoke.
Let us put the finished skirts of the apron away neatly, and nextlesson sew on the yokes.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Make a three and one-half inch gauge, using a piece of cardboardor a stiff paper.
2. Practice gathering on a practice piece of cloth. See howquickly you can do it, putting in two even rows.
MAKING AND ATTACHING THE APRON YOKES
The yokes are to be seamed at the shoulders. There are two yokes; oneis for the lining. Let us sew them together and attach them to the skirtof the apron.
To make the yoke. Pin the two back portions of yoke to the onefront portion. Baste at shoulder seams one-fourth of an inch. Sew withrunning and back stitch, which you used for the apron skirt.
Make the lining yoke in same way. Sew two back portions to onefront.
When both yoke and lining are ready, pin together so that the tworight sides are together and seams match at shoulders. Baste carefullytogether all around with one-fourth inch seams only, except across thebottom at width of chest line. Be careful not to take deeper seams, forthen the yoke will be too small. The chest line width of the yoke is leftopen so the skirt can be placed between. The back portions of the yokeare also left open at the bottom. After basting, sew below the bastingwith running and back stitch. Remove the bastings and turn the yokeinside out. Crease edges carefully. Your yoke will lap one-half inch inback when finished. Now you are ready to attach the skirt to the yoke.
To attach the yoke. You will attach the front of the yoke tothe front gathered width. Find the center of front yoke. Mark with pin.Find the center of gathered width. Place the right side of the yoke tothe right side of the skirt width, center to center; and pin. Do notpin the lining yoke, for it is to be sewed down later to cover the seamyou will now make. Pin the ends of the width to the ends of the frontyoke. Pull your gathering thread until the fullness fits the yoke; thenmove the gathers along until they fall evenly. Can you not distributethe gathers carefully, as you pin them to the yoke? Hold the gatherstowards you, and baste with a one-fourth inch seam, not any more. Now sewsecurely with the strong stitching stitch, which you used on the beanbags.
To place the yoke lining. You are ready now to cover theserough edges of the seam with the lining. Turn in one-fourth of an inch tomatch the width of the seam taken from the yoke. Baste flat to the seamso that the edge of the turned lining just covers the sewing of the yokeseam. Finish with a neat hemming stitch.
Do you not think you can join the two back portions of the yoke to theskirt portions of the apron without any further help?
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Find three places where you think running and back stitchcan be used.
2. Notice other places where gathers are drawn in to fit a space.Mollie Stark discovered several places on the garments worn by thechildren at school.
HOW TO MAKE A BUTTONHOLE
The apron is now entirely finished, except for fastenings. Shall welearn to make a buttonhole, and how to sew on buttons? The PleasantValley girls had a contest. Barbara Oakes won a prize at the PleasantValley County Fair.
Practice in making the buttonhole. Long ago little girls weretaught to make buttonholes, when they were five or six years of age.Grandmother Allen learned at that age. Surely by the time a girl istwelve years old she should begin to learn how to makebuttonholes. One must practice on a scrap of cloth,[40]before making the buttonhole on the garment. Theseare the steps to consider in practicing:
1. Decide about placing the buttonhole. Is it to be in a vertical orhorizontal position on the garment? How far from the edge?
2. Cutting.
3. Overcasting the cut edges. How deep and how far apart to take thestitches. Correct position to hold work.
4. Making buttonhole stitch along one edge.
5. Turning corner.
6. Turning and buttonholing opposite edge.
7. Finishing second end.
Fig. 27.—Cutting the buttonhole.
Placing the buttonhole. It is important to place the buttonholecorrectly. In some garments, where there is no strain, as in the front ofa shirtwaist or of loose corset cover, the buttonholes can be made to runup and down. One should decide how far from the edge and exactly wherethe buttonhole is needed. Mark the place with pinholes. For the apronplace three buttonholes in the yoke, one in middle and others near eachend, about one-fourth inch from the edge of the yoke at center back.
Cutting the buttonhole. One should cut truly andexactly, on a thread. If a pair of buttonhole scissors isnot available, fold the material halfway between the pin[41]pricks which marked its location, so that the pin passes through bothends of the located buttonhole. Cut from the folded edge to the pin, byplacing the fold well within the opened scissors and cutting evenly (Fig.27). For the apron cut one-half inch buttonholes and one-fourth of aninch in from the edge.
Overcasting the buttonhole. You have not all learnedthe overcasting stitch. Practice it on a scrap of cloth. Look at thepicture (Fig. 28) carefully. The overcasting stitch is used on edges toprevent raveling. Hold the buttonhole along the top of the first finger.Begin without knot, and at the end farthest away from a finished edge; asat the end of skirt band or edge of waist. Work over end of thread. Pointneedle toward left shoulder to make a slanting stitch. Makeabout three or four stitches on each[42]side of the buttonhole (Fig. 29). The depth should be about one-eighthof an inch. The corner stitches should be taken so that the needle ispointed at right angles to the cut before the buttonhole is turned.
Fig. 28.—The overcasting stitch for rough edges.
Do not forget that, after one side is overcast, it is necessary toturn the buttonhole around so the other cut edge may be overcast.
Fig. 29.—Overcasting the cut buttonhole.
Making the buttonhole stitch. When the buttonhole hasbeen overcast, the needle should be in position at the beginning of thebuttonhole where the overcasting was started. Point the needle at rightangles to the edge, and take a stitch one-eighth of an inch deep (Fig.30). Hold buttonhole so that it lies flat on top of the first finger. Donot spread it open. Throw the double thread from the eye of the needle,around the point, in the same direction as the buttonhole isbeing worked, from right to left. Draw needle through,[43]pulling the thread at right angles to and toward the cut edge of thebuttonhole. A little finishing loop called the purl will be formed atthe edge. It is this which prevents the edge of the buttonhole fromwearing. Continue along one edge until the corner is reached. Rememberall stitches are to be the same depth and to have about the space of athread between stitches, and the purl is to lie exactly on the edge.
Fig. 30.—The buttonhole stitch.
Turning the corner. There are several ways of finishing thecorners of buttonholes. They may have two fan ends, or one fan and onebar, or two barred ends. How can we tell which way to plan? A barredend is stronger than one which has only a fan. One must judge how thebuttonhole is to be used, and then make the proper combination of ends.The picture (Fig. 31) shows both the fan and the bar. The fan is madewith the same buttonhole stitch. Five stitches make[44]a good fan. The third one is taken on a line with the cut and is thedeepest, and the two stitches each side are slanting and of a depth tomake an even fan effect at the turn. The fan can be made more easilyby turning the buttonhole so that the end to be worked with the fan ispointed towards the worker and the cut edge is over the finger.
Fig. 31.—The fan end and the barend of the buttonhole.
Buttonholing second side. After making the fan, turn thebuttonhole, and along the second side make the buttonhole stitch of thesame depth and evenness as along the first side.
Finishing second end. Practice a bar end. Turn buttonhole sothat the end to be finished lies across finger with fan end towards theworker. Make two or three small stitches one over the other to bar theend, these to extend across width of buttonhole stitches. Over these theblanket stitch is to be placed. This is very easy. Look at the picture(Fig. 82) of it[45]on page 138. These stitches are to be taken close together and throughthe cloth, around the three barred stitches. This makes a firm finish.Point the needle towards the worker and make a straight row of blanketstitches.
Fig. 32.—The pin prevents the buttonfrom being sewed too near the cloth and allows space for buttoning thegarment.
Sewing on a button. Start with a double thread, and make twostitches one over the other on the right side of the garment. String abutton on the needle, to cover starting stitches. Place a pin on top ofthe button. Sew over it with stitches crossed back and forth through theholes of the button. The stitches should be taken so that the pull of thebutton will come on the warp threads of the garment. On the wrong side,the stitches should appear in parallel bars lying on the woof or fillingthread. On the top of the button, the stitches should cross. Why is itnecessary to sew over the pin? Remove the pin and wind thread around thestitches under the button. Finish on wrong side with several finishingstitches.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
THE USE OF THE COMMERCIAL PATTERN
Have you ever bought a real pattern and tried to use it? MarjorieAllen says she thinks sometimes it is quite like a puzzle. Letus learn how to cut our petticoats from a real pattern.
Fig. 33.—Learning to cut a free-handpattern.
Can you cut a pattern? Perhaps you have cut patterns forsister's dolls' clothing (Fig. 33). This is probably how you did it. Youpinned the paper to the doll's body or held it in place while you cutaround the armhole, across the shoulder, under the chin for the curvedneck, and then you cut the other shoulder and armhole in the same way.Under the arm you made a slanting cut towards the feet so the dress orapron would be wider at the bottom. Try this if you have never done it.It is good fun. Marjorie dressed a doll for little Alice when she wassick, and cut the pattern in this way. This is a free[47]and easy way to make patterns. Some dressmakers make patterns in this wayand do not have to send to the store for a pattern.
Shall we send for a pattern? Patterns are bought by age orby measure: a nightdress, drawers, or a skirt pattern is ordered forfourteen year age; a shirtwaist for 34 inch bust measure. Patternssometimes give other measures; a dress skirt may state the waist measure,the length of skirt, and the measure around the hips. For children andfor young girls, the patterns can nearly always be bought according toage; but, as some girls are large for their age and some small, MissJames will have to help order the right sizes.
Many good magazines offer patterns for sale. There are, also, storesor firms which make a business of selling nothing but patterns. Somepatterns are better than others. The simplest are usually the best, ifthe figure and its proportions have been kept in mind.
Let us open our skirt pattern. We have bought two: one a12-year size, and one a 14-year. The smaller girls may use the 12-yearsize, and the larger girls the 14-year size. How many pieces are therefor this pattern? Barbara stood before the class, and Julia held thepieces where she thought they would belong in the skirt. Yes, surely thestrip is for the belt or band. Is it long enough? No, only half. What arethe other two pieces? Yes, one is for the back. Is it large enough? No,only half. Only one[48]piece is left. It must be the front. Is it large enough? Many patternsare made, giving only half a front or half a belt. Such pieces must becut double when you wish to have the front or belt in one piece. Theway to do this is to pin the pattern on a folded edge of the cloth. Wewill know if we consult the perforations on the pattern, and the printeddirections. We must do this, then, in cutting the front. Let us hold thepattern to the light. What do you see? Why do you suppose the littleholes or perforations have been arranged in groups or straight rows?Barbara said she could not understand why. It is all a secret whichthe description on the pattern will tell. To-day we shall learn twothings:
Fig. 34.—Laying the patternon the cloth. Which do youthink is the fold edge,AorB?
1. How to tell which portion of the pattern is to be placed on thewarp of the cloth.
2. When to place the half pattern on a folded edge, so as to cut theportion in one piece instead of in half a piece like the pattern.
The pattern may say the long line of single perforationsis to be placed on the warp threads. Can you[49]do that when we begin to cut? You will have to be careful to find thewarp and to lay the pattern exactly. The pattern may say the group ofthree little perforations or holes at the edge of the front pattern meansthat edge is to be placed on a straight fold of the cloth.
It is wise always to study all the pieces of a pattern. The parts areusually numbered. Can you see how? The description on the pattern tellsthe name of each piece. Very often only half of a portion is given. Youwill always remember now what must be done when that occurs.
It is a good thing always to know each portion and to hold it upto the person to see if it is too large or too small. Then you willunderstand the parts, before you begin to cut. Sometimes it is necessaryto add to the length or to shorten the pattern. Some patterns say allowfor seams in cutting, and others say seams have been allowed. Whatdifference will this make when you begin to cut?
Shall we learn to take a few measurements? Then we can judge ifour pattern is too large or too small. It will also help you in sendingfor patterns.
The bust measure is easy to take. Pass the tape measure under thearms, and over the fullest part of the bust, not too tight; bring it tothe center of the back, sloping the tape slightly upward between theshoulder blades.
The waist measure is a snug measure around the[50]smallest part of the waist. For girls this measure should not be toosnug.
The skirt measures are taken from the waist line to the floor at thefront, at the sides over the hips, and at the back. For short skirts onemust deduct from the full lengths the number of inches desired from thefloor.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Open a pattern and see if you can tell the different parts. Whichare to be cut on a folded edge? How are you to tell which way the patternis to lie on the warp threads?
2. Practice taking a skirt measure; then, a waist measure.
TAKING MEASUREMENTS AND CUTTING OUT THE PETTICOAT
We understand our skirt patterns. Let us take our skirt measures,front and back, and, if it is necessary to change our pattern,we will decide how much to add or take off before cutting thegarments.
To change pattern. If you must add two or three inches to thelength of your pattern, this must be done as you cut. Or possibly youmay wish to shorten the pattern. If you wish to shorten it, take a plaitof one inch about in the middle of your pattern, crease, and pin it. Bytaking this plait rather than cutting off the amount from the bottom, thegood flare of the skirt is saved. Do you know what these pieces of theskirt are called which are wider at the bottom than[51]at the top? Why is a gore made such a shape? Can you think of theadvantages? In cutting from a pattern in which a plait has been laid, onemust be careful to carry the outline of the pattern evenly at the placewhere the fold of the plait comes.
Fig. 35.—The petticoat for the childrenof the home.
To lengthen a pattern. Make a straight cut across a gore aboutthe middle from side to side. Pin or paste a strip of paper the desiredextra length between the two pieces. This preserves the bottom flare. Iflength were added at the bottom, the flare would be too great.
To cut the skirts. One must study carefully the economical useof material. It is like a puzzle to fit the pattern to the cloth, so thatthe perforations are obeyed exactly and there is enough cloth for all theparts.
The girls of Pleasant Valley have decided to make the petticoats forthe children at the summer home. The ladies of the board furnished thematerials. They have chosen gingham for some and outing flannel forothers. The belts are to be made of muslin. The material is all one yardwide. By folding the outing flannel selvedge to selvedge, and placing the triple[52]perforations of the pattern of the front gore on this fold, the frontcan be cut all in one piece. It is rather a circular gore. Not all goresare the same shape. See if you can find other shaped gores in dressskirts. The two back gores of the skirt can be cut from another width.Be sure to obey the directions for placing the perforations on the warp.How many lengths of cloth are needed to cut such a skirt? How much willyou allow for hems at the bottom? As the girls of Pleasant Valley haddecided on two inches finished, they allowed 2½ inches extra in cutting.One must always think about this. All seams have been allowed on theirpatterns.
Be sure to lay all the pieces of the pattern on the cloth beforecutting. Find a flat surface. Remember that the wide end of a gore isapt to cut to better advantage at the end of the piece of cloth. Canthe gores be fitted so as to cut more economically? (Fig. 34.) Pin theparts carefully, not using too many pins. Mark all the notches withpencil, chalk, or basting thread. Do not cut notches; one is liable to becareless and to make them too large. Use long cuts, and make even edgesin cutting. Good shears help.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Draw on the blackboard different shaped dress gores whichyou have noticed.
2. With the tiny patterns of the skirt which your teacher hascut, show how to lay them most economically on the red muslinwhich represents your material.
3. What would you do if you were using a pattern which did notallow for seams?
MAKING THE PETTICOATS
Let us begin to sew the petticoats.
Notice all the notches which were marked lightly with pencil, andfollow all the steps carefully:
1. Place the two back portions so that they join the front as thenotches indicate.
2. Pin from the top of the gores.
3. Baste the three gores together with ½-inch seams, beginning at thebottom. Can you tell why?
4. Sew the seams on the wrong side, using the stitching stitch. Theback seam is to be left open five inches at the top for the placketopening.
5. Overcast all the seam edges, overcasting the two thicknesses of theseams together.
6. Turn hems at the bottom of the skirt. First, turn ¼ inch; second,turn two inches. Baste carefully, laying little plaits neatly wherenecessary on account of extra fullness. Always have the seams of theturned hem lie on seams of skirt. Sew hem with hemming stitch orfeatherstitch (see page 120).
7. Finish placket opening. On right side make ½-inch hem, thefirst turn1⁄8 and second ½ inch. Turn hem to inside of skirt. Baste[54]and hem. On left side of opening make hem ¼ inch finished.Make first turn1⁄8 and second ¼ inch. Baste and hemneatly.
8. To put the skirt on the band:
A. Cut band. Take waist measure; add to it one inch for lapping andtwo inches for the turnings, one at each end of band. Cut band lengthwiseof the muslin, with the warp threads, and twice the desired widthfinished plus ½ inch for turnings.
B. Gather petticoat ¼ inch from edge, with two gathering threads onebelow the other. Divide skirt in half; gather from center front to backat right side, and from center front to back at left side.
C. Turn in ends of band one inch. Pin center of band to center frontof petticoat, right side of band to right side of petticoat. Pin so thatthe edge of band is even with the gathered edge of skirt. Pin ends ofband to the gathered back portions of skirt, with ends of bands to endsof gathers. Turn gathers towards worker, and distribute in same manner aswhen attaching yoke of apron to the apron skirt. Baste ¼ inch fromedge of band, and between the two rows of gathering stitches. Sew withstitching stitch. Turn band over to wrong side. Turn in ¼ inch.Baste and hem flat. Overhand[55]the turned-in ends of the band neatly.
D. Finish with buttonhole and button at back, or with twobuttonholes, to button to waist. If the skirt is to be attached in thisway, a buttonhole should be made in the center front of the band also.This should be up and down in the band.
The girls of Pleasant Valley had a surprise party, when the apronswere finished, and went to the Fresh Air Home. This was in June beforeschool closed. Some of the summer children had arrived. The girls madecookies at home and had a real party with the children.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Tell how the putting on of the skirt band differs from putting onthe apron yoke.
2. Do you know of any other kind of placket finish besides theone which you have made in the skirt? Tell where you have seenit.
REVIEW PROBLEMS
I. Can you make a useful bag on which the following stitches mightbe used: basting, running, hemming, stitching stitch, overhanding,buttonhole?
II. Plan another article, using as many of these stitches as possible,and cutting the article from a pattern. Try to make this at home forschool credit. Miss James of Pleasant Valley has a kind of score cardwhich she uses in marking the girls. Perhaps your teacher will give youcredit for your home work.
SCORE CARD
| Girl's name___________________________ | |
| I. Article______________________________ | |
| A. General appearance | |
| 1. General neatness of sewing | 10% |
| 2. Cleanliness | 15% |
| 3. Appropriateness of material | 25% |
| B. Hand work | |
| 1. Regularity of stitches | 25% |
| 2. Suitability of stitches | 25% |
| —— | |
| 100% |
THE GIRLS OF PLEASANT VALLEY SCHOOL LEARNTO MAKE SIMPLE GARMENTS
This year the girls of the Sewing League of PleasantValley will receive credit for the garments they make. Miss James willhelp the girls to start the garments at school and will give full creditif the work is completed neatly. A nightdress, a petticoat, corset cover,or under slip, and perhaps a white summer dress skirt will be made. Theschool board has just furnished a machine, so Miss James is planning toteach the girls to use it. Many of them can practice at home too. Mrs.Stark, who has two machines, told Mollie she might bring the girls at anytime for practice. Can you plan to learn to stitch at your school? Thereare many things one does not wish to sew by hand, and does not have timeto make in that way. Not long ago Miss Travers, who came from the StateAgricultural College to speak to the Mothers' Club at Pleasant Valley,told them that often people do not use good common sense about thisquestion. She said there are times when[58]one wishes to make garments and articles by hand, but it is foolish to doso when one has other duties in life to perform which are more important.Handmade garments are very beautiful to look at, but when they mean thesacrifice of health, because one has remained indoors to make them, theyappear less beautiful. Miss Travers and the mothers had a long discussionabout the wages paid in large cities to women who do this fine work. MissTravers said the wage paid is usually very low.
SOME COTTON MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR UNDERWEAR
Suppose you order the muslin for your nightdress and, while waitingfor it to arrive, learn about the cotton materials which can be used forunderwear. Can you add a whole page of white materials to your textilebooks?
Suppose you open the surprise box on your teacher's desk.It is quite full. Let us sort the samples and examine the white ones,especially, to-day; for your underwear is to be made of white cottonmaterial. Let us look also at the ones which are almost white. They areunbleached white; the others have been bleached with a chemical to makethem look so snowy white. They have been dipped in a bath of chloride oflime, and then in another bath of water and sulphuric acid, until thematerial has become white.
Do you know how our grandmothers used to bleachsheets and other unbleached articles which they wished[59]to have white? Grandmother Allen used to bleach those she made onher hand loom. Why did they place them on the grass in the sun? Whatbleached them? This unbleached sample ismuslin; it is forsheets. Here is some white which is of the same plain weave. Theunbleached is cheaper. It comes one yard wide and can be bought for 5cents and, in better qualities, up to 15 cents per yard. It wears verywell—better than bleached muslin. Can you tell why? It is used forsheets and pillowcases. We may later make a pair of pillowcases from thisunbleached muslin. The white muslin can be bought in a cheap quality for7 cents a yard; and it may also be bought in finer qualities. Here is apiece of Alpine rose muslin from our sample box. Isn't that a pretty namefor it? It is soft and much finer, and costs 30 cents a yard. Bleachedmuslins come in width from 36 to 72 inches. The wide width is used forsheetings and is woven that width that no seam may be necessary throughthe center of the sheet.
This soft, light cotton material is callednainsook. Isn'tthat a queer name? It is from an old Hindoo word for a material made andused in India. Nainsook is used for underwear and clothing for baby. Itcomes in several grades. Miss James has some coarser samples, too. It issoft and is nearly always finished, when woven, with very little dressingor starch to stiffen it. It comes 27 inches in width and varies in pricefrom 15 to 50 cents a yard.
This soft crinkly looking material is calledcotton crêpe. Itis used a great deal for underwear and for shirt waists or dresses. Itis considered very economical. Does any one know why? Yes, because it iseasily washed and, when hung out in the fresh air and sunshine, does notneed to be ironed. Think of all the time saved. The little crinkles dryin place and look well. It costs from 12 to 15 cents per yard, and comesabout 30 inches wide.
This piece is acambric. It is a firm plain weave and is goodfor underwear. This quality is fine, and its name is Berkeley cambric.Some grades of cambric are coarser and are called cambric muslin. Theyare glazed and smooth in finish, and are used for linings and for otherpurposes. That name is also foreign, from Cambrai, France. Cambric iswoven a yard wide and costs from 10 to 25 cents per yard. It is verydurable material for underwear, not quite so heavy as muslin, andstrong.
Dimity is thin. Look at this piece. Mollie had a dress madeof it last summer. It is sheer and light, and has little cords or ribs.It is always easy to recognize on that account. It is used for summerdresses, sometimes for dainty underwear; but it is not suitable forunderwear which must have hard usage every day. It costs from 15 to 50cents per yard and is woven about a yard wide. Sometimes it comes incolors and also with pretty printed figures on it. See, here are someprinted ones. What dainty patterns and colors![61]Would you like a dress of one of these? Miss James has found two otherthin, sheer, white ones. There are so many I wonder if we can rememberall. This thin one islawn and is a plain weave. It comes ininexpensive qualities at 5 cents and in better qualities for 25 cents.The width varies from 36 to 40 inches. Do you know of anything at homeor in school, made of lawn? Yes, dresses, aprons, curtains. It comes incolors too; here is a pretty blue. It is smooth and starched and pressedwhen one buys it.
This other is soft but not so starched. It is calledmull.That is a Hindoo word, too. Do you remember that cotton was grown inIndia many years before we had it in America; that is why the cottonmaterials so often have Indian names. Mull is too fine for underwear, butit is used for pretty white dresses.
Here are two heavy white samples; one is calledIndian head,and the otherduck. Such strange names! Do you know their uses?Perhaps your mother had a skirt last summer of duck or Indian Head. Mrs.Alden of Pleasant Valley had one. Both these cotton materials wear well.The duck is used for men's trousers, also; and in very heavy qualities,it is used for sails or tents and awnings. John Alden's first longtrousers were made of duck. How important he felt! Duck is sometimescolored blue or other colors. It varies in width from 27 to 36 inches andcosts from 12 cents up. The Indian head is used for the same purposes asduck and comes in the same width for[62]about the same price,—15 cents a yard up, according to quality.
Fig. 36.—A towel which Miss James usesat school.
We shall have time to study about only two more to-day. They are bothheavy. This isgalatea, and comes in white, like this sample, or incolors. It is firm like duck and Indian head. Can you tell for what itis used? Have you ever seen any before? It is used for dress skirts, andvery often for girls' middy blouses or children's clothes. It washes verywell. It is 27 inches wide and costs from 14 to 25 cents a yard.
The last sample is cottonbirdseye orhuckaback. It is sold by theyard or by the piece. It costs less per yard to buy it by the piece of10 yards. It varies in cost, according to quality, and is woven from 18to 27 inches wide. We also have huckaback towels made of cotton or linenor a mixture of cotton and linen. Here is one which Miss James uses atschool (Fig. 36).
I wonder who can go to the board and make a list of all the new whitematerial we have found in the surprise box. Shall we put them in oursample book? Who will write the use of each, opposite the name? If you[63]cannot remember the prices and widths, look on the samples; many aremarked, especially those which have come from the town store. Which doyou think will be best for your nightgowns? Yes, cambric, nainsook, ormuslin. Which will be softest and lightest? Which is the heaviest ofthese three? Shall we use the muslin? It is strong and will wear well.Shall we choose this piece? It is 10 cents a yard. How much shall weneed? We shall talk about it next lesson. Any one who wishes to use theunbleached muslin which costs 7 cents, may do so; or the finer nainsookwhich is 15 cents a yard. How can the unbleached be made white as it isused?
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Look up the story of how cloth is bleached in any of thelibrary books on textiles, or in the encyclopedia.
2. Add six cotton materials you have just studied about, to yourtextile sample books.
3. Decide what kind of white material you wish to use for yournightdress.
SELECTING PATTERN AND CLOTH FOR NIGHTDRESS
Suppose you decide about the pattern for your nightdresses,and send for the cloth and pattern.
Fig. 37.—A Pleasant Valley girl in akimono nightdress.
A kimono nightdress. Miss James has a book of patterns; perhapsyour teacher has. Let us look at them. Here are the nightdresses. Thispicture (Fig. 37) is a kimono nightdress; that means the sleeves arecut with the gown all in one, not made separately and sewed in. Thisname kimono is Japanese and means a loose garment. The picture shows aPleasant Valley girl in a kimono nightdress. Miss James says there isonly one piece to this pattern and the nightdress is easy to make. Theway to measure for the amount of material for such a gown is to take thelength from the shoulder at the side of the neck to the floor and addthree inches for a hem. This gown can be cut without any shoulder seams,all in one piece. So you will need twice the length from shoulder tofloor and hem. Why? If the cloth is one yard or more wide, it will notbe necessary to piece the gown; so be sure to choose material which is ayard wide. Is there any one now who does not know how to measure for thematerial for the kimono nightdress? Let all write an order for a kimononightdress pattern and for the muslin. Take each other's measures firstand add together the amount of cloth needed. It will be easier to sendone order for[65]all. The best letter will be chosen to send to the store.As some girls are large and some small for their ages,it will be wise to order one pattern 12-year size, andanother 14-year size.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. How much cloth will be needed for a kimono nightdress ifthe measure of the girl from shoulder to floor is 55 inches? Howmuch do you suppose the Pleasant Valley girl in the picture needed?
HOW COTTON CLOTH IS WOVEN
Not long ago we learned how the cotton plant furnishes us withcotton for clothing. There are many people who help in changingthe cotton from fiber to cloth. While you are waiting for the cottonmaterial and the pattern, shall we study how cotton cloth is made?
Cotton is used for many things. We learned that cotton isshipped in bales of 500 pounds each from the United States to all partsof the world. The manufacturer receives it at the factory and changesit by many processes into what he wishes to sell. Some manufacturersmake only cotton threads of various kinds, for sewing, knitting, andcrocheting. Others make cotton cloth of one variety or of severalvarieties. We know there are many kinds manufactured. Others makeabsorbent cotton, gauze, and such things for surgical use for the sick.Some make hosiery, gloves, towels; and others make knitted underwear, or laces[66]and embroideries. Others use cotton for war purposes, for guncotton. JohnAlden said he did not know that cotton is used for so many things.
Fig. 38.—Miss James' little loom.
Fig. 39.—A small loom made from abox cover.
The loom for weaving cotton. We have learned that cloth ismade of threads which run lengthwise, called the warp threads, and ofcrosswise threads, called the filling or woof. The machine for holdingthe threads and doing the work is called a loom. What is the firm edgewhich is woven called? Look at Miss James' little loom (Fig. 38). Itshows the warp, and the filling yarn as it passes over and under andmakes the firm edge as it turns each trip back and forth around the edgethreads. If you have never woven a piece of material, suppose you takea box cover and make a small loom. The picture (Fig. 39) shows one madeat Pleasant Valley School. Did you ever see your grandmother weave on aloom? Look at the picture (Fig. 40) of a grandmother weaving on a clothloom. It is not Grandmother Allen, although she knows how[67]to weave. The warp threads are rolled up on a big roller at the back ofthe loom and are extended to the cloth roller at the front near where shesits. She holds the filling thread in her hand. It is wound on a bobbinwhich fits in the shuttle. She throws the shuttle from side to side andworks her feet to alternate the warp threads, in order that the fillingthread may go over and under, and make the cloth. Look at the shuttlein the picture (Fig. 41); it holds the bobbin of thread. There are manykinds of looms. To-day cloth is woven on looms run by machinery. It ismuch easier and quicker than working by hand, and so cotton cloth can bemade more cheaply. Frank Allen says he saw a loom at the silk factory hevisited. If it were not for machines, our clothes would cost much morethan they do. Think of all the people who help to give us our cottonclothes, from the planter who sows the seed to the manufacturer whose menprepare and weave it. Have you ever visited a cloth factory and seen themany machines and heard the great[68]buzzing noise which they make? It is a busy place. Some factories makeonly warp, or filling, yarns. They are called spinning factories ormills (Fig. 46). They send their product to the other manufacturers whohave only weaving machines for making the yarns into cloth. It is about130 years (1789) since the first cotton mill was started in the UnitedStates, and only a few years longer since the first mill was started inEngland. Before that time, people of different countries made their ownlooms according to the ways they thought out. As men felt the need ofclothing to[69]wear, they tried to make cloth; and we find all kinds of primitive loomsas their invention. Can you look up the meaning of primitive? Notice thetwo pictures (Figs. 43 and 44) of primitive people weaving. The Indiangirl is holding the shuttle in her right hand; the loom is fastened tosomething and is also attached at her belt. In that way the warp threadsare held securely while she passes the filling back and forth. On page136 you will find a picture (Fig. 81) of a Japanese girl weaving silk.Notice the loom; find the roller holding the warp yarn. Find the shuttlewhich she uses to throw the filling yarn. Can you tell where she rollsthe cloth[70]as it is woven? Under her elbows in the picture is a cloth roller onwhich she rolls up the woven cloth as she weaves and unrolls the warpfrom the warp roller. Isn't this a wonderful story? We have not yetlearned how the cotton is made into the warp and filling ready to bewoven. We shall save that part of the story for to-morrow. The PleasantValley girls and boys enjoyed this part of the story about cotton and areanxious for Miss James to tell some more.
Courtesy of Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass.
Fig. 40.—"In days gone by."
Fig. 41.—The shuttle holding thebobbin of yarn.
Courtesy of Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass.
Fig. 42.—A weaving room in a modern factory.
Courtesy of Smithsonian Institute, Bureau of American Ethnology.
Fig. 43.—Indian girl weaving a belt by hand.
Fig. 44.—Another primitive loom and a girl spinning. The distaff with the woolfor spinning is held under the girl's arm.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Try to make a simple loom. Take a piece ofcardboard 10 × 12 inches. Make a row of holes about ¼ inch apartone inch from the top; another row ¼ inch apart one inch frombottom. String the warp back and forth from hole to hole so it looks likethe picture (Fig. 39). Weave a piece of cloth with the filling threadwhich goes over and under.
2. Visit a weaving factory if you can.
3. See if you can spin a piece of carded wool. Perhapsyou can card some wool with the hand cards which your great grandmotherused, as the Pleasant Valley girls did.
4. Try to collect pictures of spinning. The primitivepeoples did this in different ways.
THE SPINNING OF COTTON INTO YARN
How the manufacturer turns the cotton into yarn ready for the weaver.This is called spinning. Shall we study how it is done?
Perhaps there is some one in your class who has visited a spinningmill and can tell how cotton is cleaned and made ready for weaving. Thisis what the girls of the Sewing League of Pleasant Valley saw the daythey went to visit the mill. The Camp Fire girls went the same day, andMiss Ashly, their guardian, said that what they learned would count as anhonor.
Fig. 45.—The cotton carding machine, which cleansthe cotton.
Courtesy of Leonard & Green, Boston.
Fig. 46.—A cotton spinning room.
How cotton is prepared for spinning. The girls went to thelower floor where the cotton is received. They saw the bags and ironbands removed and the cotton pulled apart by a queer machine called acotton opener, or bale breaker, for you remember the cotton was pressedvery hard before being shipped. The cotton is then placed in pickers, ormachines which blow it apart and blow out the[73]leaves and dust and dirt. As the cotton leaves this machine, it lookslike a big piece (6 ft. wide) of cotton batting rolled in a large roll.It looks soft and clean. Then the girls watched the men place this rollat the back of the next machine, called a carding machine (Fig. 45). Hereit was cleaned some more; and such a wonderful thing happened. As it leftthe machine instead of coming out as a lap of the roll of cotton likeit went in, it came out in a long thick coil which looked like a rope,and there were tall round cans ready to receive this continuous line ofcotton rope. How soft and beautiful it looked! What wonderful[74]machines the manufacturer had. Some one must have made them. Can you findout who made the first loom run by machinery? John Alden looked it up inthe encyclopedia. Do you know who invented the first spinning machine?
Fig. 47.—Grandmother Allen'swheel used for spinning wool.
Then the girls visited ever so many machines which wound this cottonrope on spools. Each machine made the rope thinner and finer until it wasdrawn out as thin and round as the manufacturer wished (Fig. 46). BarbaraOakes noticed this: that these spinning machines not only drew out thecotton rope and made it thinner, but put in a twist which prevented itfrom breaking so easily. Do you remember how the cotton fiber lookedunder the microscope? The twist in the fiber helps in the spinning. Isn'tit wonderful to think that such tiny fibers can be made into spinningyarns, and yarns woven into cloth?
Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Fig. 48. —The flax wheel.
How cotton is spun. Did you ever see any one spin by hand? Oneday the Girls' League went to Marjorie Allen's grandmother's house. Shetook the girls to the attic and showed them her grandmother's spinningwheels (Fig. 47). There was a large one for spinning woolen yarn. Thisshe called the great wheel. Then there was a small one called the flaxwheel (Fig. 48) for spinning flax, or linen, into yarn for weaving.Grandmother sat down and showed them how to spin (Fig. 49). She pressedher foot on the treadle just like a sewing machine; and the wheels wentround. The flax was on a little holder called a distaff. See the pictures(Figs. 48 and 49) of the wheels. She held and drew the flax while thewheels of the machine put in the twist. That is just what the modernspinning machine does, but it can accomplish much more in an hour thangrandmother did in a day. Still it is a great satisfaction to possesssome of the beautiful old textiles spun and woven by grandmother's hands.The girls had the pleasure of opening a great chest in the attic andlooking at the hand-woven sheets and coverlets which Grandmother Allenprizes so highly.[76]Barbara Oakes and Mollie Stark fairly clapped their hands and said, "Howbeautiful the colors are." The coverlets were made of wool and cottonyarns. Grandmother showed the girls the hand cards which she used when agirl in helping her mother prepare wool into carded rolls for spinning.Do you remember that the cotton at the factory passed through a cardingmachine to be cleaned and made into a cotton rope? Grandmother toldthe girls she used to do the same for wool. She used the little handcards and drew the boards with the fine teeth back and forth to cleanthe fibers, and then made little rolls for the great wheel to spin. Thepicture (Fig. 50) shows how[77]the hand cards are used. Wasn't that a long, tedious process?
Courtesy of Miss Mary E. Hoag.
Fig. 49.—Grandmother Allen sat at her flax wheel and showed the girls how tospin.
Courtesy of Miss Mary E. Hoag.
Fig. 50. —Grandmother Allen carding wool by hand.
Perhaps at your school you can have an exhibit ofold industrial things once used in the home. Maybe your grandmother hassomething in the attic—some cards, or wheels, or old hand-wovenmaterials. If you have a Girls' Sewing League, the girls will, perhaps,send out invitations and invite the mothers and grandmothers. The girlscan prepare some coffee and cookies at school to serve the afternoonof the exhibit. The Pleasant Valley girls had such an afternoonentertainment and earned five dollars for their school fund. They willprobably buy some dishes for the school lunch.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Try to find some pictures of very primitive spinning. Canyou make a spindle?
2. What does the process of carding do to the cotton or wool?
3. Plan an exhibition of old coverlets and other old hand-woventextiles. Invite your parents and friends.
CUTTING OUT A NIGHTDRESS
Fig. 51.—Laying thenightdress pattern onthe cloth.
The patterns and muslin have probably arrived. Suppose you cut outyour nightdress.
Miss James kept a memorandum of the amounts of material needed by eachgirl for her gown, and she has divided the cloth. She has, also, cut withBarbara's help several patterns from the commercial pattern, so that allmay begin to work at once. Miss James has had such nice boards arrangedand fastened with hinges to the walls under the blackboards. They areso convenient for cutting and can be let down out of the way when notneeded.
Placing the pattern and cutting the material. Let us look atour patterns. Some girl will, perhaps, read aloud what the pattern saysin the description printed on the outside or on the envelope of thiscommercial pattern. Who will hold up the nightdress pattern, showing howit is related to the figure? Who can tell what the small group of dots onthe edge means? Who remembers how we can tell about laying the pattern[79]correctly on the warp of the material? Those two things are important.It is also necessary to plan so as to waste as little as possible. Somegirls will find that their patterns are too long. Measure from theshoulder at the neck of your nightdress pattern, and see if it is longeror shorter than your measure. If the pattern is too long, fold up thenecessary portion. If too short, do not forget you must allow extra whenpinning the pattern on the cloth. How much of the whole nightdress doesthis pattern give? If only one-half is given, the nightdress must be cuton a fold; back and front in one with a hole for the neck, as it slipsover the head. How shall we fold the cloth so as to cut on a fold? Whichedge of the pattern shall be placed on the fold? Have you placed it mosteconomically on the cloth? Not an inch should be wasted. The pattern mayor may not allow for seams. What will you do if it does not? If you mustadd for your hem at the bottom, do not forget to mark, with a fine pencilmark, the allowance for hem beyond the pattern. So you see[80]there are many things to remember. Can you all cut out your nightdressesto-day and baste ¼-inch seams under the arms? Pin your seams carefullybefore basting. Instead of the sharp angle under the arm, which thekimono nightdress usually gives, cut a good curve. Your teacher will helpyou. The curve makes a better line and is easier to finish. The piecesleft must be rolled carefully, and your name must be written on theoutside of the roll. We may need the pieces later.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Cut a free-hand pattern of a kimono nightdress for your doll.
2. Show, with a piece of newspaper to represent the cloth, howthe pattern can be placed economically.
THE PARTS OF A SEWING MACHINE
Shall we examine the new machine to-day and learn to run it?You must practice before sewing your seams.
Courtesy of Wilcox and Gibbs Sewing Machine Co.
Fig. 52.—Single thread machine.
Do you know that sewing machines were invented less than onehundred years ago? Our great-grandmothers had to do all theirsewing by hand, and some of our grandmothers too. A man by the name ofElias Howe, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, first thought about the sewingmachine; and since then many different kinds have been invented, to berun by foot and also by mechanical power,—electricity. We have twokinds of foot-power machines. One kind (Fig. 52) has only one[81]thread, which is placed on a spool on top; and the other (Fig. 53), thetwo-thread or double-thread, is like the one we have at school. Thedouble-thread machine is called a lock-stitch machine, because one threadis on top on a spool and the other is on a little spool called a bobbinin the shuttle under the plate. The two threads lock together as themachine works. You will learn how later. The machine with only one threadon top is called a chain-stitch machine. The stitching made by it ripsvery easily; and the ends must be fastened carefully when one stops. Thedouble-thread machine does not rip easily; and one can stitch on either the[82]right or wrong side of a garment. On the single-thread machine, one muststitch on the right side always. Let us look at a machine before learningto operate it.
What parts do you find below the table? What use is theconnecting rod? What does it connect? Watch how your teacher puts herfeet on the treadle. What makes the wheel above the table turn around?
Courtesy of New Home Sewing Machine Co.
Fig. 53.—Double-thread machine.
You should practice running the machine first without any thread soas to learn to use the treadle well, and then with paper to see if youare holding it straight and making rows of pricks which are straight andeven. If one cannot make rows of even pricks, it means the sewing will becrooked and must be ripped. Some of the Pleasant Valley girls practicedin this way at home.
What do you find besides the wheel above the table? The shafthas many parts. Can you name some? Yes, the spool holder, which holds thespool; the needle bar, which holds the needle and moves up and down; thefoot, which is called the presser foot and can be raised or lowered bythe little handle; the needle plate, through which the needle works; thefeed, which is like[83]little rough teeth of a comb and helps to push the cloth along as onestitches. The little attachment near the wheel is for winding bobbinsfor the shuttle. The shuttle lies in the shuttle race under the plate.Suppose we move the plate and take it out. See, the bobbin is in theshuttle. This is the second thread.
How do you regulate the machine? Jane asked Miss James aboutthe screws. There are usually two large ones on the double-threadmachines which are important. One screw is to make the stitch larger orsmaller; we say, to regulate it. Miss James showed the girls how to dothis. The second screw is to regulate the tightness of the thread. Itis called a tension. Press your thumb and first finger tightly togetherand pass a thread between them. When you do not press very hard, thethread passes easily. When you press hard, it is difficult to draw thethread through, and the thread may break. Have you tried? The tension isregulated by a screw which presses two little plates together. The threadpasses between the plates. When they are loose like your fingers, thethread passes easily; when tight, it breaks. So, in threading a machine,we must learn where the tension plates are, in order to pass the threadbetween them, and how the screw is turned to make the plates tight orloose. Your teacher will show you how to turn the screws.
To-day, while some girls are finishing the basting, others may try torun the machine, in turn. This is what you are to do:
1. Find all the parts whose names have been put on theblackboard, above table and below table.
2. Learn to treadle evenly.
3. Learn to raise and lower the presser foot on apiece of brown paper, and to stitch without thread. Keep the rows ofpricks very even.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Study your machine. Find all the parts above the table; below thetable.
2. What is the purpose of a tension? Show how it operates.
3. Learn to stitch, without a thread, even rows of pricks on brownpaper.
4. See how much you can tell mother about the machine, when you gohome.
PRACTICE IN THREADING AND RUNNING THE MACHINE
Let us learn to thread the double thread machine and practicestitching. This requires much care, but is not difficult. The PleasantValley girls enjoyed this lesson very much.
As we learned, there are many different makes of sewing machines. Allare based on the principles of the one invented by Mr. Howe. If we knowthe important points to remember in threading a machine, it will be veryeasy to follow the book of directions which comes with the machine. Thenames of some machines are the New Home, Domestic, Singer, Wilcox andGibbs.
Here are the things to think about in threading:
1. Find the spool holder, and put the spool on it.
2. Find all the little eyes and holes through which the thread mustpass. The book of directions will help.
3. Find the tension. Be sure the thread passes between the tensionplates and pulls evenly.
4. Find the needle, and thread it from left to right, towards thewheel.
5. Find the shuttle. Look at your book of directions.
Miss James helped Barbara to put the bobbin in its place, and tothread it into the shuttle. Ask your teacher to help you if you do notknow how.
6. Put the shuttle back in the shuttle holder.
7. Turn the wheel and hold the upper thread. This will bring the underthread up through the little hole in the needle plate.
Both threads should be on top before beginning to stitch.
Now you are ready to begin to practice stitching with a thread.
Try to remember these things, while stitching with a thread:
1. To treadle evenly.
2. To hold the material on the table at the left hand and to pass iton lightly. Do not pull it or push it with your left hand.
3. To turn corners evenly. Have the needle down in cloth.Raise the presser foot and turn the work. Put the foot down andcontinue.
4. Be sure to turn the wheel in the proper direction, or the threadwill break.
5. Practice stitching parallel rows. Make good square corners.Use some scraps of cloth for this sewing, and practice athome.
Those who have not practiced on the machine may do so during studyperiods, if there is time. We can move the machine into the coat room.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Barbara Oakes does not turn good square corners on herpractice piece. Why?
2. Marjorie says her thread breaks every time she starts. Why?
3. Show some one how you can bring the under thread upthrough the needle plate, preparatory to stitching.
4. Practice threading the machine, following book directionsif you do not know how.
5. Practice rows of good straight stitching.
THE FRENCH SEAM AND ITS USE
What kind of seams shall we make on our nightdresses? Howshall we finish the bottom? The Pleasant Valley girls did mostof this at school in one lesson, but finished at home.
Fig. 54.—The French seam. First sewing near raw edges.
Making French seams on the nightdress. We havelearned that our dish towels had to be hemmed becauseof the raveling of material. Anything which is to bewashed a great deal must have its raw edges finishedin such a way that they will not ravel. As nightdresses[87]are washed often, we must make our seams so that theedges will not pull out. Who can name other garmentswhich are washed often? Who can tell what we cando to prevent edges from fraying? Yes, we might makesmall stitches, called overcasting, on the edge of a plainseam. There is another way, which we shall learnto-day. It is called a French seam. The French seamis sewed twice. The seam is basted as you have done,on the right side of the garment; seams are usuallybasted on the wrong side. Then, the seam is sewedclose to the basting stitches. We shall sew ours bymachine. The French seam is used on some garmentsmade by hand. The first sewing (Fig. 54), then, is a tinyrow of running stitches, close to the basting. Afterthe first sewing, the basting should be removed and theedges trimmed to a 1⁄8 inch seam. This must be donecarefully. Then, turn the garment to the wrong side.Press and pinch the seams evenly so that the sewing of[88]the seam is exactly on top of the fold as you pinch it.Next, baste again ¼ inch from edge, and sew the secondtime, by machine. This seam is often used on daintyhandmade underwear. Then, the second sewing istwo runs and a back stitch, like that you used on youraprons, and is made by hand. What must we be carefulabout, then, in making the French seams on our nightdresses?
Fig. 55.—The French seam. Second sewing.
Making the hem of the nightdress. How much wasallowed for the hems at the bottom of the nightdresses? Everybody knowshow to turn a hem. The first turning is ¼ inch; and the wideturning, 3 inches. All use your gauges or tape measures; and turn and pinand baste carefully before stitching. Who can tell why the tiny plaitsare necessary at the hem turning? Where shall we lay them? Yes, at theseams and between, if necessary.
Now you will have plenty to do to finish seams and[89]hem. The Pleasant Valley girls, after this lesson, finished theirs athome.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Show on a practice piece how a French seam is made:
a. By hand.
b. By machine.
2. Name some garments or articles on which the French seammight be used. Why?
3. What are the important things to remember in turning thehems at the bottom of the nightdresses?
PROTECTION FOR THE BODY AT NIGHT
Do you know that clothes help to keep us well? Mollie Starkwishes to know what kind of clothing should be worn at night.
What should be done about clothing at night? We have learnedthat, in order to keep well, we must think about the right kind ofclothing as well as food. Grown people sometimes forget about this; andgrowing girls and boys, too. The body must be kept clean; and clothingworn next to it should also be kept clean at night as well as during theday. Who can remember how many pints of water the normal body gives offeach day? It loses about three pints in 24 hours. Can you recall whatbecomes of this waste? Yes, some is evaporated, but some is collected byour clothes; that is why they are soiled as they collect the perspirationand excretions, although often they do not look[90]soiled. The day garments should be hung up at night in a place where theywill air and dry out by morning. They should not be shut up in a closet.Different clothing should be worn at night. A muslin nightdress, likethose you are making, is usually suitable for six or seven months ofthe year; but some of us who live in the country or in houses not wellheated require warmer clothing at night. Old people and babies, as wellas sick people, require more clothing because they are not able to resistthe cold as easily. Do you recall why? What is the normal human bodytemperature? Why is the human body called a machine?
Fig. 56.—The clothing worn during theday should be aired at night.
If our day clothing collects waste and should be aired at night,what should be done with the night clothing during the day? Yes, itshould be well aired. Have you ever noticed how the air of a room isspoiled by the odor of night clothing and of bed coverings which have notbeen properly aired? Some people roll up the nightdress and put it underthe pillow. That nightdress will not smell sweet and clean at night.Clean clothing is absolutely necessary in order to keep well. We shallsome day learn how to cleanse clothing properly, by washing. Clothingworn next to the body should be changed once a week at least, and twice or[91]three times if possible. When one works very hard andthe body sends off more waste, clothing should bechanged more often.
The body which is to wear the clean clothing should be washed everyday. It may not be possible to take a tub bath or a swim in the river orlake, but one can bathe all over with a bucket of water and a cloth andsoap. It pays, for one feels so fresh; and, then, the waste of the bodyis removed by the washing, and the pores of the skin are kept in goodcondition. When our skin is in good condition, we do not feel the cold asmuch as do those who do not bathe frequently.
Do you remember that we said our clothing must help to save some ofthe body heat? That is how clothing protects. Why must some heat besaved? We also learned that when our body works very hard much heat iscreated. Where does it go? It is not all saved. Why? Our clothing helpsto prevent the heat of the body from escaping too rapidly. We should planto wear light clothing in summer and heavier in winter, or to adapt ourclothing to the weather. This is only good sense. In summer we have cooldays, and in winter warm ones. People whose habits of living keep themindoors a great deal should be clothed lightly for a warm house and, whengoing out, should protect themselves with extra clothing. The boy or girlwho walks to school rapidly does not require as much clothing as one whorides. Can you tell why?
Have you heard that several layers of thin clothing are warmerthan one thick layer? Frank Allen says he knows why. Yes, because ofthe layers of air between the thicknesses of clothing. Still air doesnot carry the heat away, so we feel warmer with several layers of stillair. Clothing helps to keep the layers of air from conducting the heataway too rapidly. Porous clothing is always better because air can passthrough and can be collected in the meshes. Loose wool material is warmbecause it holds the air between the spaces made by the woolly fibers.Some day we shall study the wool fiber as we have the cotton, and findout why it collects air and why woolen clothes shrink. Do you think youunderstand why clothes should be changed at night? Can you tell your bigbrother at home why? Mollie Stark and Jane Smith told about this part ofthe story when they went home from school. Mrs. Stark had invited somefriends in for tea. All enjoyed hearing Mollie's story.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Why is it important to change one's clothing weekly?
2. What care should be taken of the clothing worn at night?Why?
3. How do clothes help to keep us well? Tell mother or fatherhow.
4. Look in your teacher's book on physiology. What does itsay about body temperature; about cleanliness of the skin?
5. Write the story of what you think Mollie and Jane told aboutthis subject at Mrs. Stark's tea party.
LACES AND THEIR USE
We must finish the sleeves of our nightdresses, and also the neck.Shall we use some lace? Do you know that there are many kindsof lace? How shall we sew it to the gown?
Imitation Cluny insertion $.12
Imitation Cluny edging .15
Real Cluny insertion .25
Real Cluny edging .18
German "Val" insertion .09
German "Val" edging .09
French "Val" insertion .13
French "Val" edging .13
Fig. 57.—The names and retail prices of a few good laces for underwear.
Cotton beading $.03
Linen machine-made beading .04
Linen beading .06
Real torchon insertion .24
Real torchon edging .16
Machine-made torchon insertion .07
Machine-made torchon edge .10
Irish crochet insertion .85
Irish crochet edging 1.10
Fig. 58.
Do you know that there are many kinds of lace? The day MarjorieAllen took the girls to visit her grandmother, they saw many thingsin the attic. Grandmother Allen also showed them some old lace andundergarments which were decorated with lovely embroidery. It was alldone most evenly with lovely flowers and scalloped edges, and all inwhite cotton embroidery thread. There were some dainty old laces, too.The girls learned the names of some of them. The Sewing League sent forseveral samples of modern laces of the same names. There wereclunylaces like these in the sample box. Cluny lace is often quite heavy andis used on heavy materials. The lighter cluny laces are more suitable forunderwear. The cluny laces are hand or machine made. Which do you thinkare more expensive? Have you ever seen any one make lace by hand? It issometimes done on a lace pillow with pins to outline the pattern. Thelittle bobbins of thread are thrown around the pins. Can you get from thepicture (Fig. 59) an idea of how it is done?Torchon lace is also used,but is not quite so heavy as cluny. It is either hand or machine made.Both of these are linen laces, but sometimes are imitated in cotton. Theyare not so pretty when made of cotton. It is better taste to buy of goodlace the amount one can afford than to buy a cheap imitation. If one canonly pay for a cotton lace, then choose a cotton kind, such as the lacescalledvalenciennes. The girls sent for French valenciennes and alsofor "German Val." lace edging and insertion. What is the differencebetween an edging and an insertion? The German valenciennes laces aresomewhat coarser. There are also some samples ofIrish crochet lace.The real Irish handmade crochet is done with a crochet hook, by hand.The imitations are made by machinery. Marjorie's grandmother has somereal Irish crochet and some real old valenciennes lace. It is handmadeand must have cost a great deal of money. In grandmother's day machineshad not been invented for making lace. Let us look at the samples whichMiss James has. The pictures (Figs. 57 and 58) show some of those used bythe Pleasant Valley girls. Which would you like on your gown? The Germanvalenciennes wears well and is not expensive. The machine-made linencluny or torchon lace is attractive, suitable, and it wears well. Why doyou think a[97]fine French valenciennes lace does not look well on thick muslinunderwear?
Fig. 59.—Lace being made by hand onpillows with tiny bobbins of thread.
Besides using lace, what are some other ways of finishing agarment? We shall send for our laces and also learn another way tofinish neck and sleeves, which will cost less. We can use bias bands oflawn to finish the rough edges. Cut them 2½ inches wide (see page 25),and they will be about one inch finished. The feather stitch added willmake a pretty decoration. Scalloping is easy. The gowns might be finishedwith the hand scallop around neck and sleeves, if one has the time.
We shall learn how to sew on the lace insertion or edging. Thegirls who use lace may decide to have only the edging. If insertion orbeading is used, too, it is sewed on first.
While we are waiting for the lace to come, we can prepare the edges ofthe neck and sleeves. If we use a French fell, the sewing will not showon the right side at all when the lace is entirely in place; besides,only one sewing is necessary for the hem and lace. This is how it isdone:
1. Turn to theright side of the garment at both neck and sleeveedges, a hem of1⁄8 inch. The first turning must, also, be1⁄8 inch.Baste very carefully with small stitches.
2. Turn these hems backward to wrong side and crease so thatthe edge of the turned hem is exactly at the finished edge of thegarment. This is where the lace is to be sewed. We shall learnhow to sew on the lace next lesson.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Bring to school all the samples of lace you can find at home.With your teacher's help compare and discuss their uses. Mount the bestsamples for an exhibit.
2. Ask your family and friends to show you any old pieces of lace theymay have.
3. Consult the encyclopedia or other books, and see if you can learnmore about how lace is made. There are several good books all aboutlace.
TRIMMING THE NIGHTDRESS
A new way to sew on lace by hand, and an inexpensive way totrim the nightdress.
Did you find it very difficult to turn the narrow hem around theneck of your nightdress? Jane Smith almost cried; but Miss Jameshelped her a little. It is always more difficult to turn a hem on acurved edge than on a straight edge. If the turns have both been madethe same width and if the basting stitches are small, there will be nodifficulty. After the hems have been turned backwards and creased to thewrong side, we are ready to sew on the insertion. Hold the insertionstraight with the right side to the right side of the gown, and with theedge of the insertion to the edges of the creased hem. Now great caremust be taken. The overhanding stitch is to be used. You learned thisstitch on the bean bags (page 28). In taking the stitch be very carefulto put the needle[99]through theedge of the hem,the creased edge,and the lace. Thesewing will not be neat unless all these edges are caught by this sewing.This is important.
If one wishes, it is possible to use only the lace edging withoutthe insertion. Sew it to the gown in the same way one would sew itto the insertion. Towards the worker hold the lace just a little full.Sometimes one can pull the thread at the edge of the lace and use it asa gathering thread; but, as not much fullness is required, it is verysatisfactory to hold the lace a little full with the thumb as one sews.Small overhanding stitches will hold the fullness as it is distributedevenly. The right side of the lace is placed towards the right side ofthe insertion so that the two edges of lace and insertion are overhandedtogether. Sometimes, if the neck of a gown is too big and one wishesto make it smaller, tucks can be put in groups at the center front orback, in number according to the amount to be taken up. In calculatingfor tucks, one must remember that the tuck takes up twice the amountof material as the width of tuck desired, and covers its own width inlying flat. If tucks are used to make the neck size smaller, it will befound more satisfactory to put a narrow facing around the neck beforetrimming.
To seam the ends of lace, make a plain seam on the wrong side. Lay itflat, turn under the two edges together, and hem in a narrow hem.
A pretty way to finish the edges of neck and sleevesis with bias bands. Cut strips as for the pot holder (see[100]page 25). White, pink, or blue lawn may be used for contrast. Cut thebands 2½ inches wide. They will look one inch wide finished. Place on theright side, right of lawn to right of gown. Make ¼ inch seam and stitch.Turn to wrong side. Turn under ¼ inch and hem to wrong side. Another wayto finish is to baste the band and decorate it with the featherstitch tohold the turning. This stitch is a pretty decoration (see page 120). Itis placed on the right side and at the bottom of the band. It should bemade with white cotton embroidery thread; #25 D.M.C. cotton is very goodfor such finishings.
Fig. 60.—Nightdress with sleeves set in, andsleeves and neck finished with bias bands.
The neckband will need a tape or a ribbon to hold the fullness of theband close to the neck. The binding should be started and finished at thefront, and the ends of binding should be turned in (Fig. 60). This willleave an opening where the ribbon can be run in. This is a satisfactoryfinish and is not expensive. The lawn is 12 or 15 cents a yard; and ½yard will cut enough bands for several girls' gowns. The D.M.C. cotton[101]will cost only two cents a skein. Send for these in time.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Can you suggest any other finish for the nightdress?
2. If you should wish to add 3 tucks each ½ inch wide at thebottom of your gown and with ½ inch space between them, howmany extra inches in length would you have to add to your gownlength? The Pleasant Valley girls worked this out in their arithmeticclass.
CHOOSING A PATTERN AND MATERIAL FOR A WHITE PETTICOAT
Do you think you can send for the cotton material and for apattern for a petticoat? What kind of cloth will you use? Perhapsyou would prefer to make a slip instead of a skirt.
Who can remember the names of the best cotton materials forunderwear? What shall we choose for our petticoats or slips? Lookat the pattern book and choose a simple petticoat. We shall learn tomake one with a ruffle. It is very useful in summer to wear under thindresses, although some girls may prefer to make a slip which combinespetticoat and waist. What sizes shall we order? How much cloth will berequired? We shall need three lengths of cloth for the skirt. Let us takeour length measures for the skirt, allowing four inches extra for hemand finishing. Those who wish to make ruffles of the material will needone yard extra of same cloth or of lawn. Which will be less expensive, aruffle of Hamburg embroidery edging[102]or a ruffle of lawn decorated with a fancy stitch? Which will take longerto prepare?
The girls of Pleasant Valley School decide on a pattern with fivegores. What does that mean? Would you prefer some other? Why is thefive-gored pattern a good one for the petticoat?
Fig. 61.—A simple petticoat.
The girls choose cambric for their petticoats. Some decide to buy thelawn and to make the ruffle with a simple decoration. In calculating forthe ruffle, allow 1½ times the width of the skirt. This is full enough.The depth of the ruffle is according to desire. It may be from 5 to 10inches deep. Cut it across the warp. Can you tell why? Others may decideto make a simple ruffle of the same material with a decorated hem; a fewmay use the Hamburg ruffle. Which ruffle will you decide to use for yourskirt or the bottom of your slip?
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Calculate how much material you will need for your petticoatwithout the ruffle.
2. Calculate the amount for the ruffle.
3. How will the patterns help you to make these calculations?
LEARNING TO MAKE THE PETTICOAT
The girls of Pleasant Valley have had so much practice that thepetticoat will not be a difficult task. Do you think you will find iteasy too?
Mollie Stark is delighted to make the petticoat, for she needs one towear under the new dotted Swiss dress that mother made for her birthday.She saw in the "Pleasant Valley News" that there will be an unusual saleof Hamburg edgings; and she thinks she will go to town and see if it issomething she can use. Miss James told the girls that Hamburg edgingwhich is full of holes and in which the pattern is poor and poorlyembroidered, is not worth buying. The edge is usually very weak andpulls out after one or two washings. The Hamburg edging called "blindembroidery" has no holes and is likely to be firmer.
Let us study briefly how the petticoats are to be made:
1.Cut out. Follow pattern, placing economically. Allow extra forhem, if necessary, and one inch for receiving tuck under which the rufflewill be placed. Fold pieces left over; they will be needed.
2.Pin and baste gores. Be careful to match notches—front,then side gore at each side, then back gore at each side of side gore,five in all. Pin from top down. Baste from bottom up with biasedge towards worker. Holding thus prevents stretching.
3.Make French seams by machine.
4.Make hem on bottom. Baste a two or three inch hem asplanned. Stitch. Sometimes dust ruffles of the same cloth or oflawn are placed on the bottom of the skirt instead of a hem. Theyare made about 3 or 4 inches wide and cut across warp of cloth. Theskirt is then cut 3 or 4 inches shorter, and the ruffle makes the lengthby being added at bottom under a tuck3⁄8 inch wide. This rufflehas ½ inch hem on the bottom edge and is sewed to skirt with a seamon the right side. The tuck is made directly above it and is stitchedflat to cover the raw edges. A hem at the bottom is enough, andis suitable for young girls, when a ruffle is to be added above fordecoration and fullness.
5.Prepare tuck on skirt for ruffle. Measure from bottom ofskirt depth of ruffle. At that point make a tuck3⁄8 inch deep.Baste and stitch. This must be same distance from the bottomof skirt all the way around, and on the right side of skirt. It isnot always necessary to use a tuck. A bias band can be usedinstead or a beading to cover the raw edges of the ruffle.
6.Prepare ruffle. This may be of lawn with edge hemmed anddecorated with featherstitch, or it may be of Hamburg edging orof same material with scalloped edge (see page 142). A ruffle of thesame material with a simple ½ inch hem may also be used. Thewidth of ruffle is half as full again as the width of skirt. Thedepth can be 5-10 inches as desired. Divide ruffle in quarters,and gather.
7.To join ruffle to skirt. Divide skirt in quarters. Pin quarteredruffle in place. Draw up gathering threads to fit skirt.Wind thread around pins to hold. Baste. If a receiving tuck hasbeen made, turn it down over the raw edge of ruffle and baste andstitch on very edge of tuck. If a tuck has not been made, baste[105]over the raw edges of ruffle a band of finishing braid or beading or abias strip of the same cloth as the skirt,3⁄8 inch wide; stitch on bothedges.
8.To make placket. Use straight strip 2 inches wide. Start atwaist line, right of strip to right of skirt. Sew all around placketopening. Stitch. Turn to wrong side. Hem down by hand.Lap at bottom of opening so it lies flat. Backstitch across thebottom with a slanting line of stitches. This makes a flat backwith no fullness and is called a bound placket.
9.To finish top of skirt. Cut bias strip of cloth about one inchwide; sew to right side. Turn over to wrong side even with top;turn so as to be ½ inch wide finished; stitch on edge, flat. Lapskirt in back with three buttonholes, one at waist and two belowin placket lap.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Calculate how much ruffling of Hamburg edging will beneeded for a skirt 2½ yards around.
2. Get samples of embroidery and pin to the Bulletin Board,where all the girls may see them.
3. Practice making a receiving tuck.
4. See if you can plan a section of a dust ruffle for a petticoat.Make the skirt part of brown paper with tissue for the ruffle.
HOW TO MAKE A CORSET COVER
The new problem of corset cover is not difficult, if one has learnedall the preceding lessons. Let us study how to trim this garment or thewaist of a slip.
Some of the girls of Pleasant Valley will make combinations of corsetcover and skirt, and others the corset cover (Fig. 62). They decide touse nainsook and to[106]trim them with German valenciennes lace. About 1½ yards of clothare necessary. They have sent for a simple pattern and will make thempartly by hand. Miss James gave them the following directions:
Fig. 62.—A simple corset cover.
1.To cut. Place pattern economically. Pin and cut.
2.Baste. Pin and baste underarm seams and shoulders. Sew Frenchseams by machine.
3.Make front laps. On left side make hem ¾ inch wide turned towrong side. On right front make hem turned to right side ¾ inch wide.Stitch this1⁄8 inch from each edge to form front lap. It could berun by hand if all handmade or featherstitched with tiny stitches. Thislap is for the buttonholes, which are made vertically, three or four inthe lap. If it is desired to conceal the buttons, make an extra strip forbuttonholes and stitch under the right front lap with the stitching ofhem.
4.Finish bottom. Even the bottom, and make as a finish a narrow hem¼ inch wide.
5.Gather at waist line. In center fronts and in middle of center[107]back, gather at the waist line to fit figure. Baste on inside ofwaist over these adjusted gathers a straight band ¼ inch wide, withedges turned. Baste and stitch this top and bottom to holdgathers. Waist line can, also, be finished, if desired, on right sidewith beading or with a band.
6.To finish top of cover and sleeves. Make the same finish asfor kimono night dress. This is neat and attractive. The top ofthe corset cover can be gathered to fit the figure, or tiny hand ormachine tucks of1⁄8 inch in width may be run about three inchesdeep each side of the front laps, five or six tiny ones being made oneach side, according to the amount of fullness to be taken in. Thetop can be finished with a Hamburg beading for ribbon, sewed onwith a French seam; and then lace may be overhanded on the edgeof it. The finish of the sleeves should correspond to the neck finish.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
Calculate how much beading and lace or lace alone will benecessary to trim a corset cover. Draw sketch of how it is to bedecorated.
REVIEW PROBLEMS
I. Practice sewing on the machine at home. Learn to turngood square corners and to stitch straight.
II. Plan to make a slip or some extra garment at home, using theprinciples and knowledge gained at school, in sewing seams, trimmingand making.
III. In what ways are you planning to protect your body atnight? How do you ventilate your room? How air your clothes?
LEARNING TO MAKE SOME ATTRACTIVE GIFTS FOR CHRISTMAS OR FOR A BIRTHDAYPRESENT
Perhaps you would like to surprise mother or father atChristmas time or to make a birthday gift for grandmother or auntie. Allthe Pleasant Valley School girls have made plans for Christmas. Makinggifts is not difficult, if one gives thought and time, and need not bea great expense, if one is careful to use scraps of cloth. Look in theattic or in the piece bag to see if there are any scraps of silk. If youare making a gift for mother, I am sure grandmother will help you to findsomething. Giving is much fun when one can make the gift a surprise.Grandmother Allen and Grandmother Stark are helping the Pleasant Valleygirls with their surprises. It is not the cost of a gift which counts,but the loving thought which one puts into it. A surprise birthdaypudding or cake, a surprise apron or work bag, are all things into whichwe can put loving thought. Who said the "gift without the giver is bare"?What does that mean? Have[109]you ever given a gift or received one into which no loving thought hadbeen put? See how much happier you will feel when you give thought,too.
The girls of the Pleasant Valley Sewing League think they will makesomething for their fair. Miss James has a box full of samples of silkfrom a wholesale house, which were given to her. She says the girls mayhave them. Some of the pieces are very large and can be used for manythings. Next lesson you might do as they did, and all bring any piecesyou may have and see what can be made from them.
THE STORY OF HOW SILK IS PRODUCED
Do you know that a tiny little worm gives us our silk dresses, hairribbons, neckties, gloves, stockings, and many other useful things? Doyou know how the worm makes the silk? It is a very wonderful story. Letus study about silk to-day.
In the picture (Fig. 63) you will see one of the silkworms full-grown.The mother and father were beautiful moths. The mother moth lays thelittle eggs on the leaves of the mulberry tree because they are good foodfor her baby worms. The sunshine and warmth hatch the little eggs. Theeggs are like pinheads, and are smaller than tiny grains of chopped cornwhich you feed your chickens. Your mother hen sets on the eggs until thewarmth makes the chicks grow, but the sunshine starts the tiny moth eggs.[110]Soon a little baby worm comes out and is as small as a tiny thread. Itgrows and grows and eats and eats, until it is about three inches longand nearly as thick around as one of your fingers, as the picture shows(Fig. 63). It takes about a month for the worm to grow so large. It mustbe tended very carefully and given the right food, or it will die. Thefood must be chopped fine. It is like preparing milk for baby; is it not?They must, also, be kept very clean in order to grow. Cleanliness alwayshelps animals, as well as people, to grow.
Courtesy of Corticelli Silk Co. Copyright, 1896, Nonotuck Silk Co.
Fig. 63.—Corticelli silkworm, eating.
Have you heard that there are some countries where the silkwormgrows better than in others? Can you name the countries producing themost silk? You have learned that in your geography. Yes, Japan and Chinaand Italy. Yes, and France and Asia[111]Minor, too. Do you think the United States produces very much silk? Whynot? In the countries named, labor is not so expensive. Silkworms requiremuch care and labor.
Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture.
Fig. 64.—The houses or cocoons built bythe worms in the branches.
Silk is the most beautiful and the strongest of the common fibers. Italso costs the most. The silk fiber produced by these tiny worms is oftenfour thousand feet in length. Let us learn how the tiny worm does such awonderful thing. He must work as hard as the busy bee.
After the worm is full-grown he begins his busy work. This islike boys and girls; they, too, begin to work when they are grown. Ifwell fed and clean, the worm will work well. This is apt to be true ofgirls and boys, too. The worm begins by making a house for himself calleda cocoon (Fig. 64). Have you ever seen the cocoons of any moth? If youwill look, you will find them on the trees. Miss James has some cocoonsof the lovely green Luna moth. She put the green worm in the box, and ithas spun a cocoon. We do not find the mulberry worm growing wild in[112]the United States. In some countries it grows wild, just as our Lunamoth.
When the worm is ready to spin, she throws out two tiny littlethreads one from each side of her head. This is a secretion and isa kind of jellylike fluid. As the air touches it, it hardens. She worksher head back and forth, and the tiny filaments, or threads, as theyare called, are joined together into one. She works and works until shehas built a house of silk threads all glued together so that it seemslike a mass of parchment paper. These houses are about 1½ inchesin length, and are white or yellow in color. In China and Japan thesecocoons are grown and tended very carefully. The outside of the cocoonis covered with the loose fluffy silk which the worm uses to attach hishome to a leaf or twig. It takes the worm three weeks to make this long,continuous thread called a cocoon. During that time a wonderful thinghappens. The worm inside the cocoon is changed to a moth like her motherand father and is ready to leave her home by eating her way out. Whatwould happen to the long silk thread if she did that? Yes, it would bebroken into small pieces and not be one continuous piece. Some moths arepermitted to come out (see Fig. 65). They then find a mate and soon moretiny eggs are laid by the mother moth; and all the story begins again.
A sad thing happens when cocoons are grown forthe silk. The moths are not allowed to come out[113]and break the thread; but are put in a very hot place so they die inside.The cocoons are then ready to be reeled or wound off. They are placedin basins of hot water because the gummy secretion of the worm must besoftened. The ends from four or five cocoons are caught together andreeled, or wound, off together. This makes a strand of raw silk.
Courtesy of Corticelli Silk Co. Copyright, 1895, by Nonotuck Silk Co.
Fig. 65.—Corticelli cocoons from which the moths have emerged.
John Alden told the following story. He said his father read it aloudthe night before when the family gathered about the big open fire. Onceupon a time, long ago, people did not know how to use the beautifulfibers of the silkworm. We are told that a Chinese empress discovered howto use it as long ago as 2700 years before the birth of Christ. Everyyear, in April, the Chinese people have a celebration in her honor,because of her valuable discovery. Think of all the riches she added toher country because of this secret.[114]It is said that for many years this secret was kept; but later somemonks traveling east to India and Constantinople told others how to reelthe silk fiber. Then the use of silk fiber spread to Greece and Italyand Spain, and by the fourteenth century was common in France. Sincethen, silk manufacture has grown rapidly in importance. John traced thejourney on the map. Will you see if you can trace this journey of silkmanufacture. Where do you think the secret was carried from France?
Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture.
Fig. 66.—Silk reeling. The cocoons are in the basins before the women.
Can you send for some cocoons and raw silk?Your teacher will tell you where to write. Raw silk,[115]as it is wound from cocoons, is made up into hanks like the worstedwhich you buy at the store. It is sold in hanks by the pound and costsfrom $7.00 to $10.00 a pound. It takes three thousand silkworms to spina pound of raw silk. Do you know that for grandmother's dress about twopounds of raw silk were necessary? Can you tell how many worms were keptbusy?
In another lesson we shall learn how the manufacturer of silk ribbonsor silk material takes the raw silk and makes it into beautiful fabrics.Now we know about a useful little animal as well as about a plant whichgives us clothing. Silk, however, is more expensive than cotton. Cottonis sometimes made to look like silk. The cotton fiber is mercerized,which means soaked in certain chemicals and stretched to make it looksilky. Lisle thread looks somewhat like silk. It is cotton twisted hardto give it a luster. Another day we shall learn more about these.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Do you know where silk is grown? Write a story of 100 words tellingabout it.
2. Why is not more silk grown in the United States?
3. Find on your map of the world the principal countries where silk isgrown.
4. Name some articles made of silk which you use every day; which yousee used.
5. What are some of the other uses which we have for silk?
SIMPLE ARTICLES EASILY MADE FROM SILK SCRAPS
There are so many things which can be made from silks. Suppose youstart with something easy. Miss James had some good suggestions. Thelittle pin-case or the sewing-case are both useful (Figs. 68 and 69). Youknow the overhanding stitch; so you can make them quickly. Several of thePleasant Valley girls will make them for Christmas gifts as well as forthe fair. Which will you make?
Here are the directions for making both the pin-case and thesewing-case. They are not difficult if the directions are followedcarefully.
For the Pincase. Cut two circles of stiff cardboard from 2 to 3inches in diameter, if your silk pieces will permit. The circles mustbe exact. Cut two pieces of silk 3 or 4 inches in diameter, so the silkpieces will be ½ inch larger all around than the cardboard.¼ inch from the edge, with double thread, make a row of gatheringstitches; slip cardboard within and draw up the silk around the card.Now crisscross with your thread through the edges of material untilall is held firmly (Fig. 67). Cover both cards. Then hold the twotogether, and very neatly overhand with silk thread of a color to match.Tiny stitches should be taken. Put in a row of pins around the edgesclose together. A pretty decoration can be made by working a designor an initial on the silk if it is a plain color. This can be donewith chain stitch or featherstitch, before the cover is put over thecardboard.
Fig. 67.—This shows how to cover thecircle, and draw the silk neatly at the edges.
In the picture (Fig. 68) notice the other cases. They are madeexactly like the pin-case but of circles or of pieces of different shape.
Fig. 68.—Several useful cases:A, pin-case;B, oval pin-case;C, spool-case;D, darning-case;E, needle-book.
Cases for doilies can be made of two large circles of 12 in. indiameter. The circles can be tied together with ribbon and the[118]doilies lie flat between. The case for darning thread is also veryuseful.
Fig. 69.—The sewing casemade of three elliptical diskssewed together.
For the sewing case. This is more difficult. It is three-sidedand is made of three elliptical disks covered as we did the round onesfor the pincase. How many cardboards will you need? Thin cardboard isnecessary. What does elliptical mean? A good size is 4 inches the longway and 2½ inches across. All the girls know how to draw anellipse. Cut the six pieces of silk ½ inch larger all around thanthe ellipses, and cover in same way as you did the round disks. If thereare not enough scraps of one color, use a contrasting color for thelining. After the six pieces have been covered and joined together tomake three ellipses, then the three are to be overhanded together veryneatly, leaving open the third edge, which is the opening of the casewhere the spools, etc. are put inside. The case naturally closes itself;but, when pressed at the ends, it opens easily.
What are some pretty stitches that may be used fordecorating? If one wishes, the sewing case can also be decorated witha good design like the one in the picture (Fig. 69). Would you like tomake the chain stitch and the featherstitch? They are both useful fordecoration on bags, aprons, dresses for baby, underwear, and many things.Mollie Stark learned this stitch and used it on a dress for her babybrother. Mrs. Stark is very[119]happy to think Mollie is learning how to sew. These are the directionsfor making several pretty stitches:
The chain stitch is easy to learn. Begin with a knot. Pass thethread from the under side up. Throw the thread so as to make an O (seeFig. 70). Put the needle into the hole where thread came through, andmake a stitch about1⁄8 inch long. Holdthe cloth over the fingers with the thumb on top. The needle shouldbe pointed towards the worker, and the point of the needle should bebrought up through the little round O. Care must be taken in pullingthe thread through to have the loop of thread lying flat on the cloth.The length of stitch should be uniform. What does uniform mean? Theoutline of an initial or any drawn design can be followed with thisstitch.
Fig. 70.—The chain stitch.
The featherstitch is very beautiful, when made small and even (Fig.71). It can be varied by making one or two stitches on each side of acenter line. The length of the stitches and the slant always affect theappearance. In practicing the featherstitch draw a pencil line on yourcloth as a guide. The stitches are slanting and are taken towards thisline. This stitch is used for decoration in the same way as the chainstitch.
Fig. 71.—A, the single featherstitch;B, the double featherstitch.
The single featherstitch. Hold the work over the finger withthumb on top of cloth. Work towards you. Start with knot onunder side of pencil line. Draw thread through to right side.Lay thread on the pencil line and hold with thumb. To right ofthread near beginning, take a small1⁄8 inch slanting stitch towardsthe line of thread. Draw needle through over the loop of thread.Have it loose and lying flat. For the second stitch, hold threadagain on the pencil mark. Throw thread for next stitch on the[121]left of the line. Take slanting stitch towards center line. Drawneedle up through the loop, which should lie flat. The next stitch istaken to the right of the center line directly under the stitch aboveit, and should be the same length and slant. The beauty of this stitchdepends on its evenness. A striped material makes a good practice piece.After the stitch is learned, it is easy to make it on plain cloth;but one must then keep constantly in mind an imaginary center line.This is a very useful stitch for finishing hems instead of using thehemming stitch. The lawn ruffles on our petticoats were finished withthis stitch. The featherstitch is sometimes a straight stitch insteadof slanting. It is taken each side of the imaginary center line as theslanting one, but the needle is held straight.
Fig. 72.—The outline stitch.
The outline stitch. This is another easy stitch (Fig. 72) whichevery girl should learn. It can be used instead of the chain orfeatherstitch, as decoration. It outlines, or follows, the design, and sogets its name. The stitch is taken on the line and is worked from left toright. Care must be taken to have the stitches all the same length and tothrow the thread in one direction either away from or towards the worker.The pretty effect will be spoiled if there is a variation. Away from theworker makes a neat effect. Begin with knot. Draw needle to right side onthe line. Throw[122]thread away from worker; take a small back stitch on the line,needle pointing towards the worker. This will make a long threadon the surface and the short stitch beneath. The effect is muchprettier when the stitches are taken close together.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Name some other articles on which the featherstitch orchain stitch can be used; some on which the outline stitch maybe used.
2. Draw a picture on the blackboard of the featherstitch, chainstitch, and outline stitch. Can you show how the needle looks inposition, without looking at your textbook?
THE NAMES AND USES OF SEVERAL SILKS ARE DISCUSSED
To-day we shall study again about silks. Let us look at those in MissJames' piece bag; and, also, see how many different kinds we have for ourgifts. Perhaps your teacher has some too.
Such a variety of kinds and colors! Some are soft and light, andothers are heavy and stiff. Do they have names just as the cottonmaterials?
Can any one tell the names of any of these silks? Yes, theplain one is ataffeta. It is plain in color; and the weave is plain,the same on both sides. Sometimes it comes with printed and wovenfigures. What is the difference between a woven and a printed design?Here is a piece with a printed design. It is afoulard silk. How doesthis design differ from the taffeta with the design? Foulard silk is usedfor dresses.[123]Taffeta is also; as well as for linings and for petticoats. A cheapquality of taffeta does not wear well. It costs from 75 cents to $2.00 ayard, and is woven 21 inches and wider. Foulards are about 24 inches wideand can be bought for the same price as the taffetas. Mollie's mother hada foulard silk dress last summer; so did Grandmother Allen.
Here is a soft crinkling white piece and a dark blue just like it; andalso a black piece. These are calledcrêpe de chine and are used fordresses, also; and sometimes for underwear. It is soft and lustrous, andcomes in plain colors and sometimes printed. It costs from 75 cents upand is woven 22 inches and sometimes wider.
Shall we start another book of materials, and see how many silks wecan learn about?
The piece Barbara Oakes brought is smooth and shiny on the right side.Does anyone know the name? It is woven in such a way that the fillingthread goes over several threads and under one. Try it on your schoolloom. This weave brings most of the filling thread on the surface of thecloth. The material is calledsatin, and the weave is the satin weave.Some cottons are woven with the satin weave, and often in table linenor damask we see the smooth satin weave. Here is a bit of damask tablelinen. Let us compare this smooth part with the satin.
Courtesy of Crompton and Knowles.
Fig. 73.—The Jacquard loom. Notice the cards withpunched holes above it. They affect the pattern.Can you find the cloth which is being woven?
Satins are used for dresses, linings, trimmings, boxes, and for manyother purposes. They cost $1 to $20 per yard, if very beautiful, and arewoven from 21 to 54 inches wide. Satin is sometimes made of a combinationof linen or cotton, with the silk. It is then less expensive. The woof,or filling thread, which gives the smooth finish is silk; and it isthat which shows in the finished cloth. This piece of silk, which looksfigured like table linen, only it is made of silk, is called abrocadedsatin. This satin is used for dresses and trimmings, and often forfurniture covering and for hangings in beautiful rooms. It is made on aloom called a Jacquard. Table damask is made on the same kind of loom.This wonderful loom (Fig. 73) is able to produce very beautiful patterns,because of the management of the[125]perforated cards above the loom which affect the pattern.
The soft white piece ischina silk. Little Alice Allen had a dressmade of it last summer. It is a plain weave, and many of such silks arestill woven by hand in China. It is very durable and is used for dresses,waists, and underwear. It costs $1 for a fairly good quality, and iswoven 24 inches wide.
This piece of silk, also, originated in China. It is calledpongee.Mary Jones had a coat of this last year. It is ecru in color and is soft.The real Chinese pongee is hand-woven and is made from the silk of wildsilkworms. It is woven 27 inches wide and costs $1 per yard up. Thispiece was $1.50 per yard.
This is a queer-looking piece. It is marked in a watery pattern.The silk has been pressed between hot rollers which are stamped with apattern to give that effect. It is calledmoiré silk, and is used fortrimmings and dresses. It is quite expensive. A good piece will cost atleast $2 per yard and is 22 inches in width.
We shall learn about two more of the most common silk materials. Oneis thick, and the other is thin. The thin piece is calledchiffon. Whohas ever seen it used? Yes, for veils. It is used for dresses, too, andfor hats and trimmings. Isn't it light and thin and gauzy? It is made inplain colors generally; sometimes figured. It is 46 inches wide and costsfrom $.75 to $2 per yard.
Yes, every one knows this one! It is calledvelvet.This piece is all silk, and was a part of Marjorie's[126]great-grandmother's dress. Some velvets are made of linen and silk, or ofcotton and silk. All silk velvet is very expensive. It often costs $10 ayard and more. Some silk velvet can be bought for $4 or $5 a yard. It iswoven from 18 to 42 inches wide. Isn't it thick? Do you notice the tinyends standing up? It is woven just like some carpet, and the thickness iscalled the pile. In weaving, little loops of the filling thread are made,and after weaving, these are cut to form the pile. Such weaving looksvery difficult. The warp is sometimes linen or cotton. This other thickpiece with a pile is called plush. It has a longer pile than velvet.There are also cotton plushes. Did your mother ever have a winter coat ofplush? Mrs. Alden had one which lasted for years.
Let us mount our silk samples. Another day we shallstudy how they are woven from the raw silk. Isn't it interesting to feelacquainted with this new family of materials? Notice before next lessonhow many things you see which are made of silk. Have you any in yourschoolroom?
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Bring to school all the samples of different kinds of silks whichyou can collect. Can you tell their names?
2. Name an expensive silk suitable for a dress, and give itsapproximate cost. Name an inexpensive silk suitable for a summer dress;give its approximate cost.
3. What is plush used for? What is chiffon made of?
4. Start a book of silk samples.
MORE USEFUL GIFTS AND HOW TO MAKE THEM
Two more useful gifts: a workbag of silk, and a sewing apron.Which will you chose to make?
The workbag. Barbara Oakes has a very complete little workbag(Fig. 74) which grandmother made for her last Christmas. The girls thinkthey would like to copy it. It is made of a piece of yellow floweredribbon which was 8 inches wide; ½ a yard is enough. If you havescraps of silk, use a strip 8 inches wide × 14 inches long. With theother 4 inches, if ribbon is used, the circular disks for the bottom areto be covered. To make:
Fig. 74.—A, a very useful bag.B, the sewing apron.
1. Cut two circles of cardboard 3 inches in diameter. Cutthe silk for covering four inches in diameter. Cover in the sameway as you covered the pin disk. This is the bottom of the bag.
2. Seam the two ends of the 14 inch strip together with tworuns and backstitch (see page 35). Open seams flat. Turnalong one long edge, ½ inch if selvedge of ribbon; if silk, make twoturns: first1⁄8 inch, second ½ inch. Baste and hold with featherstitch(see page 120), or cross-stitch (see page 145) At seam of bag[128]open seam carefully ½ inch on the right side for casing hole forribbon. At the opposite side, work a small buttonhole (see page43)3⁄8 inch in length. This will be the top of the bag; and thetwo ribbons are to be run through the casing so it will draw up.
3. At the other edge of the long strip, fold to the wrong side:first 2 inches of the strip, and then the 2 inches folded over itself.Baste carefully. This fold is to form pockets on the insideof the bag. Every two inches along length of strip, mark with apin; and on the right side of bag, featherstitch or cross-stitch inrows two inches deep, to form pockets on the inside of the strip.
4. Gather the edge of the strip to be sewed to the covered disks.Divide gathers in half. Pin to disk. Overhand to disk with close stitcheson the inside of bag.
This workbag makes a very useful gift. It can befilled with a pair of small scissors, emery, needles, and spools of silkplaced in the pockets. The ribbon for drawing top is in two pieces,½ yard in each. Start one piece from one side and run aroundcasing until it comes out at the same place it started. Tie in bow. Startother ribbon at opposite side, and run it all around casing, until itreturns to the same side it started from. Tie in bow.
The sewing apron.—Another useful giftis a small sewing apron (Fig. 74). It can be made of silk or of dimityat 12½ cents a yard, and need not then cost more than 15 cents.Dimity is one yard wide; and7⁄8 of a yard isenough. To make:
1. From one selvedge cut a strip 2½ inches wide, lengthwise ofthe piece. This is for the band and is cut off before the apron ismade. Remove other selvedge.
2. Turn3⁄8 inch hem toright side of apron at the lengthwiseedges of cloth; baste carefully.
3. At one cross wise end turn, hem 1¼ inches wide toright side.Baste and hem with featherstitching on reverse or wrong side.
Fig. 75.—Four useful aprons.
4. Turn up at bottom 8 inches to form pocket, so featherstitchingwill be on the upper or right side. Baste and overhand edgesthe depth of pocket.
5. Featherstitch side hems, catching the pocket to hold securely.
6. Divide large pocket in three by making two rows of featherstitchinglike picture.
7. Put on band. Divide gathered top of apron. Divide band.Allow band to extend each side of gathers. A space of 12 inchesin center of band is enough to contain the gathers. Put on as youput on the band of petticoat, but overhand edges of the bandextending beyond gathers.
8. A buttonhole and button can be used to finish, or ribbon maybe sewed to ends of band. This makes a very useful gift.
Fig. 76.—Two cases on which the featherstitch can be used.A, needlecase and bag.B, linen traveling case for overshoes.
Look at the sketches (Fig. 75) of other aprons:
A is made from a square of figured lawn; ½ yardis enough. It is shaped at one corner for a bib. Ahem is turned at the edge and featherstitched. A fewsmall tucks make it fit the waist, and ribbon trims it.
B is made from2⁄3 of a yard of lawn, as shown in thediagram. Place pattern economically.
C is made of a width of lawn or silk with a hem atthe bottom and casing at the top.
D is made of glass toweling trimmed with finishingbraid and featherstitching.
Figure 76 shows some useful cases with decorationsof featherstitch.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Plan a gift and surprise mother at her birthday anniversary.Your teacher will help you.
2. See if you can plan an original gift. Draw a sketch of it.
3. Bring all the suggestions for gifts you can find in clippingsfrom old magazines.
COUSIN ANN TELLS HOW SILK IS MADE INTO CLOTH
Last summer Marjorie Allen's Cousin Ann visited her. She livesat Paterson, New Jersey, where there are many silk mills. Shetold the girls of the Sewing League about the way silk is made intocloth. Shall we too learn how?
Where is silk manufactured? We know that very little silk isgrown in the United States; but we also know that our country leads inthe manufacture of silks and uses more raw silk than any other country inthe world. France is next and produces very beautiful materials. Most ofour silk factories are in the East: in New Jersey, Connecticut, New York,and Pennsylvania. People have tried to raise silkworms[132]here. In 1624 some Frenchmen living in Virginia tried, but were not verysuccessful. Such experiments have usually failed because it costs so muchfor labor. In 1747 the governor of Connecticut wore a coat and stockingsmade of silk produced on his place. We use about 85 per cent of the silkmanufactured here. What per cent is, then, exported? In 1876, at thegreat Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, Marjorie's grandmother sawwonderful exhibits of silk woven in many colors, and even beautiful wovenpictures of silk. Has any one ever seen a woven picture of silk? Have youever seen one tiny fiber of silk as it looks under the microscope? Whatdo you notice?
Fig. 77.—Silk fibers magnified.
This is what Marjorie's cousin from Paterson told the girls.They went to one room at the mill where there were great bales of silk,weighing about 100 or 150 pounds, but not quite so heavy or large as abale of cotton. When opened there were many hanks in each bale; tied up,five or ten in a bundle. These hanks were taken first to a man called athrowster. Silk throwing means soaking the skeins to remove more of thegum, and winding the silk from the skein to a[133]spool. This is done by soaking in warm water, drying, and then placingthe silk on swifts, or reels. Have you ever seen a reel for winding? (SeeFig. 78.) It holds the skein of silk. The ends are taken, and the machineunwinds from the skein and winds the silk on spools. In one skein thereare from 75,000 to 200,000 yards of silk. The spools are then placed ina machine which cleans and twists two of these spool threads togetherto form one, and then winds it off on new spools. This twisted silk iscalled "organzine." Isn't that a queer name? It means the thread used ina loom for the warp or strong threads. Why are twisted threads stronger?Try, and see if they are.
Fig. 78.—Silk winding.
Silk is a most perfect fiber; and does not have to be prepared asmuch as cotton or wool. Sometimes it is twisted a very little for thewarp. The filling thread has a queer name, too. It is called the "tram,"and need not be of so good a quality of silk as the strong warp, nor sotightly twisted. Cotton spinning is different from silk throwing; butboth mean getting the fibers ready for weaving.
Courtesy of Cheney Bros.
Fig. 79.—Silk dyeing.
There are many beautiful colored silks. Silk is usually dyed(Fig. 79) in the yarn in hanks. The poor qualities, however, are dyedafter the silk is woven into the piece. Silk is dyed by dipping theskeins or yards of silk in great vats of dye. For dyeing, the coal-tarproducts (aniline dyes) are used. Did you know that coal could producesuch beautiful colors? That is a long story of the many wonderful thingswhich can be made from tar. Do you know that 25 per cent of the weight ofthe raw silk is made up of the gummy substance? The dyer boils out someof the gum; and, if he wishes to produce cheap silks and make much money,[135]he makes up for the weight of gum boiled out, by using tin. The silk isdipped in bichloride of tin or other substances; and it takes up, orabsorbs, until sometimes it weighs twice or even four times as much asthe boiled-off silks. This tin is bought for silk. Women who do not knowthink they are buying heavy silk and are getting a good quality becauseit is so heavy. This solution of tin rots the silk, and, when the silkcomes in contact with light and air, it crumbles away. Perhaps you haveat home a sample of silk which has done this. Marjorie's Cousin Ann sawsome petticoats of silk which went to pieces just hanging in a closet.Sometimes that happens when store keepers keep the petticoats for sometime. One can see the holes by holding the silk up to the light. In orderto know what one is buying one must study about materials and about howthey are made.
Courtesy of Cheney Bros.
Fig. 80.—Warping or preparing silkfor the loom.
Have you ever seen a picture of silk being dyed in the skein?Marjorie's cousin says it is done by machinery. See how many skeins areon the big wheel, or drum as it is called. As it turns, the skeins aredipped in the vat of dye.
Courtesy of Cheney Bros.
Fig. 81.—Silk weaving on a hand loom in Japan.
After the warp threads are twisted and wound on spools, the workmanplaces the spools in racks (see Fig. 80). They are then unwound again onto a very large roller, as you can see in the picture. The large rolleris then put into the back of the loom, and the warp threads are drawnthrough and prepared so they are attached to the roller where the clothis to be rolled after it is woven. Do you remember how we found the clothand the warp rollers when we were studying[137]about how cotton cloth is made? For plain silks a loom is used very muchlike the looms for weaving cotton cloth (see page 69); but, for fancysilks and beautiful patterns and designs, the Jacquard loom like thepicture (see page 124) is necessary. This wonderful machine was inventedby a Frenchman, Joseph Marie Jacquard, in 1801. The cards are cut in tinyholes which regulate the pattern and make beautiful designs. The cardscontrol the warp threads and regulate which threads are to be up andwhich down, as the shuttle passes over and under. The shuttle is linedwith soft seal skin to protect the silk fibers of the filling thread onthe bobbin as they unroll.
Would you too not like to visit a silk factory? Perhaps comeday you may be able to go to Paterson or to some large city, and may seeall the wonderful things which Marjorie's cousin saw. The book pictureswill give you a good idea of how a mill or factory looks inside. Itis a very busy place. Perhaps your teacher may be able to get somestereopticon or motion picture views to show you, as Miss James showedthe Pleasant Valley children. She used the church lantern. Some of themothers and fathers came, too, to hear the story about silk.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Find on your map the most important city in the UnitedStates for the manufacture of silk.
2. Write a story about the silk "throwing."
3. If there is a silk mill in your neighborhood, plan to visit itwith your teacher.
4. Look up the story of Jacquard, the inventor of the loomdevices for making beautiful patterns.
THE BLANKET STITCH CAN BE USED IN MANY WAYS
Did you ever hear of a stitch called the blanket stitch? It isvery useful for decoration. We can make some attractive giftsif we know how to make it. Would you like to try to-day?
Fig. 82.—The blanket stitch.
Did you ever notice how pretty some verandas look in summertime? Mrs. Stark of Pleasant Valley has a very attractive, cosyporch. Yours can look pretty, too, if you will give thought and a littletime to it. You can plant some pretty vines as the girls did at the EllenH. Richards house. The cucumber[139]grows wild and can be transplanted. Perhaps in the attic you can find anold table, which will do to hold your sewing things. Can you make a coverfor it? Perhaps you can make a porch cushion, too. The blanket stitch(Fig. 82) will be useful for both.
Did you ever see a material called Russian crash? It is made inRussia, of coarse linen, and is often woven in the fields. It is not verywide, 16 or 18 inches only. It is light brown in color. If you cannotget the crash, perhaps you have some grain or feed bags which will do.You can dip them in coffee to stain them light brown, as Marjorie Allendid when she made a cover for the porch table. A piece 1½ yardslong and from 16 to 20 inches wide will make a good-sized table runner tothrow over the old table on the porch. If you use the old bags and theedges are not selvedges, turn them with one turning ½ inch wideall around the edges, and baste.
How can you finish the edge of a table runner? You can makethe blanket stitch close together around the edge. A heavy mercerizedcotton thread can be used for the stitch, and will look well if it isbrown in color to harmonize with the linen or bag. The blanket stitch isused generally for blanket edges which are not hemmed. It is a stitch toprevent material from fraying, and is taken on the edge of material. Whenthe cloth is not very heavy, one turning can be made to give firmness tothe edge. This is not necessary on blankets or on heavy materials. Thestitch is worked[140]from left to right. The edge of the cloth is held towards the worker.Start with a few running stitches and bring the needle up near the edge.Have the thread under the thumb. Insert the needle any depth desiredand point needle at right angles to the edge of the cloth, towards theworker. The needle should come up under the edge and through the loopmade by the thread. The thread will be carried along the edge as thestitches are made. In finishing a thread, take small tiny stitches onthe wrong side. In starting a new thread, bring it up through the lastloop at the edge. On some materials the stitches can be ¼ or½ of an inch apart, or taken very close together as we do when wework on white linen and scallop the edges. The stitches can be ¼or ½ or even an inch deep, and they can be arranged to form apattern. In the picture you will see that the stitches are arranged inblocks—twelve low ones ¼ of an inch, and 12 of ¾of an inch. They can also be arranged to form stairs ascending anddescending with a difference of1⁄8 of aninch in the depth of each stitch. Suppose you plan to make the blockpattern of the blanket stitch all around the edge of the table runner.
Fig. 83.—The porch cushion, showingthe blanket stitch in block pattern, andthe opening near one end.
Now, can you make a porch cushion? The porch cushion (Fig. 83)can be made of a strip of crash or of a piece of bagging, 1 yard longand 16 inches wide. Hem one end with a 1 inch hem and the other with a½ inch hem, turning both to wrong side. Fold so that the 1 inchhem overlaps the ½ inch hem. Pin carefully.[141]This makes a kind of envelope and it can be filled later with a cushionof bran or excelsior or feathers. Fold so that the overlapping of hemscomes about 4 inches from one end of the cushion. After folding andpinning, baste carefully through the two thicknesses of material. Workthe blanket stitch all around four sides with the heavy brown linen orcotton thread. Use the same block pattern as for the table cover. Thecushion is kept closed with three or four snaps sewed on the hems. Thesecushions can be made any size for hammock or for porch use. Mrs. Starkliked Mollie's so well that she made a whole set for her porch, and usedold bags for this purpose.
Can you think of any pretty articles to make for the fair or forsurprise gifts on which the blanket stitch can be used? Have youever scalloped the edges of doilies with plain scallop? The white linencan be cut in circles to fit the size of the plates and the edge markedin scallops by using a spool. The stitch is exactly the same, but thestitches are taken very close together and cover the two lines of themarked scallop which indicate the depth. Doilies are very useful insteadof a tablecloth. They are easily laundered[142]and save the heavy washing. A bare wooden table which is kept cleanand oiled is very attractive when set with doilies. (SeeFood andHealth, page 73). Can you make a set sometime as a surprise for mother'sChristmas gift?
Fig. 84.—Blanket stitch made close together for a scalloped edge.
Pincushion tops, bureau covers, table covers, tray covers,centerpieces, can all be made with this useful stitch.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Draw a picture on the blackboard of the blanket stitch.
2. Bring to school some article on which the blanket stitch isused in some way. Have an exhibit of all the articles brought.
LEARNING TO MAKE THE CROSS-STITCH
Did your grandmother ever tell you how she learned to sewwhen she was a girl? Have you seen her sewing sampler? Shallwe learn the stitch she used on her sampler?
Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Fig. 85.—Two samplers of long ago.
Before the days of sewing machines, the family sewing was all doneat home and by hand. To-day we have factories and shops, and we can buymany articles of clothing ready-made. All little girls were taught to sewat home in those days. Sewing was not generally taught at school. Manylong seams were given to the girls to sew. The girls had much practiceand learned to sew very well. Every little girl was supposed to make asampler. The picture shows two samplers (Fig. 85). Barbara Oakes has twosamplers which she values very much because her great-grandmother andgrandmother made them. Perhaps you may have one which your grandmothermade. The stitch used for[144]the samplers was usually the cross-stitch (Fig. 87). Would you like tolearn to make it, too? It is a decorative stitch and is often used formarking linen. Grandmother and great-grandmother used to mark theirsheets, pillowcases, and other household linens with tiny initials ofcross-stitch. It is possible, also, to make quaint designs of the samestitch. Perhaps you would like to learn to make such a pattern. It isnecessary to have squared paper and to make the crosses conform to thefigures or initials wished. The picture (Fig. 86) shows how to make thecrosses fit the squares.
Fig. 86.—Cross-stitch designs can be easily made on squared paper.A, initialsfor towel;B, design for repetition on table cover or scarf.
Will you try to make a design for the cross-stitch? As thedesign is made on the squares, it is necessary to use squared canvascalled Penelope canvas in working this cross-stitch. The canvas is bastedin place and the stitches made over the squares of the canvas, followingthe design of the pattern. There are some[145]coarse materials which can be followed without using canvas. The canvasis woven so loosely that after the cross-stitch design is finished, thethreads are drawn out. How to make the stitch:
Fig. 87.—The cross-stitch.
Baste the canvas carefully so that the warp of the canvas lies onthe warp of the cloth. The canvas comes in several sizes, some finerthan others, and this makes a difference in the size of the design whenfinished. The stitch consists of two slanting lines crossed. On the wrongside all the stitches may beeither vertical or horizontal, but shouldbe one or the other. Do you know the difference? The canvas is so woventhat one makes the cross over two threads high and two wide. Bring needleup to right side at lower left corner of the square that the stitch wouldform if inclosed (Fig. 87). Pass thread slanting across warp threads, andtake stitch on line with warp, pointing needle towards the worker. Whenthread is drawn through, a slanting line of half the cross is made. Thiscan be repeated across a whole row according to design, and the crossfinished by returning from right to left with the same vertical stitches.It is necessary to have all the stitches of the design crossing one way:the ground stitches, or first half, one way; the other half, or upperstitches, all the other.
What pretty gifts can be made from the cross-stitch? Towelshemstitched across the ends and marked with cross-stitch make attractivegifts for mother or grandmother. A pretty set for a baby is made bymarking bath towel, face towel, and wash cloths with a pretty wreathdesign with baby's initial. Bureau covers, table scarfs, pincushionscan be made. Here is a picture (Fig. 88) of a simple hand towel withcross-stitch initials. The towel is made of huckaback, all linen. Youremember it can be bought in all cotton, too, or a combination. Which ismore expensive? The width varies. The picture shows a small guest towel18 inches wide. It is easy to learn to hemstitch linen. Shall we try nextlesson? The picture (Fig. 88) shows fancy hemstitching and drawn work. Weshall learn the plain hemstitching.
Fig. 88.—A guest towel marked withcross-stitch.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. If any one in your town has an old sampler, try to get it fora loan exhibit, while the girls are making their cross-stitching.
2. Make a design for cross-stitch work suitable for an end ofa towel or for any article you wish.
HOW TO MAKE THE HEMSTITCH
Do you know that some girls are often confused and call thehemstitch, the hemming stitch? Barbara Oakes used to, but understandsnow. You have learned the hemming stitch; now you will try thehemstitch.
Fig. 89.—The hemstitch.
See if you can discover the difference between the hemming stitchand the hemstitch? Both are used at the top of the hem to hold itin place, but often the hemstitch is used in other places, too. It isnecessary to draw out some threads of the cloth or linen, before thestitch can be made. For the hemstitched towel, measure for your hem.From the raw edge, it will be twice the width of the finished hem plusone turning of ¼ inch. How much, then, will you measure for a hemone inch when finished? At the point measured, place a pin. Draw outthree or four of the woof threads very carefully. Be sure to pull out thewhole thread all the way across, when it breaks. Remember how the fillingthread passes at the selvedge, and remove it there as it turns. Thenbaste the hem very carefully, turning to wrong side. Baste close to firstdrawn thread. Hold work over fingers of left hand in vertical position.Place needle in edge of hem, and draw thread without a knot under theedge of[148]hem just exactly as plain hemming is started (Fig. 89). Throw thread awayfrom the worker; take up a bundle of the threads by passing the needleunder them and pointing it towards the worker along the edge of the hem.Again pass the needle under the same bundle of threads, but this timepass the needle through the under cloth and also through theedge ofthe turned hem, just beyond the bundle. This stitch should come betweentwo bundles of thread. Make the next stitch by taking up a second bundleof threads. At first, one should count the number of threads so as tohave the bundles uniform; but with practice this is not necessary. As arule, the coarser the material, the fewer the number of threads takenup. This is a simple way of hemstitching. There are other ways. Doublehemstitching means to hemstitch the other side opposite the hem, bytaking up the same bundles. Marjorie Allen made Grandmother Allen alovely hemstitched towel for Christmas. She was very much[149]surprised and delighted to have some of Marjorie's ownwork. Marjorie tied it up very daintily in white tissuepaper and used some Christmas seals to hold it fast.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Now that you know the hemstitch, you can use it in manyplaces. Can you tell how it differs from the hemming stitch?
2. Think of some useful things on which this stitch can bemade besides those mentioned below:—
ANOTHER USEFUL GIFT AND A NEW STITCH
Have you ever noticed how convenient it is to have a place for theclothespins, on wash day? Would you like to learn to make a clothespinbag?
How to make another gift. A very useful clothespin bag (Fig.90) for mother can be easily made with a hammock hook and some ticking.Mrs. Allen says she cannot keep house without hers. Did you learn aboutticking when you studied cotton materials? Pillow covers and mattressesare made of it, as it is heavy and strong and wears very well. Put apiece in your cotton sample book. It is woven 36 inches wide and costsfrom 12½ cents up. Notice the weave. It is twilled or striped orherringbone weave.
Denim or any heavy material can be used. A square piece is necessary,28 × 28 inches.
Fig. 90.—The clothespin bag.
Hem. First turning, ¼ inch; second turning, one inch. Stitchon machine. Miter the corners. The corners are to be sewed securely withheavy linen thread to the four corners of the hammock hook (Fig. 90). Thehook is hung on the clothesline, and it is very easy and handy to pushalong as the clothes are hung up. If one wishes, the bag can be decoratedwith a catch stitch.
How to make the catch stitch or herringbone stitch. This stitchcan be used for decoration or for catching the edges of a seam or hem.Grandmother Allen used to use it on her own flannel petticoats and onbaby Alice's flannel skirts. After the plain seam is made, it is openedflat and the edges are caught with the loose catch stitch. It is really aflannel stitch, because, as the flannel may shrink a little, the stitchallows for this, and holds the hem flat. Flannel hems do not have thefirst turning as it is so thick. The catch stitch is then used to holdthe hem. Can you bring one of baby's petticoats to show the class how itlooks?
The same stitch is used for decoration too. We shall use it for thatpurpose on the clothespin bag, before we sew the corners to the hook.
Fig. 91.—The catch stitch.
The stitch is made from left to right. We can use the machinestitching for a guide. We shall use the stitch on the right side. Itresembles cross-stitch. It is really a series of back stitches placedalternately above and below the guide line. The spaces between stitchesshould be the same and the stitches below the guide line opposite thespaces above (Fig. 91). This causes the thread to slant and makes thecross, as it is worked from left to right. To start, draw needle to rightside about1⁄8 inch below the line of machinestitch. The first back stitch is taken1⁄8inch above the machine stitching. This will make the slanting line, asthe stitch is ¼ inch beyond the starting place. The second stitchis taken below the line; and the directions as above are followed so thatstitches come[152]opposite the spaces, above and below. In finishingan old thread, take two or three small stitches onwrong side. In beginning a new thread, draw up asat the start, so as to form the correct cross on the rightside.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. This herringbone or catch stitch can be used in many places.Can you suggest any?
2. Draw a picture of this stitch on the blackboard.
3. Show some neighbor how to make this stitch.
THE DARNING STITCH
Did you know that sometimes darning is used for decorationinstead of just on the stocking? Let us make a gift using it.
Fig. 92.—The darning stitchesmake the initials stand out.
The darning stitch is nothing but fine running stitches placedalternately under one another so as to fill a space. Miss James hasasked the girls to make linen covers for their cooking notebooks. Theydecide to put their two initials on the cover and to work them in outlinestitch. The sketch (Fig. 92) shows how they will make them within anoblong which is also to be outlined. The darning[153]stitch will be used as a background to make the initials stand out. It isa fine running stitch. Any design can be made to stand out by arrangingthe darning back of the outlined design. The notebooks will be covered sothat the covers may slip off. This is done by overhanding the edges andslipping the cover of the book into the pocket formed by the overhanding.The cover is all in one: a straight piece folded back inside the cover ofbook and overhanded at the folds, to hold the book. The picture (Fig. 93)of baby's bib also shows the use of the darning stitch to make a designstand out. This is a bib used by little Alice Allen. Marjorie made it forher, when she was two years old and had a birthday party.
Fig. 93.—The darning stitch makes thedesign of the rabbits stand out.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Make a design for your notebook cover.
2. Calculate size of piece of material needed, if both covers are9 X 6. Allow ½ inch turnings all around.
3. Try to plan a design with a background of darning stitches.Perhaps you can use it on a Christmas gift for brother.
REVIEW PROBLEMS
I. Plan a gift for father's Christmas on which the darning orcross-stitch is used.
II. Look up the story of the history of silk culture and write astory to be read in school. Perhaps it may be as good as the oneBarbara Oakes wrote. Her story was printed in the "PleasantValley News."
THE PLEASANT VALLEY GIRLS LEARN TO CAREFOR THEIR CLOTHES AND TO HELP REPAIR THEHOUSEHOLD LINEN.
Have you ever noticed that some houses where you visit are alwaysneat and look well cared for, and that the towels and table linen arecarefully darned or patched? Have you seen what a difference there isin the appearance of the people who do not care for their houses andclothing, and those who do? The latter are apt to wear neat-looking shirtwaists, to patch the worn places and darn the holes before they are toolarge, and to sew on the buttons before they are lost. The little wordC-A-R-E is responsible for the difference. Have you learned to help athome to repair and care for the clothing and household linens? "A stitchin time saves nine." It often saves money and time, too. Do you knowwhy? Learn how. The Pleasant Valley girls learned to darn and patch andoccasionally Miss James had a "repair day," when all were permitted tobring their mending. Can you do this at your school?
CARE OF CLOTHES
What are some of the things to learn in order to care for one'sclothes?
Fig. 94.—Ethel Allen remembersabout the lessonon neatness. She isremoving a spot.
Marjorie Allen's Cousin Ann, who lives at Paterson, New Jersey, spendsher summer vacation with Marjorie at Pleasant Valley. Marjorie knows thatshe earns ten dollars a week at the office and pays all her own expenses.She always looks very neat and well dressed. What is the secret? She haslearned how to spend wisely and how to care for her clothing. She learnedmuch of this at school, and experience has taught her how to manage.Suppose we learn, too, so as to be able to care for our clothes. Here aresome of the things Marjorie's cousin learned:
1. That clothes, if well brushed, lookbetter.
2. A well-pressed suit or skirt lasts longerand looks neater.
3. Stains or spots spoil one's neat appearance and look careless.
4. A patch or a darn is no disgrace. They make one feel moreself-respecting than holes or tears. They help to increase the lifeof a garment, too, if taken in time.
5. That being careful each day saves much time; a little careis worth while.
Let us study to-day how to do some of these things. Perhaps we canclean our school coats or some wool garments brought from home.
Brushing clothes. Many people who live in large cities do nothave gardens and yards where they can hang their clothes and brush them.Often brushing and cleaning must be done on the roofs of houses. Howglad we should be for space and a chance to keep clean. The PleasantValley girls have studied about this. Do you know that it costs to keepclean? It takes time and energy and much thought. People who live in thecountry can keep clean more easily than city people. This is a good wayto air and brush your cloth garments: Hang them on the line, and beatwith a clothes beater. Turn the cuffs or collars and pockets inside outif possible. Brush with a whisk brush carefully all over. Shake freefrom dust and let them hang in the sunshine. They will smell sweet andclean.
Pressing suits and skirts. A suit or skirt which is kept wellpressed has a neater appearance and keeps its shape for a longer time.Tailors do this work; but one can learn to do it at home, if no tailoris near, and can save the money, too, if one has the time. It is a goodgeneral rule to press on the wrong side unless one is using the steamingprocess. Then, one presses on the right side, over dampened cloth. Wringthe cloth, place over a portion of the garment, and press with hot ironsuntil nearly dry. After steaming the garment all over on the right side,turn to the wrong side[158]and press dry. Woolen goods will mark or shine if pressed on the rightside without a cloth. This pressing will add to the life of a suit. Goodpress boards, tailors' cushions, and sleeve boards help very much if onehas them.
It is always wise to examine clothes before pressing and to remove anyspots which have accumulated. Grease, milk, oil, sugar are common spotswhich girls are apt to get on their woolen clothing. The Pleasant Valleygirls studied how to remove these.
Removing stains and spots. Woolen goods which are soiled andbadly spotted can be cleaned by washing in warm water with soap solutionor soap bark. Here are some recipes for making soap solution or soapbark:
Soap Solution. Simmer (do not boil) one cake of white soap intwo or three quarts of water.
Soap Bark. 1 cup of soap bark or powder in three or four quarts ofwater. Let it stand two hours. Strain and pour into the lukewarm waterin which the material is to be washed. Why is lukewarm water used? Washand rinse carefully. Always use water of same temperature for rinsing.What would the shock of cold water do? Bath temperature is aboutright.
All woolen garments should be washed and rinsed carefully in lukewarmwater only. Some day we shall try at school. Good pure white soap is bestfor woolens. Why do woolens shrink in hot water? Why are they difficultto cleanse?
Let us examine the school coats to see if we can find[159]grease. As a rule grease spots can be removed by washing with soapsolution and lukewarm water. Wagon grease can be removed with lard;then wash in warm water. Grease may also be removed by dry cleaning, orchemical cleaning as it is called. The cleaning liquid may be benzine orether. This is a warning: D-A-N-G-E-R. These must not be used near fireor an explosion will occur. A bad accident occurred at Pleasant Valley injust this way when Mrs. Leroy was cleaning her white gloves. Rub the spoton the wool garment with a cloth or sponge wet with benzine. The greaseor fat spreads when dissolved; a piece of blotting paper under will helpto absorb some of the grease. Care must be taken to use fresh benzine aseach rub removes some of the fat, which will spread if rubbed in again.It is usually wise to use as a sponge a piece of the same material. Rubtowards the center so as to avoid a ring. The spot cleaned will usuallybe lighter than the rest of the garment, which is apt to be soiled.Sometimes by rubbing the surface near the spot all over, the ring willnot be noticeable. Another way to remove grease is to try a warm ironand a blotting paper. Place paper on right side, iron on the wrong sideof the cloth. This will remove some grease spots, as the blotter absorbsit.
Marjorie Allen discovered that sugar spots can be removed with warmwater. Dip cloth in water and wash thoroughly and rinse before pressing.What does the warm water do to the sugar?
Milk spots can be removed from some materials with cold water and purewhite soap. Why cold?
Machine oil spots can be removed by washing in cold water and purewhite soap. This will remove most machine oil spots. Barbara Oakes gotsome oil on her nightdress while making it, and removed the oil easily inthis way.
Courtesy of Miss Alice Blair.
Fig. 95.—Which way do you arrange clothes in your closet?
These simple rules will help every girl to be neat. Letus see how many garments you can clean at home afteryou have learned to brush, clean, and press one at school.
Protecting clothes. Marjorie's cousin takes good care of herclothing while it is in use. When she works about the house she alwayswears an apron. Do you? This saves a great deal. You know how to makesome attractive ones.
Fig. 96.—A useful cover toprotect your best dress.
When she removes her clothing it is not thrown in a heap, but ishung up on skirt or coat hangers. They are very cheap or one can makethem. Barrel staves or even rolls of newspaper, rolled securely andcovered may be used as coat hangers, a cord or ribbon may be tied atthe center. Nails between two points in a closet will keep the bands ofskirts extended, when loops are sewed to the bands. Marjorie's cousinalways airs her clothes at night (Fig. 56), and when necessary washes hershields and hangs them up to dry. Many girls do not realize how necessarythis is. The odor of perspiration is not neat and is offensive to others.If one washes one's self carefully with warm water in which borax hasbeen dissolved this odor will not be noticeable. Marjorie noticed thather cousin has covers over her good clothes (Fig. 96). This saves a greatdeal. Also she is particular about sewing buttons on her[162]shoes, and braid on her skirt when it is torn. She also washes the yokesof her dresses and sometimes her own shirt waists. She is going to teachMarjorie to do this. Some day we shall learn at school. Do you know thatMarjorie discovered that the people at the summer boarding houses nearhave difficulty in having their dainty shirt waists carefully laundered.She is going to practice during the winter and next summer she will earnsome money in that way. It is a good idea. Perhaps some day she may havea laundry of her own, if she is a good manager and can have help to workwith her.
Fig. 97.—Cousin Ann thinks aboutthese things.
Cousin Ann told Marjorie that each winter she is particular aboutbuying a pair of rubbers. She finds they save her shoes because theyprevent the dampness and wet from rotting the thread of the shoes. She isparticular about having her heels straight. Cousin Ann believes that manygirls lose good positions because they are not clean and neat about theirpersonal appearance. Run over heels are not neat. Ann is careful abouthaving her shoes resoled when necessary, and so lengthens their life. Shewears an old[163]pair of shoes on rainy days with her rubbers. Ann knows that wet feet aredangerous. One may not feel the results at once, but sometime the effecton health will be felt.
Next lesson let us learn how to keep our clothing darned. You maybring any garment or towel or other piece of household linen which has atear, and we shall learn to darn it.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Carry some of your clothes to the back yard. Brush them,and hang them in the sunshine.
2. Try at home to press your wool skirt. Steam it; it is notdifficult to do.
3. Do you know of any other way besides those Cousin Anntried, of keeping your clothes clean so as to prevent them fromgetting spotted?
4. Do you not think that knowing how to launder shirt waistscarefully would be a good way to earn money when the summerboarders come to your town?
LEARNING TO DARN STRAIGHT TEARS
What threads of the cloth are torn, in a square tear? in a straighttear? How can we replace these threads and prevent the articlefrom tearing further?
Fig. 98.—These tears run in different directions. Which kindof a tear will you have to darn in your dress?
There is always a collection of garments needing repairs in anyhome where there are boys and girls. What a help it will be to motherto have some one who can darn some of the tears. Mrs. Alden was very gladthat Florence was learning to darn, for she has so many things to patchand darn for her family. How many different kinds of tears have beenbrought to-day?[165]Yes, here is a straight tear on this napkin; yes, two straight tears.Who can tell which threads have been torn in this first tear? Find theselvedge; the tear runs across the selvedge. In the second straight tear,the tear runs up and down with the selvedge, or warp. Which threads havebeen torn? Here is a garment with a square corner tear. John Alden torehis overalls climbing over the barbed wire fence. In this tear whichthreads have been torn? So we see that in some tears, the warp is torn;in others, the filling threads; and in others, like the square tear, bothwarp and filling threads. Now darning means putting back the threadswhich have been worn or torn away. Miss James told her class it is veryuseful to keep some black and white wash net in the mending basket. Alittle piece basted under the worn or torn place to be darned is a greathelp; for it reënforces the weak place and makes it last longer. It isput on the wrong side of the article to be darned. The picture (Fig. 98)shows two straight tears: a slanting one, and also a square corner tear.Everyone knows how to make the running stitch. Darning is fine running.Begin without a knot and a little beyond the tear for strength. Fill inthe missing thread with rows of stitches close together. The stitchesshould extend far enough each side of the tear to take in the worn partalso. In turning at the end of each row, leave a tiny loop. Why? Do notleave a very large one, but simply one large enough to allow for[166]stretching and pulling in washing. In passing over the threads at thetorn place, try to make the stitches hold down the threads. In finishingextend the rows beyond the tear as at the beginning. Either a warp orwoof straight tear is mended in this way. A square tear is a combinationof the two. At the corner there will then be both warp and fillingthreads and a double darn like a weave. Can you see from the picture howthis will look? The thread should match as nearly as possible. Sometimeshorsehair or human hair makes a good darning thread when one does notwish the darn to show, or split silk thread or No. 150 cotton. Ravelingsof the same cloth are sometimes used. The size of the needle will dependon the fineness of the cloth to be darned. No. 8 is right for ordinarydarning.
Where can you use this darn? Is it the same as stocking darn?Next lesson every one is to bring from home a stocking, white, brown,or black. Can you mend one at school to surprise mother or father orbrother? The Pleasant Valley girls did. Mr. Allen said Marjorie darnedhis socks so well that he couldn't even feel the darn when he walked!
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Show mother how you can mend a straight tear by mendingone for her at home. Perhaps there is a straight tear in her dress,or in a towel or napkin.
2. Why is it worth while to mend it?
DARNING STOCKINGS
We all have stockings to darn each week as they come from thelaundry. Do you mend the small holes at once, or let them growlarger?
It is always a saving of time and energy to take care of the smallholes; small ones grow to be larger ones if one is not careful. Itpays to mend at once. We will learn how to mend stockings.
Courtesy of H. Brinton Co.
Fig. 99.—The knitting machine.Caps, stockings,and underwear are madeon similar machines.
Stocking darning differs from darning the straight or the squaretear, because, as a rule, there is a hole in the stocking. The stockingmaterial is worn away, and it is necessary to replace it with a smallpiece of weaving over and under of warp and filling. A patch or extrapiece of material might be placed under the hole, but that would beuncomfortable; so a woven piece is put in. The stocking is made ofknitted material called stockinet, not of woven cloth. How do theydiffer? Can you think of other articles of clothing made of knittedmaterial? Yes, mittens, sweaters, caps, underwear. Have you ever seena knitting machine? Here is a picture (Fig. 99) of one showing how thestocking is knitted in the factory to-day[168]on the knitting machines. In weaving there are two threads. What arethey? In knitting there is only one thread; just like grandmother'sknitting of the stocking round and round as the tiny loops are formed.Have you ever torn your stocking in a loop and had it run right down thewhole leg of the stocking? Barbara Oakes had this experience. That showshow the tiny loops are made. If one catches the loop, the raveling isprevented.
This is how we shall darn our stockings. Use single or doubledarning thread, according to the fineness of the stocking, and a darningneedle. Can you thread the big eye by doubling the end of the thread?
Begin on the wrong side without a knot, about ¼ of an inch tothe right of the hole. The stitches are the same fine running as forother darning, and the rows made close together. Look at the picture(Fig. 100). The darn is about diamond shape when finished. Why? Thisprevents the strain from coming on any one row of loops. A tiny loop isleft at each row in turning, as stockinet is a stretchy material. Thisdarning should run the same way as the loops, up and down the material.Care must be taken at the hole. If possible, pass the needle through theloop at the edge of the hole and extend the thread across the hole to theloop opposite, and continue with the darning stitch. When the warp is allin, there will be rows of threads close together extending across thehole. In fine darning or when[169]one is darning sweaters or gloves, all the loops at the edge of the holeshould be carefully caught. For everyday stocking darning, one does nothave time to stop for every loop at the edge of the hole.
Fig. 100.—A, the wrong side of the stocking darn putting in the first set ofthreads;B, weaving in the second thread.
As we said above, the hole is to be filled in with a piece of wovenmaterial which we are making. The warp (Fig. 100 A) has all been put in;then we must go over part of the darn and fill in the cross threads,which are woven over and under the warp threads which have been put inat the hole. The running stitch is used. The sketch (Fig. 100 B) showsthe portion of the darn to be covered with the running stitches, and justwhere the weaving is to be done. You will notice that the first row ofcrosswise running stitches is placed a little[170]below the hole, and the last row extends a little above. Why? At the holeone must go over and under the warp, alternately, as one does in weaving.This is all done with one thread which is carried in fine runningstitches to the hole, then passes over and under the warp threads, andcontinues with running stitches at the other side of darn; turns with atiny loop, continues with running, and again passes over and under thewarp alternately. This is continued until the darn is completed.
Sometimes there are tiny rips in the seams of stockings. Theycan be overhanded carefully on the wrong side, taking up only the veryedges of the seam so as not to make a ridge. If the long ladders whichsometimes come in stockings are not too wide, they can be overhandedtogether on the wrong side; or, if one has time, they can be darned as ahole. As a rule this is a waste of time. A worn place near a hole shouldbe included in a darn, or where several small holes are close together,darn in one large darn.
What kind of stockings do you buy? Marjorie's Cousin Ann saysit does not pay her to buy very cheap stockings, at 15 cents a pair,or very thin ones either. She has discovered that if she pays 25 centsa pair or a dollar for three pairs of a good make, and cares for them,watching when the tiny holes appear, that she can make six pairs last awhole year. Ann says that the girls who buy the very thin transparentstockings are buying stockings all the time; and then, too, they[171]are often ridiculed by others. One is not well dressed when one isconspicuous and when one's clothing is noticed and criticized in such away.
Next lesson you may bring a stocking which has been darned at home.Credit will be given for this. Do you think you can darn one all alone?It is not difficult if one follows carefully the description above. Youmay also bring a linen towel or napkin or tablecloth which has a hole.We shall learn how to patch the holes. The Pleasant Valley pupils hada darning contest. Mrs. Allen was invited to be the judge. Who do yousuppose made the best-looking stocking darn? Mollie Stark won.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Darn one of father's socks or baby sister's stocking or anyother you can at home. Surprise mother by showing her howwell you can darn, after your school practice.
PATCHING SAVES CLOTHING AND OTHER ARTICLES
Some holes are too large to darn; they are, then, repaired witha patch. Would you like to learn how to patch?
Fig. 101.—The patch as it should look on the wrong side in process of hemming.
How to make the hemmed patch. A patch is apiece of cloth cut larger than the worn hole and usedto cover the hole. The hemmed patch is the simplestand most useful. It is sewed with the hemming stitchand so called the hemmed patch because all the rough[172]edges of the patch are turned under and hemmed flat.This kind of patch is used on garments or householdarticles which are to be laundered. It is a good onefor towels, napkins, or tablecloths, and for underwear.Perhaps you have some tablecloths, napkins, and towelswhich have been brought to patch to-day. MissJames brought some for her class. For patches somegirls brought pieces as nearly like the towels and napkinswhich they brought as possible. It is better to patchwith material which has been used, than with newmaterial. Why? The hemmed patch is always puton the wrong side. Cut a square or oblong piece whichwill cover the hole, and extend beyond the worn part.[173]Allow ¼ inch extra all around for turnings. Crease thispatch diagonally. Find the center of the hole of theworn article. Crease it in diagonal lines for a squareor oblong, according to shape of place to be patched.Pin patch on wrong side so that diagonal creases ofpatch fall on diagonal creases of the article. Turn toright side. Cut the hole, removing all frayed edgesuntil it is a true square or oblong, measuring fromthe center where diagonal creases cross. After cutting,make a tiny slanting cut from1⁄8 to ¼ inch at each corneron the diagonal creases of the article, and turn underthese cut edges. Pin and baste carefully. Turn towrong side. Hold to light to see if the patch is the[174]same width on all sides of the hole. Trim if necessary.Remove pins, flatten, turn edges of the patch byopposites, and baste. The hemming stitch is then usedon both the right and wrong sides of the patch to holdthe edges. This patch is laundered flat and neat. Fornext lesson we shall study about the table linen andtowels. We know that some of them are linen. Wheredoes linen come from? Do you know whether it is aplant or an animal? There are several reference bookson the shelf. See how much you can discover aboutthis secret.
Fig. 102.—Hemming the patch in place, on the right side.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Practice making a hemmed patch at home. Mother willsurely have a tablecloth or an undergarment or an apron whichneeds a patch. Try to keep the patch very flat.
2. See how much you can learn about linen before next lesson.
THE STORY OF HOW LINEN IS GROWN
What is the story of our linen materials?
Where do they come from? Would you like to know?
Mollie's Stark's Uncle John has just come to Pleasant Valley. He isher father's brother and has been in the linen business in Ireland. Hetold the Girls' League the other evening about flax and about how it ismade into cloth. This is the story he told. It has also been printed inthe "Pleasant Valley News." Have you read it?
Where does flax grow? Ireland is a cool country, and flax isa plant which grows well in cool places. Cotton, we have learned, isgrown in warm countries. Do you know that Russia produces about halfof the world's supply of flax? Find your map of Europe, and see if youcan locate all these countries. The Russian flax is rather inferior inquality. Ireland and Belgium produce the best quality of fiber. Flax isalso grown in Holland and France, and in Egypt and Italy. The UnitedStates grows some flax; but it is a rather coarse fiber used for crashand for bagging. The United States grows very little flax and onlyfor the coarser purposes. This is for the reason that labor is veryexpensive; and flax, like silk, needs much care if weeded and grown forfiber. The care of the worms makes silk expensive. Flax grown for seed orcoarse purposes does not require so much care.
Fig 103.—The flaxplant grows 20 to40 inches in height.
What is the flax plant? Perhaps your teacher will buy some flaxseed which you can plant in the school garden. The Pleasant Valley girlsdid, and it grew quite tall. Then you can really see how the growingplant looks. Your teacher will have some dry flax to show you. Do youknow how a waving field of wheat or oats looks? Flax is planted thicklywhen it is grown for its fiber. It comes[176]up straight like the wheat and does not branch. When it is planted forits seed, it is not planted so thickly because it must have more room tobranch and bear seed. Flaxseed is used for many purposes. Flaxseed, orlinseed, oil is used for paints and varnishes, and even for food, in somecountries. Like cotton seed, the dry cake, or meal, left is a valuablefood for cattle. Has mother ever used the oil or the meal for anything athome?
The flax plant as it grows is from 20 to 40 inches in height. It haslovely little blue flowers on the stems which branch at the top. UncleJohn knew a little girl at Pleasant Valley who thought the flax came fromthe little brown seed pods on top, just as the cotton comes from the seedpod, or boll. It does not; for the flax fiber is the part of the longstem which grows just inside of the outside woody portion. So, you seeflax fibers can be from 20 to 40 inches long, according to the height ofthe plant. The wonderful part of the story is how the fibers are removedfrom the long stems.
How is flax grown? Flax requires much hand labor in its carewhile growing. The women and children in Europe weed it and care for it,on their hands and knees. When it is full grown and the flowers have comeand gone, the tiny seed pods grow where the flowers have fallen, justlike the seed pods your peonies or poppies grow. Before the seeds arequite ripe, and while the stalks are brownish yellow, the flax is readyto be pulled. It is not cut like wheat with the reaper and gathered intobundles, but must be pulled up by[177]the roots. This is done in clear weather, by hand. The pulled flax islaid on the ground with the roots together and the stalks parallel. Thestalks are then bound something like the wheat, and stacked in stooks.You have often seen oats or wheat so stacked.
Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture.
Fig. 104.—The stooks of flax.
Courtesy of Speyer School, New York.
Fig. 105.—This little girl is rippling flaxby hand at school. Can you see theseeds?
Courtesy of Woolman & McGowan, Textiles.
Fig. 106.—Flax retting at Courtrai, Belgium.
What is rippling and retting flax? The next process is toremove all the seeds without injuring the long fibers. The machine forthis looks like a comb made of iron teeth set in a wooden frame. Thisframe is placed on a cloth so as to collect all the seed as it falls.This is called rippling, and is done in the fields. The seed pods aredrawn across the teeth which remove[178]the seeds. Then the flax is bound in bundles for the next process, whichis retting. This is really the most important part of all, for it meansrotting the outside woody portion of the stem so as to get the flaxfiber. This woody portion is of no value. The flax is sometimes rettedby dew; just left on the ground at night. You know how wet the grass canbe early in the morning. So the dew, rain, air, and sunshine decomposethe outside woody bark. This is a very slow process. More often flax isretted in water. The bundles are[179]placed in crates or boxes, and left for about two weeks under water.If you grow some flax, you can ret it also and remove the fiber. Doyou know what takes place when the woody part decomposes? It is calledfermentation. What have you learned about fermentation? (See Food andHealth.) After retting, the flax is spread to dry in the fields andis then ready for the next process, called breaking. Just think of howmany things have been done to the fibers of our linen towels and napkinsand dresses, which we use every day. Jane Smith said she never realizedbefore how many hands prepare our clothing and other materials.
Courtesy of Speyer School, New York.
Fig. 107.—Flax breaking done by hand.
What is meant by breaking flax? Breaking means removing the drywood portion which has been decomposed by the retting. This is sometimesdone by means of a hand break. In the picture (Fig. 107) you will see alittle girl of Pleasant Valley breaking flax by hand. Sometimes the woodypart is broken away by passing the flax between rollers of a machinewhich is run by power. These power mills are called scutching mills;scutching means cleaning and[180]breaking. After this process the flax lies in long bundles of parallelfibers, something like a girl's hair as it is ready to be braided. Theflax varies in color; sometimes it is gray or of a greenish tint, andsometimes pale yellow.
Fig. 108.—Flax fibers magnified.
If you have a microscope or a glass at school, examine the flax fiber.See how it looks, rough and woody. It also looks something like the silkfibers, straight. It has tiny markings or spots called nodes. Flax isprincipally cellulose. Do you know what cellulose means? Look it up inthe dictionary.
So you see that the long fibers are freed from the stem of the flaxplant and are ready for the manufacturer to spin into yarn to be woveninto cloth, or to make it into cord, rope, twine, lace, or thread formany useful purposes. Isn't this an interesting story? Flax cultivationis one of the most ancient industries. Think how very useful it is, bothfor fiber and for seed. It has been grown for at least 5000 years inEgypt and in Assyria. Do you remember reading about the ancient mummieswhich have[181]been found wrapped in linen in the tombs of Egypt? In the Bible, chapterxlii of the book of Genesis, we are told that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph investures of fine linen. Do you know of any other Bible references whichtell of the use of linen in ancient times? Have you ever heard of theSwiss lake dwellers? Perhaps your teacher will tell you about them, oryou can look it up in the encyclopedia. They too used linen long ago, forpieces have been found and are in the museums in Switzerland.
Fig. 109.—The mummies ofEgypt are found wrapped inlinen cloth made from flaxlong ago.
Next lesson we shall make a large chart for the schoolroom, whichwill tell the story of flax. You may bring anything which you think willhelp to illustrate that story. We shall also mount on the chart the mostcommon linen materials which we use in our homes.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Examine a flax fiber with a microscope or a magnifying glass.What do you see?
2. Look up references which prove the age of flax culture.
3. Perhaps some one near your school has been in the linenbusiness in Ireland. Perhaps he will come to the school and tellthe boys and girls about it. Try to find some one.
COMMON LINEN MATERIALS ARE IDENTIFIED
Can we learn to identify at least eight of the common linenmaterials?
To-day we shall study about the different linen materials,and then see what we have to mount on our[182]school chart. If you prefer, you may make a book of linen materials likethe cotton and silk.
Let us divide the pieces which have been brought to school intotwo piles: the thin, and the thicker ones. We have more of the thickones. Yes, we all know the heavy coarse linen is calledRussian crash.We used it for our porch cushions or covers. It comes from 18 to 36inches in width and costs from 15 cents a yard up to 75 cents sometimes.We know it is used for dresses, and sometimes for toweling and upholsteryuses. It is unbleached in color.
This wide sample islinen sheeting. Our great-grandmothers alwayshad linen sheets of flax which they grew, spun, and wove, because longago cotton was not grown. Some of the Pleasant Valley girls saw thesesheets which Grandmother Allen made. Sheeting comes in several widths,and costs about $1 per yard up. Cotton sheeting is cheaper.
The one thin one ishandkerchief linen. It costs from 60 cents to$2.00 per yard. What kind of a weave is it? What is it used for? Theother thin piece is calledbatiste. It, too, is used for waists anddress linens, and it is fine and sheer. It can be used for handkerchiefstoo. It costs about $1.00 per yard up, according to the fineness, andis 1 yard or more wide. Batiste is made of cotton, also, and is thencheaper.
The weave of this piece is different. You have acotton sample of the same weave. Yes, it is called[183]bird's-eye pattern. It is used for toweling and costs about 30 centsper yard, 24 inches wide.
Here is another piece used also for toweling. You all know its name.Huckaback is correct. We have also cotton huckaback, and some huckabackmade of half linen and half cotton. It is woven in a pattern whichabsorbs easily. The filling thread shows more on the surface than thewarp threads. It is woven 18 inches and wider, and costs 15 cents up.
Every one knows this one. Our tablecloths and napkins are ofdamask.It is a lovely material made in beautiful patterns. Sometimes it is alllinen and sometimes a mixture. There is also cotton damask for tablenapkins and cloths. It is much cheaper. The cloths are woven 1 yard wideor wider, and for damask towels from 16 to 36 inches. One can spend agreat deal for beautiful damask towels and napkins.
This plain coarse linen is calledbutchers' linen, because it wearsvery well and butchers sometimes have their aprons made of it. It isused, too, for dress skirts, and is very satisfactory. It is woven from27 to 44 inches in width and costs from 40 cents to $1.50 per yard.
The heavy stiff piece is alinen canvas and is used by tailors forthe interlining of cuffs and collars of coats. It costs 25 cents per yardand is 27 to 36 inches wide.
Suppose our chart is 24 × 20 inches. Perhaps a cardboard or cover ofan old box will do if your teacher has nothing else. Put two holes nearthe top in the[184]middle of the 20 inches side and run a cord through for hanging. At oneedge down one side place the common linen materials with their names anduses, etc.
Let us see what the girls have brought. Here is a bottle oflinseed oil. Yes, and some flax seeds. Jane has brought a linen collar.Here is a small china doll wrapped as a mummy. Marjorie's grandmotherhas sent some flax which she grew and prepared herself, and a piece ofan old hand-woven towel which she made when a girl. And here is somehand-spun flax! Notice how rough it looks. We have, also, some cord andtwine and some linen thread. Do you know that Paterson, New Jersey, whereMarjorie's Cousin Ann works in the silk mill, is also a great center forlinen thread manufacture? Thread is made by twisting fine yarns together.The twisting makes them strong. They are then dyed or bleached white.Much of our linen thread is unbleached in color. Why?
Suppose we draw a picture of the flax stalk and flower on our chartand fasten some of the school-grown flax to it. All the other things canbe arranged and fastened too, by punching holes in the cardboard andtying them on with cord.
What an interesting story it makes. Perhaps the children of the lowerclasses would like to hear the story told by one of the seventh gradegirls some morning.
Next lesson you may bring any table linen or towels which are stained;and we shall learn how to remove the stains.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Draw a picture of the flax plant, and color the flowers withyour crayons.
2. Prepare the chart telling the story of flax.
3. Look up the story of how linen thread is prepared.
4. See how many linen materials you can find at home.
REMOVING COMMON STAINS FROM TABLE LINEN
Some of the common stains one finds on table linen are coffee,tea, fruit, rust, or grass stains. Do you know how to remove them?
When should stains be removed? A good housekeeper always looksover the clothing and household linens before putting them to soak. Mrs.Allen says she usually does this on Monday. Do you know why? She spendsthis day getting ready for wash day. She bakes and prepares certainfoods for her family for two days; and so the work is easier on Tuesdayand Wednesday, when she washes and irons. Fruit, coffee, or tea stainson linen should be removed as soon after the stain appears as possible.If this is not done, then certainly the stains must be removed beforeputting the linen into the tub. White clothes are boiled. What will thisdo to the stains if they are not removed?
How can stains be removed? Let us try to remove these spots oneat a time. I think we have six or seven different kinds on the articleswhich have been brought[186]to school to-day. Your teacher will show you how to follow thedirections.
Coffee and tea stains are the most common on table linen. To remove,wash in lukewarm water, and then dip in a solution of washing soda, andrinse very carefully until all soda is removed. (Washing soda solutionis made of one pound of washing soda to one gallon of water. This can bekept in glass jars and used when occasion demands.) Tea stains are easilyremoved by brushing the spot with glycerine and then washing carefullyin warm water to remove the grease. Rubbing the spot with the bowl of aspoon is a good way to put on the glycerine.
Fruit stains are also common. An easy way to remove them is tostretch the fabric, if it is white, over a bowl and pour boiling waterfrom a height, through the spot. On white wool or silk, lukewarm water issometimes all that is necessary; or lukewarm water and a little borax. Ifthe fruit stains are on colored garments, they are difficult to removeon account of removing the color also. If the article is of much value,consult a professional dyer if possible. It is wise to experiment onthe material on another part of the garment, as the inside of a hem orfacing. Make a similar spot and try to remove with different methods.Often one can discover a way, through experimenting.
Rust stains often appear on table linen or white clothing. Toremove, wet the spot and apply a few drops of oxalic acid or salts oflemon or cream of tartar[187]solution, and wash thoroughly. On colored or wool goods of good quality,one must decide whether one prefers the stain or the color removed. Waterand lemon juice will generally remove the spot, but may take the colortoo. Care is necessary for colors.
Grass stains are also common. If the stains are fresh, cold waterwill usually remove them. When on white goods or material which cannot bewashed, alcohol may be used. When color will stand it, dyed fabrics whichare grass-stained can be washed with water and a little ammonia, followedby warm soap solution and careful rinsing.
Here is a garment which has bothink andblood stains on it.Marjorie must have cut her finger. Blood stains when fresh are easilyremoved with lukewarm, not hot water, and a little ammonia. When oncolored silk, wash carefully with lukewarm water only. The ink stains aremore difficult, because the composition of inks varies. Wash at once incold water; this often removes some spots. Sour milk or several rinsingsin sweet milk may cause the spot to disappear. Then wash in warm waterand soap to remove the grease. If this does not remove it, try a pastemade of starch, salt, and lemon juice except for colors. If this willnot, try Javelle water. This can be obtained at a drug store. Wash thespot in the Javelle water, but rinse very quickly and carefully. Repeatuntil the spot disappears. These directions are for white materialsonly.
How many would like to try to remove some spots at home, before nextlesson? You may report your successes or failures, and we shall tryto learn the reasons for them. Next lesson we shall learn to wash andiron this table linen. It will be well to keep it at school until nextlesson.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. How many spots have you been able to remove? Tell ofyour successes or failures.
2. See if mother or grandmother has any better recipes thanyou have learned for spots.
LEARNING TO WASH AND IRON TABLE LINEN OR BED LINEN
We have studied many things about cleanliness, and we all know howmuch cleanliness of clothing and household linen adds to our comfort.We have learned that sometimes we can wear our underclothes withoutironing and that towels can be washed and dried and will smell sweetand clean even if not ironed. Table linen, though, must be washed andboiled and ironed to look well. Our lesson to-day is about how to dothis.
The linen, as well as the cotton, are, as you know, vegetable fibers.They are strong and able to resist heat and the friction from rubbing.They have resistance for chemicals also. So cotton and linen may beboiled, starched, and ironed with hot irons because the fibers arestrong. They may also be treated with acids of a dilute nature whennecessary to remove spots,[189]as we have learned. For the usual grease spots on the family tablecloths,soak the cloth in soda water to remove grease (one cup of soda—thedissolved solution—to a pail of water, see page 186).
Fig. 110.—Mrs. Stark washing out of doors on a warm day. This is the oldway. She has just bought a washing machine.
The processes for washing and ironing. If the stains havebeen removed from the table linen, it can then be soaked. Soakinghelps to loosen the dirt when soap is added before the soaking. Itis then unnecessary to rub them as much, and so materials are savedfrom wear. These are the processes for washing and ironing: soaking,washing, rinsing, boiling, rinsing, bluing, starching, hanging, drying,sprinkling, pulling, folding, ironing.
1.Soaking. Soak the table or bed linens about 1½ hours incold or lukewarm water. Soap is really not necessary as the linenis not very dirty. All stains should have been previously removed.
2.Washing. Wash with soap on both sides, rubbing on clothesboard or in washing machine. Use hot water.
3.Rinsing. Rinse and soap again to be placed in the boiler.The dirt is carried away by this rinsing.
4.Boiling. Put the soaped articles in clear cold water. Boilbriskly for five minutes. Add enough soap to keep a suds whileboiling; save small pieces for this purpose. Stir clothes and presswith a stick. Remove from boiler, after boiling actively for fiveminutes. Put in clean hot water, then in cold. Rinse once ortwice again thoroughly before bluing.
5.Bluing. Make the blue water from some good blue. Do notmake it too deep. Test on a small doily. Stir the blue beforeeach article is dipped, so it may not appear streaked on the clothes.If articles are very yellow it may be necessary to let them stand inthe blue for a little while. If not yellow, dip two or three times.
The next process is starching; but it is not as a rule necessaryto starch napkins, tablecloths, or bed linens.
6.Hanging. Hang very straight after stretching. Do notpin at corners. Hang ⅓ of the napkin or tablecloth over the line.
7.Sprinkling. Table linen must be sprinkled evenly. Sometimesit can be taken from the line when half dry, and the processof sprinkling omitted.
8.Ironing. Linen should be ironed damp and until dry. Thismakes the pattern stand out and gives a shine and gloss to thelinen. This takes the place of starch.
9.Folding. Iron napkins partly dry on wrong side; then turnto right side, and iron dry. Fold edges evenly. In the lengthwisefold do not fold quite to end, as in the final fold the napkin, handkerchief,tablecloth, or sheets will appear uneven at the edges.Fold the tablecloth, or napkins with selvedges together. Tableclothsmay be folded with three, or four, long creases.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Try to wash and iron the napkins for mother.
2. Try to wash and iron some towels or pillowcases. Is theprocess different?
3. Why is it unnecessary to iron some clothes if one is verybusy. Can you give a good reason why it is hygienic not to ironthem.
THE STORY OF THE MANUFACTURE OF LINEN YARN INTO CLOTH
To-day we are going to study again about our linen tableclothsand napkins, and learn how the flax fiber is made into clothafter it has been cleaned at the scutching mill.
Fig. 111.—The flax wheel.
Combing and spinning flax. Uncle John divided his story in twoparts, and told the Pleasant Valley Girls' League about the manufactureof flax as well as about its growth. The scutched flax is delivered tothe manufacturer. He must first spin the flax into yarn before it canbe woven into cloth. The flax fibers measure from 20 to 35 inches inlength. How are they to be made into one continuous piece for spinning?The pictures (Figs. 112 and 113) will give a very good idea. Long agograndmother or great-grandmother spun the yarn for the linen sheets onthe flax wheel. Marjorie's grandmother sent her old flax wheel to schoolfor the girls to see. The flax is here on the distaff. If you haven'ta wheel at your school, look at the picture (Fig. 111). The woman isholding the flax fibers which come from the distaff; and, as her foot[192]turns the wheel and the flax in her fingers is fed to the spindle, itis twisted. Spinning of flax is a very old invention. It was once donewith just a spindle like the woman has in the picture on page 71 (Fig.44). This is the secret of how flax spinning is done to-day. The flaxis opened at the mill and graded according to color and quality. It isthen combed. This process is called hackling (Fig. 112). It is sometimesdone by hand, and the worker draws the flax over the iron teeth of acomb. The straightened fibers are left and are called line; and thecombed-out fibers are called tow. This first combing process is sometimescalled roughing instead of hackling. The line is then combed again in abig machine which removes any loose tow. Tow is often put in a cardingmachine and made into yarn for coarser purposes; but the long straightline is used for the better materials. The line, after it is hackled, isplaced on a spread board; and the process is called spreading. You cansee in the picture (Fig. 113) that[193]the bundles of flax yarn are spread and overlapped as they enter themachine. Now you know how the yarn begins to be made of continuouslength. The flax comes from this machine in a rope and is something likethe cotton rope or roving as it leaves the carding machine; but flax isbrown and stiff, not so soft as cotton. Can you find in the picture (Fig.113) the cans ready to receive the flax rovings as they come from thespreading machine? They are at the back of the machine. The rovings arethen ready to be wound on spools and to be twisted to make them strong.This is done in the same way as the cotton. The spools are put in at thetop of the machine; they hold the[194]rovings. The rovings pass over rollers which draw out and twist and windthe yarn on the spools below. This is called spinning. (Fig. 46 shows thecotton spinning machines.) Flax spinning is somewhat like this. Perhapssome day you may be able to visit a flax mill and see the spinningframes, as the machines are called, at work. Uncle John says that yarnsare made of coarse or of very fine grade, according to the fineness ofcloth desired. Linen thread is made by twisting together two or three ofthe linen yarns. Look at the linen thread and see if you can discover twoor three.
Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast.
Fig. 112.—Flax hackling done by machine.
Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast.
Fig. 113.—Spreading flax to make it a continuous line.
Weaving linen. After the threads of flax have beenspun, they are wound on spools; and the spools are[195]put in the big spool holder or skarn in order to prepare the roll of warpthreads for the loom. Do you remember how the cotton warp was preparedand how the weaving was done? Uncle John says that in Scotland to-daymuch of the very fine linen is woven by hand; but we know that linenweaving by machinery has been perfected there and that very beautifulmaterials are produced on the modern looms with the Jacquard harness asit is called, to produce the wonderful designs. Fine table damask is asbeautiful as fine silk. The French, perhaps, make the most beautifuldesigns for table linen, and the Scotch and Irish come next. (See page124 for Jacquard loom.)
Bleaching linen cloth. Uncle John says there are many thingsto be done to the linen cloth after it is woven. If we were to go toIreland, we might ride for miles and see the woven linen cloth spread onthe grass in great lengths. This is called crofting or grass bleaching.Do you remember how we said grandmother used to bleach her linen? Did sheuse a chemical? What did the sour milk which she used do to her linen?What did the oxygen do? Chemicals are sometimes used to-day in the earlystages before the linen is spread on the grass. Uncle John says that from20-25 per cent, or about ¼, of the weight of the linen is lostin bleaching. Linen is sometimes bleached in the thread, but more oftenafter it is woven.
Finishing linen cloth for shipping. After linen clothhas been bleached, Uncle John says it is ready to be[196]finished for shipping to the merchants. It is washed by passing the cloththrough a machine called a rub-board. Then it is dried and passed througha beetling machine. This makes the fibers stand out. Then it is pressedbetween rollers to give it a smooth surface. Cotton is sometimes finishedby means of these processes to look like linen and be sold for linen.When this cotton material is washed, the finishing wears off and it doesnot look like linen. Is such material cheaper or more expensive? Is ithonest to sell cotton for linen, and to cheat the buyer? It is all rightif the goods are labeled. Next lesson we shall talk about the buying ofhousehold linens. One must know many things in order to purchase wisely.Do you see how a knowledge of how things are made will help you, too?
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Write a story of two hundred words telling how flax is madeinto cloth.
2. Have an exhibit of articles brought from home, showingdifferent patterns of linen cloth.
3. Perhaps there may be a cord factory near for you to visit.Tow is sometimes used in making twine. Study how cord is made.
A TALK ABOUT BUYING LINENS
Have you ever gone shopping with mother? There are someimportant things to remember when buying table linen or otherhousehold materials. What are they?
Marjorie goes with her mother once a year to buy household linens.This is usually in January, when the big shop in town has a sale. LastJanuary, when Marjorie's mother was ill, they had to order by mail. Thecatalogue from the shop described fully, and Mrs. Allen knew exactly whatto ask for; so they managed without going to town. This can be done ifone knows how and if the store is a reliable one. These are some of thethings Mrs. Allen is teaching Marjorie. Some day she will wish to buy forher own home; or, if her mother is ill again, she can go alone. It isalways more satisfactory to see what one is buying.
Here are some of the points to be noticed in buying:
1. The first important thing to remember is to buy only what oneneeds. Know the shops one patronizes, if possible, and go or send to onlyreliable firms. The reliable places are the cheapest in the end. Onelearns, too, that some things are better at one shop and some at another.Reliable stores often have sales, but as a rule bargains are not cheap.Remember nothing is ever given away.
2. It is wise and cheaper to purchase some new household linen onceeach year than to wait and have it all wear out at once.
3. Cost is a good guide. Linen is expensive. If too cheap, beware.
4. Linen is sometimes cheapened or adulteratedwith cotton. If the store keeper sells it for union, it[198]is honest; if he calls it linen, and you pay linen price, it isdishonest. Ravel and untwist the ends of the warp and filling thread.Cotton will be fuzzy, linen should be long and lustrous. Round threadsof linen are best. The linen threads appear pointed at the ends whenseparated. The all linens made from the tow (you have learned what thatis) are cheaper than those made from the line. Why? They will not lastquite so well.
Wet the linen. Water spreads more rapidly on linen than on cotton. Anold-fashioned test was to moisten with the finger. If you have a sampleof linen at home for testing, use a drop of olive oil. The oil makes thelinen fibers more translucent than the cotton. Why?
5. Another way to know. Linen feels colder than cotton; also it feelsheavier when crushed in the hand.
6. Notice the finish. Is it full of starch which can be picked off?If so, after the washing you will have a loosely woven material withoutstarch. It is better to buy a softer linen than one filled stiff withstarch which will crack.
7. Damask by the yard is slightly cheaper than by the cloth. Onedollar a yard is a fair price. Table cloths from 2½ to 3 yards area good size for a family of six. A cloth wears about as long as 1½or 2 dozen napkins. The price of one dozen napkins about equals the costof a cloth. Napkins come in three sizes:5⁄8, 17-22 inches; ¾, 23-27 inches;7⁄8, 29-31 inches.
8. Scotch, French, and Irish linens are the best for quality, beauty,and variety of patterns. German damask is good; but German patterns areperhaps the least attractive. Unbleached linen will wear much longer, isless expensive, and is bought by many housewives and bleached as used.
9. For family towels huckaback is the most serviceable, althoughdamask is used a great deal. Linen towels vary in price from $3.00 adozen up, according to size and quality. Dish towels of linen crash arevery serviceable.
10. The microscope is the only sure test for distinguishing cotton andlinen fibers.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Ask mother if she knows any other methods of judging goodlinen.
2. When you go to town, price some tablecloths and napkins.How much will a good cloth and napkins cost?
REVIEW PROBLEMS
I. Plan a systematic way of looking over your clothing andkeeping it in repair.
II. How do you store your winter clothing for protection duringsummer? Your summer clothes during winter?
III. How does your knowledge of buying linens help you ingoing shopping with mother?
THE PLEASANT VALLEY GIRLS LEARN TO MAKEMORE GARMENTS
Would you like to learn to make some useful garments? Perhaps, then,you can help with the family sewing and make some useful garments foryour sister or mother. Some day you may wish to be a seamstress or adressmaker and to earn money in that way. Barbara Oakes says she expectsto do so. Now is the time to begin to learn how, and later perhaps youmay go to a dressmaking school.
Barbara Oakes and some of the League girls have a class which meetsonce a week for instruction in gymnastics and fancy dancing. In thespring or early summer they expect to give a dance outdoors. A pageantwill be prepared by some of the members of the Mothers' Club; and thedance is part of that pageant.
The pageant will picture the history of Pleasant Valley. The Mothers'Club is planning to have all the people who will, take part. Have youever seen a[201]pageant? It is a pleasant way to learn history and to celebrate aninteresting local event. Pageants have been held in many parts of theeastern and western states; and in England there have been many pageants.Perhaps you can plan a pageant for your town. While the girls arepracticing their dancing and gymnastics, bloomers will be very useful,and the girls have decided to learn to make them. Would you like to learnhow? The bloomers will be useful for school gymnastics, too. You can alsomake a middy blouse and a skirt to wear with them, so as to have thewhole outfit.
THE PATTERN OF THE BLOOMERS
Let us study the pattern which your teacher has brought to school. Youhave learned to read patterns. You must also calculate how much materialto order, and what kind.
Let us open the pattern and study its parts. Yes, the longnarrow strips are for the belt; some are for the placket facings. Noticeif the dots indicate where these are to be placed: on a fold of materialor lengthwise of the cloth. There is one other piece. It is the leg; sotwo must be cut. Is it possible to cut two at the same time? How, then,should the material be folded? Notice the perforations. They will helpus to know which part of the pattern is to be placed on the warp of thecloth. How wide is the width of the pattern at the widest part? If it is34 inches, then it will be easy[202]to calculate how many lengths to buy of cloth 36 inches wide. Measurethe length of the pattern and see if it is long enough for you to allowfor fullness at the knee so that there is some to blouse over. If not,how will you add to the pattern? This extra length must be allowed inordering the material. Can you tell how much cloth to order? See if youcan calculate.
Fig. 114.—The bloomers and middyblouse.
What kind of material will you use? Some of the Pleasant Valleygirls wish wool material because it will be warmer for winter wear. Darkblue or black serge is very durable, is washable also, and will shed thedust. Here are some samples. Sateen is also a durable cotton material,but it is not so warm. It is easier for girls to handle in making thanwool. Bloomers can also be made from gingham, percale, galatea, orother cotton cloth. Which will you choose? Shall we not write for somesamples of these different materials? The Pleasant Valley girls wrote andreceived them in a few days. Perhaps you too are learning how to orderby mail when you are too far away from town to go shopping. Try to makeall the calculations to-day and to learn all about the pattern. Pin thepieces of the pattern together; also try to hold them up to your figureor the girl next to you. It helps one to learn where the parts lie[203]on the body and to locate where the seams will fall. The Pleasant Valleygirls worked in pairs and helped each other with the cutting, fitting,and planning. This is a good way when each girl does her part.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Open the pattern for the bloomers. Notice the parts, alsothe perforations and directions.
2. Calculate how much cloth will be necessary for a pair ofbloomers for yourself.
3. Bring samples of materials suitable for bloomers.
THE STORY OF WHERE WOOL IS GROWN
While you are waiting for the samples of wool serges, galatea, andsateen, let us study about wool. Wool is the most important textilefiber. All girls should know about it, whether you will use wool orcotton for your bloomers.
In the picture (Fig. 115) you will see a very peaceful scene. Thesheep are grazing and storing up food and energy to be converted intofood for us to eat and clothing for us to wear. Mr. Allen has over ahundred sheep on his farm. How grateful we should be to the patientsheep. This animal fiber called wool is a variety of hair, and variesin fineness. The coarser varieties are called hair. Hair is obtainedfrom the angora goat, the camel, and alpaca. Perhaps your teacher hasa microscope. Look at the fibers under the glass. You can see how hairdiffers from wool. There are tiny[204]serrations on the wool surface which look like the scales of a pine cone,lapping one over the other. This is a wonderful thing to see; for it ison account of these tiny serrations which close up when in hot waterthat one must be so careful about laundering woolens. Wool looks wavy inlength. It is fine and has a luster; while hair has a smooth surface andlies straight.
Rosa Bonheur.
Fig. 115.—These peaceful looking sheep provide our wool clothing.
Have you ever seen sheep sheared of their wool? Perhaps it isdone on your farm. Sheep are usually sheared only once a year, in Aprilor May. If there are only a few sheep, it is easy to use the hand shears[205]like those in the picture (Fig. 117); but where there are many sheep,the machine clippers must be used. These clipping machines can be run byhand or other power. They shear close and save wool. Notice the machinewhich the man in the picture (Fig. 118) is using; it is just like the oneMr. Allen uses. Frank or John sometimes helps. The coating of wool fromone sheep is called a fleece. On the large sheep ranches of the West thefleeces are tied into bundles, and these bundles are put in sacks holdingabout 400 pounds to be shipped to certain wool-purchasing centers wherethe buyers examine the wool and buy in quantities.
Fig. 116.—Wool fibers magnified.
What do you know about the sheep industry? Our sheep industryis very important. The western states, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, andOregon, support about 38 million sheep. That is a large family to shearand feed.
Fig. 117.—Thehandshears.
Other countries grow sheep for clothing wools, too. Australia,England, South Africa, South America, Spain, and Germany all give muchattention to sheep raising.
Courtesy of Chicago Flexible Shaft Co.
Fig. 118.—Sheep shearing by machinery.
This industry is very old. We read in the Bible that wool was usedlong ago and that King David of Israel wrote psalms as he tended hissheep on the hillside. Abel, the brother of Cain, was a keeper of sheep.Can you find these stories in the Bible? Writers of many ages tell aboutwool—Pliny, Homer, and Virgil. Alexander too, when he journeyed toIndia in early days, saw beautiful woolen shawls being made.
Some sheep give a better quality of wool than others. TheMerino wool is the very finest. The camel furnishes a beautiful softfiber. Then, there is the angora goat of Asia Minor, which provides uswith mohair. This is a lovely soft fiber resembling silk. Can you findthis country on your map? Look for Peru and for Chili. The sheep therefurnish the alpaca and llama wools.
Some wool fibers are long, and some are quite short. The lengthof fiber, or staple as it is called, varies. An average length is 7 or8 inches. How does this compare with the silk or linen fiber? Is it aslong as cotton? The fibers also vary in strength and luster, fineness,softness, and elasticity. What do these words mean? Can you find themin your dictionary? The tiny serrations on the wool fiber cannot beseen with the naked eye. They are, however, very important; for it isthis characteristic of wool which makes it felt, and, because thesetiny serrations interlock, it is possible to make the fine texture ofbroadcloth and other fine wool materials. We shall study how later. Doyou think we wish the tiny serrations to interlock when we wash woolenarticles? If they do, what will happen to the garment? Do you know howthis can be prevented? If you have sheep on your farm or near, will youbring some of the wool to school. It is dirty. Perhaps you can wash itat school, and see how soft and fine and lustrous it is. You may also beable to dye some. The center of the wool fiber is rather[208]porous, and this enables the fiber to take up dye easily.
The wool from some sheep farms varies on account of the differencesin climate, soil, and breed of sheep. The sheep of southern Englandproduce short and fine wool; while in the north, where it is colder, thewool is stronger and coarser. Wools from Saxony and Silesia are veryfine. The English and Australian wools are of several qualities. The longwools come from Lincoln and Leicestershire, and the shorter from Suffolkand Shropshire. Can you find these places on your map of England? Thelong coarse wools are used for carpets and for knitting, because theyare so strong. The short wools used for clothing are about 3 to 4 inchesin length. The long wools, about 10 inches in length, are called combingwools and are used for materials which are loosely woven like serges,homespuns, and others.
Next lesson we shall study our samples of woolen materials. Bring allthe scraps of different kinds which you can contribute. Put them in thesurprise box. We shall learn the names of the most common ones. Will youmake a sample book for these too?
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Find on the map the principal countries producing wool.
2. If your teacher has a microscope, compare wool and hair.How do they differ?
3. Why do woolen garments shrink when washed in hot water?
4. Why is wool the most important fiber of commerce?
5. Tell some of the uses of long coarse wools; of the finer wools.
SOME OF THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS MADE FROM WOOL
There are many materials made from wool. Let us learn to-day aboutthose which are used most commonly.
Perhaps some one in the class will sort the pieces in the surprisebox. Mollie Stark sorted those at Pleasant Valley School. Do not sortaccording to color, but place them in three piles. We have the thick,close materials, which are heavy and firm. Then we have the thin, sheerones. In the third pile, place the medium weight ones which look strongand are wiry but not so closely woven and firm as those in the firstpile. Shall we learn about some of each kind?
Let us see what we have in the third pile of wiry, more looselywoven materials. First we have theserges. Here are severalpieces. Some are fine with the twilled weave, and others are twilledbut the weave is coarser. They are very serviceable and are suitablefor bloomers, or for dress fabrics. Here is a sample of a plaid serge.Marjorie Allen had such a dress last winter. It is possible to buy plaincolors too. Serges are woven quite wide, from 42 to 54 inches, and costfrom 75 cents to $3 per yard.Cheviots are very similar to serges inprice and width, but are somewhat heavier in appearance. The surface ofsome is rather rougher than serge, although there are smooth cheviotstoo. Have some samples of serges been sent from the store? You[210]must examine these, too, to see if you will select one for yourbloomers.
This coarse one in the same pile is ahomespun, and this isatweed. They are both rough, wiry, loosely woven, and madeof rather coarse yarn. They are rather open in texture and were bothin olden times spun and woven by hand, but are now made by machinery.Tweed gets its name from a place in Scotland. These materials are veryserviceable, especially for rough wear for suitings, coats, or dressgoods. The color or pattern is not always clearly defined, because theyarn of which it is woven is mixed in color. Homespuns are somewhatcheaper than tweeds. They cost from $1 to $3 per yard, and are woven from42 to 50 inches wide. Tweeds are a little wider, 52 to 54 inches, andcost from $2 to $4 per yard.
There are four samples in this pile, not quite so heavy. Theyarecashmere,challie,albatross, andhenrietta. Have you ever heard these names before? They are allcommon wool materials. They are often used for girls' school dresses, forwrappers, and for baby wear. They are all softer than serges. Cashmereand henrietta resemble each other. They both have a twilled weave.Henrietta was originally woven with a silk warp. One can buy silk warphenrietta to-day. Grandmother Stark has one. Is there a sample in yourbox? Cashmere is also soft, and the finer qualities are made from hair ofthe cashmere goat. Cashmere is woven 36 to 45 inches in width and can be bought[211]for from 75 cents to $1.25 per yard. Henrietta is about the same widthand price, except when it has silk warp. Then it is more expensive.
Challie and albatross are about the same weight. I am sureyou have all had a pretty challie dress sometime. Challies arefigured;—sometimes the pattern is woven in and sometimes printed.It is made sometimes of a mixture of cotton and wool, or silk and wool;but now challies can be bought in all cotton too as well as in all wool.They come about 30 inches wide and cost from 50 to 75 cents per yard.
Albatross is also soft and a fancy weave. It too is used for dressgoods and costs about the same as challie, 50 cents to $1 per yard. It iswoven from 38 to 45 inches in width.
Let us now examine some of the heavy ones in the first pile.Yes, every one knows the name of the heavy fine piece. It isbroadclothand is used for coats and dress goods. There are also some lighterweights of broadcloth with a smooth satiny finish. They are calledlady's cloth. A very good broadcloth is expensive, and costs about$5 per yard. One can buy it for $1.50, but as a rule it is not verysatisfactory under $2 per yard. Broadcloth is closely woven, smooth, andsoft in finish. It is from 50 to 58 inches in width. Has any one at yourhouse a dress or coat made from this? Examine it and ask how durableit has been. Father's winter overcoat was perhaps made ofmelton, orcovert cloth. Mr. Allen had such a coat last year. Examine[212]the samples. They are both heavy. Melton is about the same width asbroadcloth, 52 inches, and costs also from $2 to $4 per yard for a goodquality. It is used for suits, overcoats, and heavy garments. This is astandard material and is usually dark blue or black. Uniforms are oftenmade from it.
Covert cloth is, also, used for overcoats and suits. It is heavy, butdiffers from the smooth surface of broadcloth. It is a heavy twilledcloth.
Felt andflannel are both in this heavy pile, although there aresome lightweight flannels. Felt is not woven, but is compressed, sothat the wool fibers are matted together in a flat mass. It is made 24to 50 inches in width and costs from 80 cents to $1.50 per yard. I amsure you all know its use. School pennants are made from it, and so aresome table covers. Flannel is woven. It is finished with a soft surfacewhich is slightly napped. What does that mean? It is a rather looselywoven fabric, and is used for many purposes. Can you tell some? Yes,petticoats, baby garments, waists, dressing sacques, shirts for men. Itcosts from 50 cents to $1 per yard. Sometimes it is made of a combinationof cotton and wool, instead of all wool. It varies in width from 27 to 36inches.
Let us examine some of the thin samples. Here is one which itis almost possible to see through. It is calledvoile and is thin andgauzy, like veiling. This sample near is callednun's veiling. It,also, has an open mesh weave, and is a common wool material.[213]They are both used for dress goods, and are made in solid colors. Thereare also some printed voiles, but they are usually made of cotton.Wool voile costs from $1.25 to $2 per yard and is woven from 42to 45 inches wide; while nun's veiling is narrower, 36 inches wide, andslightly less expensive, from 75 cents to $1 per yard.
Here are some samples calledetamine andgrenadine.They are similar to the voiles, of open mesh weave, and are usedprincipally for dress goods.
Bunting is another open mesh weave. We certainly all know its use.Look at the flag flying on your schoolhouse. Bunting is about 24 inchesin width and costs about 35 cents per yard. It is sometimes made frommohair.
Here are three samples: one calledbrilliantine; and another,alpaca; the third,mohair. The brilliantine and mohair do not feel assoft as the wool serges or cashmeres, but rather more wiry. They are madefrom hair of the Angora goat. They are serviceable, for they both sheddust and wear well. They are used for dresses or dust coats. The Alpacais made from the hair of the llama, which is bright, strong, and elastic.All of these materials are bright and glossy. Here are their prices andwoven widths:
| Alpaca | 36-45 inches | 75 cents-$1 per yard |
| Brilliantine | 54 inches | 75 cents-$2 per yard |
| Mohair | 40-54 inches | 50 cents-$2 per yard |
There are still some common wool materials we have notmentioned. Yes,blankets. They are made of cotton as well asof wool, or of a mixture of the two. They cost from $7 to $30 per pair ifall wool. The combination of cotton and wool can be had for less.
Carpets are also made from wool yarn. They are woven so that theyarn stands up in loops, and then these loops are cut as in velvetcarpet. In Brussels and ingrain carpets the loops are not cut.
Suppose you plan to arrange your sample books with three columns ofmaterials made from wool. You may have four or five columns if you preferto put the mohairs, alpacas, and brilliantines by themselves, and theblankets and carpets in a separate column. That is the way the PleasantValley girls arranged theirs. The first will be the heavy materials;then the medium weight, and then the thin ones. It is easy to sort andlabel them now that you know their names, uses, and widths. Before verylong we shall learn the story of how the wool fiber is made into somany different kinds of cloth. It is treated by different processes inmanufacture in order to get a smooth close finish or a loose wiry finish.We shall learn how.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Tell the difference between felt and flannel.
2. Name some heavy wool materials; some of lighter weight.Tell where you have seen them used.
3. Look up the story of how carpets are made. Perhaps youwould like to study about rugs, too.
4. How do serges and broadcloths differ in appearance?
5. Plan to collect materials for the five columns of the chart.Mount with prices and widths.
MAKING A PAIR OF BLOOMERS
Let us begin to make the bloomers to-day.
First, we shall lay the pattern. Some girls have probablychosen serge for their bloomers, and some have ordered galatea or sateen.The black or the blue are serviceable. Suppose you cut them out to-day.You have studied the pattern which your teacher had. Perhaps some girlswill find it necessary to add in length or width. Your teacher orderedthe pattern by size, according to age. 14-year size was chosen. Perhapsyou must make yours smaller or larger. One pattern can be adapted tothe whole class. This you allowed for, in ordering the amount of cloth.Let us place the pattern carefully. Be sure that the perforations whichindicate lengthwise of the material are placed on the warp. Can you cutout both legs at the same time? Can you tell where to place the twostrips for the bands, and for the placket facings? Which way of thematerial will the length of band and facings be cut? Pin carefully inplace and cut with an even motion. It will perhaps be safer to mark thenotches[216]with a pencil or with a white thread. Girls sometimes forget—cutthe notches too large and spoil the cloth.
Then we shall learn to make a flat felled seam. Thetwo legsare to be sewed up on the right side. Be very careful not to make bothlegs for the same leg. That is the mistake Marjorie Allen made. Baste theseam ½ inch wide. Then stitch close to the basting. Cut off oneedge of this seam to within1⁄8 inch of thestitching, and lay the other edge of seam flat on the cloth for the fell.Turn in the raw edge, baste, and stitch flat. This must be done verycarefully, for it is very easy to make a fell which is wrinkled and fullinstead of flat (see Fig. 119).
Fig. 119.—The flat fell, showing the three steps in making:A, the seamstitched;B, one edge cut;C, the turning of the other edge flat, to be bastedand stitched.
Join the two legs together at the center with the same flat fell. Besure to have the two leg seams come together. This is important.
The placket openings lie over the hip. A single strip may be used tobind this opening, or a regular placket may be made according to yourpattern. If a strip is used, cut it lengthwise of the cloth and one inchlonger than twice the length of placket opening. If cut 2½ incheswide, the finished facing will be one inch in width. Place the rightside of the strip to the right side of the bloomers. Baste ¼ inchseams, holding strip all around the placket opening; and then stitch.Turn to the wrong side, turn in ¼ inch and baste, stitch again.Care must be taken at the bottom of the placket opening to make the seamof sufficient width so that it will not pull out.
At the bottom of each leg make a hem, one inch wide finished. Stitch,leaving one inch open. This is the opening for the elastic band. Run inthe elastic before completing the hem by hand.
Now we are ready for the bands. There is one for the front andone for the back. If your pattern allows for fullness, gather to fit½ of your waist measure. It will be necessary to measure yourbands and to allow the two inches for lapping on the back band. The frontband is usually shorter than the back. Fasten the bloomers so that theylap towards the front.
To put on the band, work in the same way as in putting on the apron orpetticoat band, except the band is turned to the right side for tailorfinish on a garment with flat fells. Begin by placing the right side ofthe band to the inside of the front, and also[218]back of the bloomer portions. Baste, stitch, turn to the right side.Snaps may be used, or buttons and buttonholes, for closing. Buttonholescan also be placed at the center front and at the back of the bands, ifthe bloomers are to be fastened to a waist. How shall the buttonholesbe placed in cutting for fastening in this way? Do you think it is verydifficult to make the bloomers? The girls who use serge can make theplacket facings and bands of silk or sateen or some lining material whichwill be thinner. Only the most experienced Pleasant Valley girls used theserge—those who had sewed at home.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. What are the important things to remember in cutting outthe bloomers?
2. How does the band of the bloomers differ from that put onthe petticoat?
THE STORY OF HOW WOOL IS MADE INTO CLOTH
The Pleasant Valley boys and girls learned how wool is made intocloth after it has been sheared from the sheep. Would you like toknow?
Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.
Fig. 120.—Wool sorting.
First, the wool is sorted. Wool sometimes travels a longdistance before it is delivered to the manufacturer. Perhaps the wool inyour skirt was grown in England or in Australia, and was shipped in greatsacks to New York, and then to the manufacturer. As it is[219]sheared from the sheep, it is dirty and full of burrs, grease, andperspiration. This grease helps to preserve the wool until themanufacturer is ready to use it; and, although he buys the wool byweight and pays for dirt and grease, he prefers to do so because of thepreserving qualities of the grease. Even ⅔ of the weight may bedirt and grease. The first thing the manufacturer does is to sort thewool to put the good grades together, and to separate them from the poorones. You remember the fleece is the whole coat of[220]the sheep. Some parts of this coat are better wool than others;especially the part from the head and upper part of the back and sides.About seven different grades are separated for different purposes.
Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.
Fig. 121.—Wool washing or scouring.
The second process is washing or scouring. Wool cannot becarded and spun until the dirt and grease are removed; so the next thingthe manufacturer does is to remove the grease, or "yolk" as it is called,by washing. This must be done very carefully so as not[221]to break or injure the wool. Perhaps you can bring some dirty wool fromyour farm to school and wash it. Soft soap is the most harmless. Use asoft water at a low temperature (120° F.). Can you tell why it must below? The washing is done in a series of tanks. You can see them in thepicture (Fig. 121). The wet wool is swished back and forth by means ofwooden forks which carry the wool forward and beat it out. There arerollers for passing the wool from one tank to another. Then the wool mustbe dried. This is done in a kind of wringing machine called a "hydroextractor." Then it is beaten into a fluffy mass.
Then a strange thing happens. Oil in wool is necessary in order tohelp in the spinning and to keep it soft and elastic, so the manufacturermust return some oil to the wool, after having washed it all out. Oliveoil is used.
If there is any dirt or any burrs left in the wool, they must beremoved. A machine called a burr picker is used to beat out the dirt.
Then the wool is blended. Do you know that the wool skirt whichyou are wearing may not be made of all new wool? Wool can be used overand over again. Old wool rags are pulled apart and mixed with new wool.If this did not happen, the manufacturer would have to charge much morethan you pay for serge or some woolen materials, as he would have to useall new wool. That is why some wool materials are so expensive.[222]If only new wool were used, there would not be enough raised in the worldto clothe everybody. The wool manufacturer, therefore, blends, or mixes,the wool before it is sent to the carding machine. In blending he knowsjust what color, style, and grade of material he wishes to produce, andhe grades accordingly. Cheapness is one of the principal reasons forblending. Sometimes cotton or jute are mixed in, if the manufacturerwishes to produce a very cheap material which is not all wool.
Would you like to know the names of some of the all-wool substituteswhich are used in reducing the cost of all-wool materials? MarjorieAllen's grandmother told her, and Marjorie told the League girls. Shoddyis one; it is made from old rags, like woolen stockings, flannels, softunderwear; materials which have not been felted together. Do you knowwhat felted means? The rags are washed, ground up, and prepared to mixwith the new wool. Mungo is another queer name which is given to woolenrags which have been felted, as broadcloth or men's suitings. Flocksis nothing but dust or waste from the clipping machines when cloth issheared or clipped in finishing. This is used to fill in. So you seenothing is wasted.
Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.
Fig. 122.—Wool carding. Notice the round cylinders. The gauzy web is beingdelivered into the can in front of the carding machine.
The next process after blending is carding. Do you rememberhow cotton is carded? Long ago, when Marjorie's grandmother was young,wool was carded by hand. Look at the picture on page 77 and see howGrandmother Allen holds the cards. She is preparing[223]rolls of wool for the spinning wheel. The manufacturer must prepare theslivers, or rolls like ropes of wool, for the spinning frames as they arecalled to-day. The machine which helps to produce these ropes is calledthe carding machine. It also helps to clean the dirt from the wool. Thepicture (Fig. 122) will show you how the wool carder looks. There isa center cylinder and around it revolve small cylinders. They are allcovered with wire teeth which help to pull the wool apart and to cleanseit. If you were to stand before the machine, you would see a gauzy, filmysheet of wool the width of the long rollers as it leaves the machine.[224]The wide gauzy mass is pulled together as it is drawn through a hole atthe front of the carder and is delivered or wound up in the can, just aswe learned the cotton was delivered. This wool roving is then wound onspools and is ready for spinning. Do you remember the story of how cottonis drawn out and twisted and wound on spools? Wool too must be spun andmade into yarn, before yarn can be woven into cloth. The manufacturermakes woolen yarn and also worsted yarn. Do you know the difference? Weshall study in our next lesson about them.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Ask your grandmother to tell you about sheep raising onthe farm, when she was a girl.
2. Tell why the manufacturer must blend old and new wool.What are the names of some old rags of wool used for this purpose?
3. Tell how carding was done in olden times. How is woolcarding done to-day? Why is carding an important processin the manufacture of cloth made from wool?
SOME FACTS TO REMEMBER IN PURCHASING WOOL CLOTHING
Why does the manufacturer use woolen yarn in weaving somematerials and worsted yarn for others? If one knows this, itwill be a guide in purchasing wool materials. The PleasantValley girls know.
The difference between woolen and worsted yarns.Before you can answer the question for this lesson, you[225]must learn the difference between woolen and worsted yarns. Worsted yarnis prepared from the sheep giving long wool. It is prepared by processeswhich comb it until all the short fibers are removed and only the longstraight ones are used. This combing prepares the long wool fibers forspinning so that they lie parallel. This makes an expensive yarn becauseso much is combed away. This fine combed worsted yarn is used for highgrade worsted materials, as some cheviots or fine tweeds, and forunderwear.
Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.
Fig. 123.—Wool combing for high grade materials. There is much waste.
Woolen yarn is not combed to remove the shortfibers. It is, instead, carded a great deal so that thewool fibers are well mixed and the serrations of the tiny[226]fibers arranged so that they will interlock, when put in water of hightemperature, and the gelatinous scales are opened up. Woolen yarn iswoven into broadcloths and meltons. After the weaving the cloth is putinto vats where the temperature opens up the serrations and the scalesinterlock, and make a close, smooth piece of cloth. This is calledfulling. Isn't this interesting? Do you see why the manufacturer usesworsted instead of woolen yarn for making underwear? If worsted yarn wereused for making broadcloth, there would not be the same close finish. Theworsted yarn is combed and the fibers are not in position to interlockas in the woolen yarn (Fig. 124). Can you answer the question now whyworsted yarn is used sometimes and woolen at others?
Fig. 124.—This shows the differencein the slivers of wool and worsted yarn.A is the woolen yarn, wellmixed;B is the worsted yarn, well combed.
After the yarn has been spun, it is woven into cloth just as cottonis prepared and woven. Woolen yarn is fuzzy; cloth made from it is wovenloosely and then it is put into vats and shrunken or fulled until thecloth is compact, as broadcloth.
Worsted yarn when made into cloth is shrunken very little or not atall. It is woven as it will appear.[227]Beautiful homespuns and worsted suitings are the result.
Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.
Fig. 125.—The spinning of wool into yarn.
Many fabrics made of wool are of simple weave like the plain homespun,but complicated patterns are also woven of wool. The yarns are arrangedin the loom in the same way as the cotton about which we studied. Manybeautiful patterns are made in woolen materials, even the complicatedpatterns of double cloth weaving like the old-fashioned golf capes, madeof doubh, which were worn a few years ago.
So you can see that the manufacturer must know[228]whether he is to adulterate his wool cloth with cotton or reduce the costof production by using mungo, shoddy, or flocks. Flocks is put in whenthe cloth is shrunken or fulled in the vats. The short pieces and dust,or flocks as it is called, are drawn in as the serrations open and thecloth is shrunken.
This is all useful to know, for it helps one in purchasing materials.Most of us cannot afford to buy cloth made of all new wool, but we shouldbe able to tell whether cloth is made of cotton and wool mixed, or allwool. We will know by price whether the all wool is new wool or not. Noshopkeeper should sell a cotton and wool for all wool. When we have ourtextiles labeled as foods are now labeled, we shall be able to tell.What have you learned to-day which will help you in purchasing woolmaterials?
Fig. 126.—This is the teaselwhich is used to brush the nap of the cloth in finishing. These smallthistles are arranged in rows in the machine rollers through which thecloth passes.
Woolen and worsted yarns are used also in the manufacture of carpets,rugs, hosiery, blankets, underwear, and also for knitting purposes. Doyou know how to knit? Does any one know at your home? It is a useful andpleasant accomplishment. Shawls, afghans, caps, and sweaters can allbe knitted. Miss James taught the Pleasant Valley girls to knit brightscarfs which they wore for tobogganing the next winter. Some girls madethem for sale.
Points about buying woolen garments. Here are a few thingsto think about which Miss Travers from the State College told theMothers' Club of Pleasant Valley to remember in buying wool garments ormaterials.
1. Wool mixed with cotton should not be sold for all wool. It is acheaper fabric. It wears fairly well, but is not so warm. Pull the fabricapart, untwist the fibers to see if cotton is present.
2. Garments bought ready-made of cotton and wool do not keep theirshape as well as all wool garments.
3. Burning a piece of the fabric will help you to identify the fiber.Wool burns slowly, chars, and gives off an odor of burned feathers.Cotton burns quickly with a flame.
4. A good wool material can always be used over again. The inexpensiveis not cheap unless you wish something which does not look well or wearwell but is cheap.
5. Remember that a close twill weave is more durable than a basketweave. Think about this in buying; for the weave of material affects thewearing quality.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. How is yarn which is to be used for underwear treated inmanufacture? Why?
2. How does this treatment differ from yarn used in the manufactureof broadcloth?
3. What are some of the things your mother thinks about whenshe buys a garment made from wool, in order to get good valuefor her money?
THE CLOTHING BUDGET
Have you ever thought how much your clothing costs father and motherevery year? Marjorie Allen and Barbara Oakes tried to figure the costone day. Girls must begin to learn how to spend wisely, for they willvery soon have the responsibility of being spenders. If you can makesome of your clothing, you will help to reduce the cost. Would youlike to learn to make a budget as well as a simple dress skirt towear over the bloomers? Suppose we study to-day about the clothingbudget.
Have you ever tried to calculate how much is spent each year foryour clothing? If not, suppose you try. Girls who know how to makesome articles of clothing can have more for the same amount of money.Suppose you send for the material for your dress skirts. It is wise tolearn to make a very simple skirt first. Choose a simple pattern. Yourteacher will help you. What material will you use? Perhaps you would likea middy blouse later to wear with the skirt. Can you name some suitablecotton materials to use for this purpose? Yes, Indian head, galatea,duck. You have studied about all of these and should have them in yoursample books. Such a dress will be suitable for school wear. Talk withyour teacher and calculate how much cloth you must buy for your skirt andmiddy. While you are waiting for the cloth you have ordered, let us studyhow Marjorie's Cousin Ann, who works at Paterson, manages to plan eachyear for her clothing.[231]She has such good plans. Do you know that such a plan is called abudget?
Fig. 127.—Cousin Ann's division of hermoney. How much was for clothing?
Would you like to learn to make your clothing budget? Ann earns$10 per week and her room and board cost her $6 per week, so she has $4for other expenses. She puts aside $1.50 each week for clothing, and sohas $6 per month or about $75 per year. She lives near her work so doesnot have daily carfare, and she goes home at the noon hour for a littlerest and for lunch. The rest of her money she divides in this way: Eachweek she tries to save 75 cents or $3 per month. The rest she uses forchurch and club expenses, for gifts, newspapers, or occasionally shebuys a new necktie or an extra waist; but usually the $75 supply allher clothing needs. This is how she manages. She plans for more thanone year, usually trying to keep three years in mind. Ann also goesto the Girls' Club and has learned to make her waists and some simpledresses.
The following is what she bought the first year. Remember she had someclothes to begin with before she started to keep her clothing budget.Your budget will of course be different from this, but this will show howAnn manages with $75. Some things which she[232]needs you may have no use for in your section of the country. Try to planwhat you would substitute. This will at least be a working basis for you,and will give you some suggestions for making yours. Marjorie Allen andBarbara Oakes have made their clothing budgets. They have $60 per yearfor clothing. What do you think they omitted from this list? The thingsmarked * are made at home. Ann's mother helps her; but Ann learned tomake clothes at her Sewing Club.
First Year
| 2 union suits (winter) @ #2.00 | $4.00 |
| 3 union suits (summer) @ .50 | 1.50 |
| 1 flannelette nightdress @ 1.00 | 1.00 |
| 1 flannelette nightdress left over | |
| 2 night dresses @.80 | 1.60 |
| *3 corset covers @.50 | 1.50 |
| 2 pairs of corsets @ 2.00 | 4.00 |
| 6 pairs of stockings @.25 | 1.50 |
| 2 pairs of garters @.25 | .50 |
| shoes: 1 high lace @ 3.00 | |
| 2 pairs low shoes @ 2.50 | 8.00 |
| 1 pair rubbers | .75 |
| 1 black sateen petticoat | 1.00 |
| 1 long white petticoat | 1.25 |
| 2 short white petticoats @.75 | 1.50 |
| retrimming last year's best winter hat | 1.25 |
| summer hat (new) | 4.00 |
| 1 straw hat, common wear | .75 |
| 1 umbrella | 1.00 |
| *1 wool dress skirt | 4.00[233] |
| *3 shirt waists: 2 tailored @ 1.00 | |
| *1 fancy @ 1.50 | $ 3.50 |
| 1 winter coat | 12.00 |
| 1 spring coat (left from last year) | |
| 1 pair kid gloves | 1.50 |
| 1 pair wool gloves | .50 |
| 1 wool dress (winter, bought close of season) | 12.00 |
| 1 sweater | 3.00 |
| *1 summer dress | 3.00 |
| *1 white duck dress skirt | 1.00 |
| 1 party dress (left over from last year) | |
| Gloves, handkerchiefs, neckties, collars | |
| received for Christmas. | |
| ——— | |
| Total | $75.60 |
Notice that in the second year some articles are left over fromthe year before. This is because Ann has foresight. She is agood manager, and takes care of her clothes too, and plans ahead.Do you?
Second Year
| 2 union suits (left from last year, winter) | |
| 2 union suits (left from last year, summer) | |
| 1 new union suit summer | $ .50 |
| 2 flannelette nightgowns (left over) | |
| 2 summer nightdresses (left over) | |
| 1 new summer nightdress | .75 |
| *3 corset covers @.50 | 1.50 |
| 2 pairs of corsets @ 2.00 | 4.00 |
| 6 pairs of stockings @ .25 | 1.50 |
| 2 pairs of garters @.25 | .50 |
| shoes: 1 high laced @ 3.00 | |
| 1 pair low shoes @ 2.50 | |
| 1 pair low left over, half soled @ .75 | |
| 1 pair high laced, half soled @ .75 | 7.00[234] |
| 1 pair rubbers | $ .75 |
| 1 black sateen petticoat | 1.00 |
| 1 long white petticoat (left over) | |
| 2 short white petticoats (left over) | |
| 1 new short white petticoat | .75 |
| 1 winter hat | 5.00 |
| 1 winter hat (left over) common wear | |
| 1 summer hat (retrimmed) | 1.50 |
| 1 new summer hat (second) | 2.00 |
| 1 umbrella (left over) | |
| *1 wool skirt (refreshened) | 1.00 |
| *2 shirt waists (plain) @ 1.00 | 2.00 |
| *1 extra white waist @ 1.50 | 1.50 |
| 2 shirt waists (left over) | |
| 1 winter coat (left over) | |
| 1 spring coat (new) | 12.00 |
| 1 pair kid gloves | 1.00 |
| 1 pair wool gloves (left over) | |
| 1 wool dress (left over) | |
| 1 sweater (left over) | |
| *1 summer dress (left over, remodeled) | 1.00 |
| 1 white duck skirt (left over) | |
| *1 new white duck skirt | 1.00 |
| *1 party dress | 8.00 |
| 1 coat suit, bought end of winter season | 14.00 |
| 2 gingham aprons | 1.00 |
| 1 gingham house dress (ready-made) | 1.50 |
| 1 summer dress | 4.00 |
| ——— | |
| Total | $74.75 |
Try to find below, in the list for third year, the articles left over.Also new articles which will be of service the fourth year. Do younot think it is wise to plan in this way? Marjorie and Barbarahave enjoyed making their budgets.
Third Year
| 2 union suits, winter @ 2.00 | $ 4.00 |
| 2 union suits, summer @ .50 | 1.00 |
| 1 union suit, summer (left over) | |
| 2 flannelette nightgowns @ 1.00 | 2.00 |
| 1 new summer nightgown @ .75 | .75 |
| 1 summer nightgown (left over) | |
| *3 corset covers @ .50 | 1.50 |
| 2 pairs corsets @ 2.00 | 4.00 |
| 6 pairs of stockings @ .25 | 1.50 |
| 2 pairs garters @ .25 | .50 |
| shoes: 1 pair high laced @ 3.00 | |
| 1 pair high laced repaired, left over, @ .75 | |
| 1 pair low shoes (new) @ 2.50 | |
| 1 pair party slippers (new) @ 2.00 | 8.25 |
| 1 pair rubbers | .75 |
| 1 black sateen petticoat | 1.00 |
| 1 long white petticoat | 1.25 |
| 1 new short white petticoat | .75 |
| 1 short white petticoat (left over) | |
| retrimming last year's winter hat | 1.25 |
| 1 winter hat (common wear) | 1.50 |
| 1 summer hat (new) | 5.00 |
| 1 summer hat (remodeled, common wear) | 1.00 |
| 1 umbrella | 1.00 |
| *1 wool skirt | 4.00 |
| *2 shirt waists (plain) @ 1.00 | 2.00 |
| *1 extra white waist @ 1.00 | 1.00 |
| 2 shirt waists (left over) | |
| 1 winter coat (left over 2 years) | |
| 1 spring coat (left over one year) | |
| 1 pair kid gloves | 1.50 |
| 1 pair wool gloves | .50[236] |
| *1 wool dress (remodeled after 2 winters' wear) | $ 3.00 |
| 2 white duck skirts (left over) | |
| 1 party dress left over (refreshened) | 2.50 |
| 1 coat suit (left over) | |
| 2 gingham aprons (left over) | |
| 1 gingham house dress (new) | 1.50 |
| 1 gingham house dress (left over) | |
| 1 summer dress remodeled | 1.00 |
| 1 new summer dress | 4.00 |
| 1 raincoat | 5.00 |
| 1 wool dress (bought towards close of season) | 10.00 |
| 1 pair winter arctics | 2.00 |
| ——— | |
| Total | $75.00 |
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
Plan a clothing budget with mother's help, and see how yourswill differ from the above. Perhaps mother spends less for yourclothes or more. Mrs. Allen says that Marjorie is learning to purchaseso wisely that next year she may buy all of her ownclothes. Of course, Mrs. Allen will always be willing to helpwhen Marjorie needs her.
PLANNING TO MAKE A DRESS SKIRT OF COTTON MATERIAL
Let us begin to make our dress skirts.
Open the pattern carefully and examine it. How did you orderit, by age or by waist measure? The pattern books usually say order byage for a girl unless she is large or small for her age; then order bywaist measure.
Fig. 128.—Thesimple dress skirtand shirt waist.
Notice how many pieces you have. Notice whethersome are to be cut on a lengthwise fold: perhaps, the[237]center front and maybe the center back if it has a panel front and back.Notice how many gores there are. Do you know what a skirt gore is? Lookat your pieces. A gore is always wider at the bottom than at the top. Canyou tell why? Gores are of different shapes. Style sometimes regulatesthe width, for some seasons skirts are very narrow and at other timesvery full. The gores help to reduce the fullness around the waist. Do youunderstand? Notice how many gores your pattern has. The front panel iscounted as one gore, and the back panel a gore. There are skirt patternswith three, four, or even eleven or more gores. Perhaps your pattern hasthree gores like the one in the picture (Fig. 128). Then the center backwill be cut on a lengthwise fold of material, as there will be two frontgores joining the back with seams at the hips. This is an easy patternand suitable for a young girl. One must think of suitability in selectingthe style to be worn. Instead of three, you may have a plain five orseven gored skirt. Then the center front will be placed on a lengthwisefold, and there will be two gores each side of the front for the fivegored skirt, and three each side of the front for the seven gored. A fivegored skirt is a simple one.
Study your pattern. Notice all the notches; also just wherethe pattern is to be placed on the warp threads. This is very necessary.Take your tapeline and measure the skirt length; compare with your ownmeasures. Your teacher will show you how to take your skirt measure,at front, hips, and back, from the waist line to the desired length(see page 50). You have learned how. Pin the tapeline about the waistand measure from it. If your pattern is too long, it will be wise todouble it over at the center to reduce the length. If too short, adda few inches at the bottom in cutting your cloth. Remember you mustallow for the hem according to desired width (see page 50 for changingpatterns).
Now lay the pieces economically. Remember the wide end of thegore usually cuts to best advantage at the end of the cloth. Pin and cutout after your teacher has approved.
The pattern usually allows from3⁄8 to 1 inch for seams.Notice how much. Match the notches, pin, baste, and then try on. If tooloose or too tight, it is possible to stitch inside or outside of thebastings and so to alter. The seams can be finished by overcasting therough edges (see Fig. 28).
If your pattern calls for an opening or placket at one side of thefront, it will be appropriate to make a hem running lengthwise of theskirt as a finish at the placket, and the skirt will not be seamed with asimple seam at that place. Turn to the wrong side one inch[239]for hem along the right front. Baste. Lap this hem over the left side.Baste flat to the left portion of front, and stitch nearly one inch fromedge, to within 8 or 9 inches of the top. The placket opening on theunder side of front can be bound with a two inch strip, sewing on rightside at the edge and turning to wrong just at the edge. If the patterndoes not allow for a hem on right front and lap finish on the right sideof front, but only for a simple seam, then it will be necessary to facethe right front portion with a strip 1½ inches wide.
Pin the skirt to the belting. It is possible to turn in theskirt edge at top of belt so that it comes even with the top of thebelt. This makes a slightly raised waist line. Stitch neatly at the topedge. Turn hem at the bottom the desired width and baste carefully. Thestitching of the hem can be done on the right side for neater finish ifthe basting is done with care.
Sew on hooks and eyes. Be careful to attach the hooks so that theywill not show on the outside of skirt.
Mollie Stark was so successful with her skirt that she made onefor her older sister Ruth, and also won the prize at the County Faircontest.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Study some of the skirt patterns which mother has at home.Compare with the one used at school.
2. What is a skirt gore? Describe. Draw on the blackboard.
3. Give some suggestions for economical cutting.
CLOTHING IN RELATION TO HEALTH
Do you know that clothes help to keep us well? The PleasantValley girls learned how, and we are to study, too.
Well people are usually happy people and they can do many more thingsfor themselves and for others than sick people. Have you ever thoughtabout this? All people wish to be well, but many are not because theyforget that it is absolutely necessary to think each day about keepingwell. There are many things which help to accomplish this. One cannotwait until the end of the month or year to think about keeping well, butmust do so every day, as you have learned. Exercise and good habits,sleep, proper food, recreation, and proper clothing all have a share.Clothes are more important than people think. Ill health is often theresult of lack of thought in the protection of the body. Let us study howclothes affect health. You know clothing helps to keep us warm or cool,if we dress properly. You have learned how necessary it is to preservean even body temperature. Growing girls must think about this, for nogirl is well dressed who does not think about the relation of clothes tohealth. Is a dress really beautiful if it is unhygienic? Miss Traverstold the Mothers' Club that clothing should serve our use in the bestway, should be pleasing and artistic, but also comfortable enough topermit freedom. Did you ever feel sorry for the poor Chinese women[241]who squeeze their feet? Many American women squeeze their waists aswell as their feet. This prevents proper circulation of the blood andcauses many complaints, loss of hair, and serious troubles, because thecirculatory system cannot carry nourishment to the many parts of thebody.
Perhaps you have noticed some girls wear very thin stockings, lowshoes, and low-necked dresses; really very scant clothing in coldweather. Is this a good practice, do you think? Why not?
Fig. 129.—Shoes areimportant. Why?
Heat and energy are generated by the body. We have learned that it isa machine. Food, water, exercise, rest, keep it going. Heat and energyare the result and are needed if the machine is to run well. If the heatis all carried away quickly because the surfaces of the body are exposedto the cold, then there is a waste of the energy which should go toprovide for the necessary workings of the body.
Why do we wear clothing? The principal reason is that the bodymay be protected from the cold and that the temperature of the body maybe kept constant. It protects also from sharp, hard objects and briersand stones which might injure the feet. Many people think only of thedecoration. This does affect our choice of clothes too, but should not bethe prime consideration. Miss Travers told the girls of Pleasant[242]Valley to keep these things in mind in choosing clothes:
Some things to remember in choosing wearing apparel.
1. Adapt your clothing to your work. One cannot do garden and housework in stiff collars and unsuitable clothing.
2. The condition of health will affect choice. Strong, well people donot need the same kind of clothing as sick or delicate people.
3 Age makes a difference; young people are more vigorous than oldpeople. Babies feel the heat or cold more than adults.
4. Clothing should be chosen in relation to climate and temperature;in winter, one should prevent an undue loss of heat, in summer, clothingshould not interfere with loss of heat.
Some important things about wearing clothing.
1. Wet clothing is very dangerous and should be removed at once. Ifthis is not possible, exercise, keep moving, until there is opportunityfor a rubdown and change. John Alden always runs when he gets his clothesvery wet.
2. The clothing worn next to the skin should be changed twice a week.The body gives off impurities which are absorbed by the clothing. Thischange is necessary if one wishes to keep well.
3. Clothing worn at night should be aired during the day, not shut upin a closet or folded and placed under a pillow.
4. Clothing worn during the day should be aired at night. This isnecessary for health. The same underwear should never be worn dayand night both. How do you air your clothes? (Fig. 56.) Many mothersdo not change baby's shirt at night and wonder why he cannot sleepand is so cross. Sometimes this irritability is due to this verycause.
5. Outer garments should be rather closely woven, so that the windcannot penetrate and carry the heat away too rapidly.
6. Heavy garments are a great burden. One wearing them is not free toact or work.
Next lesson we will study about selecting our clothes, shoes,underwear, and other garments with reference to health.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Write on the blackboard some important things to rememberin choosing wearing apparel.
2. Tell some important things to remember in wearing clothing.
MORE HEALTH PROBLEMS IN CHOOSING CLOTHES
Clothes help to keep us well. Let us study about the wise selectionand use of them.
Buying shoes. When Barbara Oakes goes to buy a pair of shoeswhat do you suppose she thinks about besides the fact that they arepretty and that she likes or dislikes them? She remembers that theyshould fit her feet. She thinks about these things:
1. They should suit her purpose, be adapted to her use.
2. They should fit the instep and heel snugly.
3. They should be straight on the inside line.
4. The heel should be broad enough to balance the body well.
5. The soles should be strong enough to walk, and thick enough sodampness cannot strike through.
6. There should be plenty of room for the toes to move. (See Fig.129).
7. They should be long and wide enough for comfort. Tight shoes are astrain on the body.
Many girls have "fallen arch." This affects the whole nervous systemand makes them ill. Many are suffering and do not know the cause. BarbaraOakes was ill for a long time before her mother or the doctor knew why.It is not necessary to wear an arch supporter or an orthopedic shoe, ifone has normal feet; and one can have normal feet if the above thingsare remembered. Some girls choose foolish footwear, and later have muchdiscomfort and are unable to walk.
Very great care must be taken to keep the feet dry. It is cheaper tobuy a pair of rubbers than to pay a doctor; and rubbers save shoes andkeep the wet from rotting the thread of the shoes. Many women forget thatit is dangerous for a woman to get her feet wet.
Selecting clothing that is healthful.Stockings should bechosen in relation to climate. It is unwise to wear thin, transparentstockings on a cold day. If possible have two weights and selectaccording to weather.
Corsets are important. They may seriously affect health if not worncorrectly. They should fit snugly over the hips but allow freedom at thewaist line. For young girls corset waists are very satisfactory. Greatcare should be taken, however, when the first corset is[245]selected. Jane Smith says her mother tried several for her before gettingexactly the right one. The corset should leave no marks on the body. Thedanger is that, unless well fitted, a corset interferes with circulation.Lacing causes all kinds of troubles. It deforms the body and makes ithour glass in shape, instead of free and beautiful like Miss James'picture of the Venus de Milo (Fig. 130). When tight bands or corsetsinterfere with circulation, the blood supply for the brain and the otherorgans is shut off, and consequently these organs are not nourished.Most girls wish to preserve the graceful waist line with which naturehas endowed them. Do you? Fat easily accumulates around the waist, butplenty of exercise, gardening, sweeping, walking, climbing, will preventthis. Buy a corset which supports your organs, one which does not pressdownwards; and arrange the garters so that they will not be too tight andinterfere with the circulation.
Fig. 130.—Notice thebeautiful lines on the figure of Venus de Milo.
Underwear affects health. Do you remember that we discoveredthe reason why one should be particular about the kind of underwear worn?We learned that ill health and fatigue are often caused by weight of[246]clothing or by tight clothing causing lack of circulation or by clothingwhich prevents the skin from being ventilated. Textile materials andtemperature of the body are closely related. We should learn to knowwhich materials to select. Each person feels the need differently. Oldpeople and little babies feel the heat or cold more than other people.Grandmother Stark usually feels cold and wears a shawl about hershoulders. Underwear must be chosen in relation to climatic conditionsand also for conditions under which one wears them, for indoor or outdoorwork. Each must study her health, the climate, her age, and occupation,and plan accordingly for the best kind.
Underwear should be chosen which can be easily cleansed, also thatwhich will permit plenty of air next to the skin. These properties ofmaterials, as we call them, must be studied.
The body, as we know, loses heat and water every day. Some materialsconduct heat more rapidly than others; and some absorb and retain, whileothers eliminate, moisture more readily. Absorption and eliminationdiffer with different fabrics. Linen is quicker than other fabrics toeliminate moisture. Wool on a dry body of a person who does not exercisefreely feels warm and continues so as long as the skin does not give offmore moisture than the wool can take up. If the body continues then togive off moisture, the heat of the body cannot escape and one does notfeel comfortable. If a current of air or a draught occurs,[247]the heat will be conducted quickly and the bodily temperature reducedtoo quickly. So underwear must not only prevent too great loss of heatby conduction, but must be so constructed as to conserve heat when it isneeded.
Heat is eliminated when materials conduct it. Porosity of materialsprevents too great elimination. The air in the meshes or pores preventsthis, as a still layer of air does not conduct heat readily. A looselywoven or knitted shawl is warmer under certain conditions than one whichis firmer. Two lightweight garments are better than one heavy one becauseof the air space between.
Wool is warm, but irritating to many people. It is not as cleanlyas some fabrics, for it absorbs the body excretions and is not easilylaundered. As it shrinks with use, it has fewer air spaces between themeshes. Any loosely woven or knitted underwear with air spaces is morehygienic than the closely woven.
Cotton garments are often woven loosely and so treated in manufacturethat they absorb easily. Silk is very pleasing but costly. Silk andwool combined are also excellent, but expensive. The great argument forwool or for wool and cotton is that evaporation is slow unless moistureand draught are present, and so the bodily temperature is not apt to bereduced so unduly as through cotton or linen; in other words, one is notso apt to take cold.
Union suits form an even layer over the whole body[248]and are considered more hygienic than the double layerof vest and drawers at the abdomen.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. What underwear do you think is the best kind for you to wearconsidering your age, work, climate, health?
2. Write a composition of two hundred words about the best kind ofcorsets to wear, and why.
3. What important things will you consider the next time you buy apair of shoes?
REVIEW PROBLEMS
I. Begin to keep your clothing budget. Ask mother to permit you toplan it. Do not stop at the end of the year; keep on for at least fouryears.
II. In what ways are you definitely planning each day to keep well?How do clothes help?
III. What facts learned at school can you give mother about wool,which will help in buying your new winter coat.
IV. Plan a school exhibit of all the work done during the year. Yourteacher will make suggestions about the refreshments and invitations aswell as plans for mounting the work.
CHOOSING AND WEARING CLOTHES
Have you ever thought that being properly and attractively dressedhelps towards achieving success in life? Marjorie's Cousin Ann says sheknows that the neat, tidy girls who come to the factory looking forwork are more apt to be chosen than those who are careless about theirdress. Cousin Ann, as you have learned, is very particular about herappearance. She learned long ago that cleanliness of clothing is thefirst essential in being well dressed, and that neatness is anotherrequirement. Cousin Ann knows that it takes time to wash out her collars,her shields, and stockings every other night; but she also realizes thatshe must be particular about her appearance if she wishes to be retainedat the factory. She takes time to mend the tears which sometimes come sounexpectedly, and the lace which is ripped on her waist, or to sew on thebutton which will soon be lost from her coat unless sewed. If she spillsanything on her dress or coat, she tries as soon as possible to removethe spot. This takes[250]thought, too, as well as time; but Ann knows that it pays. Have you,too, thought about these things? One must also know what is suitable andappropriate for various occasions, and how to choose becoming colors inmaterials or hats and gowns if one buys them ready-made. This is reallya study in buying, too, and of knowing how materials are made and can betested. All these things were discussed by Miss James and the PleasantValley girls. They were always very glad when Miss Travers came to helptoo.
WHAT IT MEANS TO BE WELL DRESSED
The Pleasant Valley girls have decided that it is worth while learningabout suitable and attractive dress. They are anxious to begin thisstudy. Suppose we learn some of the things one must think about and studyin order to be properly and attractively dressed.
One does not have to be expensively dressed in order to beattractively and well dressed. Much depends on appropriateness. It isnot appropriate for a girl to wear jewelry, thin stockings, low fancyslippers, lace waists, feather hats, to work or to school. How much moreattractive and appropriate is a plain, neat shirt waist and cloth skirt,a plain necktie and a simple hat, and plain boots or ties. One should notdress as if one were going to a party when one goes to work or to school.Do you understand what appropriateness[251]means? It means wearing the suitable kind of clothing for every occasion.It is our duty to be as well dressed as possible, for our friends' sakesas well as for our own; but a well-dressed girl is never conspicuous.Clothes which would be appropriate in a large city for a receptionmight be very inappropriate in a small town. Our daily clothes shouldbe adapted to our uses, whether in country or city. Would you wear yourparty dress for gardening or for tennis or skating?
Fig. 131.—Which of these girls looksready to do her work?
Criticize your own garments. Try to have them neat and clean,for this makes one more self-respecting. Try to have your clothesconvenient, neat, graceful, beautiful, allowing for free movements ofthe body. Choose something which is not overdecorated but which willemphasize your charm and personality. Young girls do not need jewelry ormuch decoration on clothes, for youth is always charming in itself.
Some girls try to copy every "latest style." Do you? One should notunless it is a style which will suit one. Cousin Ann heard a talk at theYoung[252]Women's Christian Association one night. It was on simplicity of dress.The speaker was from a large department store in Paterson where Annlives, and she gave Ann some new ideas about dress. She said simplicityis not necessarily plainness, but it means being so intelligent thatone knows what to leave off in the way of decoration. She said beingwell dressed is knowing what to omit. She also said that trimmings andornaments without reason are foolish and spoil a gown. Because one bowlooks well it does not follow that ten will improve one's appearance.So many girls are really caricatures. They wear every exaggerated thingand many things which are not refined, as the very low neck, or the veryscant or transparent skirt. This is not beauty of dress, but very bad andvulgar taste. The speaker said that "beauty of costume is not necessarilythe result of costliness, but of artistic appreciation." Cousin Ann saidseveral of the members of her sewing club were at this lecture, andthey decided to ask Miss Willing, who leads their club, to talk about"artistic appreciation." Cousin Ann said she did not quite understandwhat the speaker meant. This is what Miss Willing told the girls, andthen they understood perfectly. Perhaps you would like to know, too.
A costume is a work of art. She said we must think of ourcostumes as being works of art. Every girl has a style of her own, andshe should study it and dress so as to bring out all her good points andconceal those not so attractive. One's hair or eyes should be considered[253]in choosing color. Stooped or narrow shoulders, if they cannot becorrected, can be made to look less narrow by the plan of the gown. Stoutfigures can be made to look less stout. So by choosing the right colorsand correct decoration and right lines, one can often improve one'sappearance. Miss Willing says to understand about this is to have whatthe speaker at the Young Women's Christian Association called "artisticappreciation." One should cultivate artistic appreciation for goodfurnishings as well as for appropriate dress. Miss Willing told the girlsanother evening about color and good lines, for they are all so anxiousto learn. They never even imagined before that any one ever thought aboutsuch things. Marjorie Allen and the other girls at Pleasant Valley Schoolare very glad Cousin Ann told them too.
The costume should be the background as it were. Miss Willingsays to remember always that a really artistic costume is one whichmakes us say "what a lovely girl!" rather than "what a lovely gown sheis wearing." A costume should not be so strong in color or design thatone thinks only of that. Do you remember how in some rooms we feel thepattern of the wall paper or of the carpet. When one does, the design ispoor; the wall is the background. Our clothes should make the wearers'good qualities stand out. They should be subordinate, Miss Willing says.Do you understand that word?
Miss Willing says the outline of our clothed figures[254]should be pleasing. Have you ever walked to town and seen girls withlarge hats which were not balanced on their heads, and short skirts andperhaps large muffs? If you watch them as they come towards you down thestreet, you will see that the whole outline or silhouette against thesky or house is poor; they look top-heavy or, we say, unbalanced. Such acostume is not good. A smaller hat with the short skirt is what is neededin order to have a balanced figure. The outline of the natural humanfigure is most beautiful. Look at the lovely figure of the Grecian woman(Fig. 132); see how the lines follow her figure. Costumes which make uglylumps, as bustles and large muffs, and other ugly shapes are not wellbalanced.
Fig. 132.—Notice thelovely folds of theGrecian costume.
An artistic dress shows good taste. Do you remember your talksin your art class about the spaces in a design, and the relation of oneto the other. This is true in dresses too. Tucks, buttons, seams, bandsof trimming all mark off spaces on our bodies (Fig. 133). In order tohave a really artistic dress, there must be a plan about the arrangementof spaces. A short, stout girl with bands of trimming running around herskirt and with lines of trimming running up and down the[255]waist will present a very strange appearance to one who has "artisticappreciation." Can you tell why this would not be good taste? A stoutfigure should wear vertical lines of trimming rather than horizontal;and the spaces between lines should be such as will make the girl looksmaller rather than larger; so dresses must be really designed, and thespaces, colors, values, really thought about. Do you know what valuemeans? Some costumes have contrast in values. Black and white are sharpcontrasts. One sees the black or the white at once. These spots of blackor white jump at one unless there is something to connect the two, asgray, which would be an intermediate value. Spotty costumes are not goodor restful. Have you seen, perhaps, a white dress with black hat andgloves and shoes? Did you notice how the black things stand out and theeye jumps from one spot of black to another? A white dress with whiteshoes and gloves and a black hat trimmed with some white, thus carryingsome of the white to the black, would be better.
Fig. 133.—Notice thegood spacing and arrangementof lines.
Miss Willing said this is called studying values. We can study valuesof color as well as of black and white. Next lesson we shall learnwhat Miss Willing told the girls about color in selecting or makingdresses.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Why do you think Miss Willing had "good taste" in dress?
2. What can you tell about Miss Willing's talk on artisticappreciation? What does it mean in relation to dress?
3. Criticize your own garments in relation to line, simplicity,decoration, appropriateness.
THE CHOICE OF COLORS FOR CLOTHING
Color is important in choosing or making our clothes. We toomust learn if we would choose as wisely as the Pleasant Valley girls.
Miss James thinks that the Pleasant Valley girls have learned so muchabout color in relation to general design in their art classes that theywill be able to understand easily about color in dress too. Colors, theyhave learned, have value, with gradations from light to dark. In blackand white the contrast is striking, but when values are closer togetherthe harmony is closer and less conspicuous.
In choosing your new spring dress be sure to think of yourown characteristics. Your appearance may be injured or improvedaccording to the color chosen. Color even more than design may spoil theappearance, and is important to the wearer and to all who come in contactwith her, for color is expression of one's refinement and culture. Everygirl of Pleasant Valley will wish to know how to look her best. Color inwhich there has been mixed much gray, as dull blue or dull[257]red rather than pure bright color, is apt to make the individualcharacteristics stand out. This grayness in color forms a backgroundas it were, or a setting, for the face and shows the figure to bestadvantage.
Fig. 134.—Can you findthe middle values of gray?
Artists have a way of expressing this brilliancy of color. MissJames says they call it intensity. Do you understand what is meant bycolor when it is strongest and loudest and most intense? Think of redof the most vivid brilliant kind; gradually think of it growing grayerand grayer until it is pure gray. By intensity of a color is meant thisdifference in grayness. Very few people can wear very bright red. MissJames says she must have the "grayed" colors, in dahlia tones of red ifshe wishes a dark dress of this color, or in old rose if she wishes adress which will be less somber. This is true of all colors; only red isperhaps the most difficult to use. One learns to use color in its fullintensity only for touches here and there on a gown or a hat, which isitself not intense in color.
Large people should not wear red. Blue or green are cooling, quietingcolors and so are better adapted to large figures than red and alsobetter for those whose features are not very pronounced. Blues which arenot very strong, or so grayed that they[258]have lost half or more than half of their strength, are more interestingand becoming for large figures for a whole dress.
Yellow is nearest light, and in combination with red gives the orangesfrom which we get browns of all kinds and degrees, rich and warm ineffect. Try mixing these colors in your paint box. Green combines yellowand blue. It is a light, cheerful, and calm color, always restful andsoothing. The yellow-greens are perhaps more cheerful; that is, when moreyellow than blue is used. When more blue is introduced, the greens aremore soothing and cool. Violet is red and blue mixed; a cool and excitingcolor, which can be very intense or very subdued.
Choosing color for a dress. Do you think the Pleasant Valleygirls will think before choosing their new gowns whether it is forschool, or for a best dress, for a party or for the house? Even apronmaterial can be chosen which will make the wearer look unattractive. Whynot look pretty and clean when one is at work too? Miss Willing saysthat quiet color in dress is an evidence of good taste. In combiningcolors in dress one must aim to obtain the right balance in color. MissWilling says, in planning the color scheme for a costume, think about thedominant or most prominent color and endeavor to bring the others intoharmony with it. Harmony is the result of colors being brought together.Touches of black help to bring colors together and so harmonize them.Miss Willing gave several other[259]suggestions for harmony. Cousin Ann put them downin her notebook and sent them to Marjorie.
1. When one wishes to use contrasting colors, as yellow and violet,one can get pleasing harmony by using a large quantity of one color anda small amount of the other. This subordinate relationship of one colorto the other gives harmony; the more grayed the tone of the large massof color, the greater the intensity of color in contrast that can beused.
2. In combining colors of weak intensity for harmony, a harmony ofcostume of one mode, that is one color used in different values, is safebut is not always so interesting as the contrasting colors.
3. To emphasize a color, a touch of the same may be added to some partof the costume. Blue eyes seem even more blue with a blue necktie aroundthe shirt waist collar.
4. Another way to make a good harmony is to use complementary colors.Red and blue; green, violet, and yellow; green and plum; blue andorange; purple and yellow-green. One should be used intense, and theother in a gray tone. For example, in combining color with hair, greens,particularly gray greens, are very pleasing with auburn hair. BarbaraOakes discovered that fact with her auburn hair. Violet tends to makeyellow hair look more golden, so care must be taken to have a gray violetso the gold color in the hair will not be overpowered. "Red" hair is madeto look brighter when a blue costume is worn. So you see one can avoidunfortunate combinations if one studies the strength of the color of thehair in relation to the colors to be used.
Learning to combine colors. Miss James had many samples ofgauzy chiffons which the girls learned to handle and to combine so as toget artistic results, for combinations of complementary and contrastingcolors[260]as well as for combinations of "one hue." It is only through trying thatone learns. This, too, is a matter of appreciation. Some people havefiner appreciation for color than others. By thinking about this andlearning all you can in school and from books, you too may come to havereal color appreciation.
In choosing the best colors for your figure or for mother's or forauntie's, you must think about the value and intensity as well as theother characteristics of color.
Our costumes, as a rule, are worn for different occasions and areseen against different backgrounds. We say that the backgrounds, asin rooms, or against rocks or grass or hillside, are of about middlevalue—halfway between white and black; in other words, gray. Blackand white costumes, then, will always stand out. White tends to make thefigure appear large; black calls attention to the outlines of figureand looks best on people with good figures because of this emphasis ofoutline. Blue, blue green, and blue violet—if of middle value, very"gray"—or gray itself are best adapted to stout figures as they areretiring colors. They seem to melt into the background and do not giveprominence to the figure. A little brighter color may be added and makethe costume more becoming to the face. This should be used through thecenter of the gown, not at the edge to draw the eye to the boundaries ofthe stout figure. A rose or a flower of contrast at the center of thebelt is an example.
Fig. 135.—Verticallines through the center of the costume make the figure appearthinner.
Studying lines of a costume. Miss James says the best way toget an effect of height is to place the longest possible vertical linesthrough the center of the figure with no points of emphasis as trimmingon the outer parts (Fig. 135). For a slim figure, when one wishes toappear stout, the outline of the figure should be emphasized at the outersides of sleeves or shoulders or skirts, by such arrangement of trimmingthat the eye is carried across the figure (Fig. 136).
Miss Willing and the girls had a good laugh about the use of largeplaids and broad stripes for stout people. Plaids or squares certainlytend to emphasize stoutness, as do bold designs or conspicuous colorcombinations.
Fig. 136.—Noticehow the emphasis on the outside of the costume makes the figure appearlarger.
So many things to remember—line, value, color; all-important, ifone is to be attractively dressed. Miss James has decided to permit thegirls to work out the color combinations at school for their new springdresses. The subject of color in choosing hats is equally important. Letus study next lesson about it.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Study your own characteristics. Write them down. Decidewhat predominating color you would like for a spring dress. Fromthe chiffon colors which your teacher has, combine the appropriatecolor combination which you would like.
2. Arrange with the chiffon samples, combinations of complementarycolors, of contrasting colors.
3. Write a composition on the subject of "What makes a girlwell dressed."
SELECTING A HAT
What can you learn about the care and arrangement of your hair. Do youknow how to choose a hat?
Jane Smith says that some day she expects to be a milliner. Perhapsshe will be. Miss James says she can later go to a school and studymillinery. This means that Jane will learn not only how to make hats, butabout the right lines and colors to use. Jane has a natural deftness oftouch and a good idea about copying and designing; so Miss James thinksshe will make a good milliner. So often hats are unbecoming because thecolors are inharmonious, or the lines out of relation to the face wearingthem. Whether one is old or young, one should think about this.
Give some care and thought to your hair. One day when MissTravers came from the State College to speak to the Mothers' Clubs, shestopped at the school and gave a talk to the girls of Pleasant ValleySchool[263]about their hair and hats. She said that so many women and girls forgetto take care of their hair. It should be washed once a month in hotwater with castile soap and perhaps with the white of an egg, and thenthoroughly rinsed. The comb and brush should be washed once a week.Marjorie Allen's mother has beautiful hair, and she says she does as MissTravers told the girls; and also she brushes her hair carefully to removedust, every night before going to bed, and braids her hair in two braidsfor the night. This is a very good way to care for one's hair.
Have you ever noticed how some girls nearly lose all their hairbecause they burn it or dry it up with the curling irons? One should bevery careful always to test the irons on a paper. Burned hair is notbeautiful. So often girls forget that the becomingness of a hat willdepend on the way the hair is taken care of or dressed.
Fig. 137.—Which arrangement of hairand bow do you think most appropriatefor school wear?
Large bows, out of proportion to the size of the head, are very poortaste. A bow as well as a hat should suit the face in line as well ascolor, and a bow which stands way out in conspicuous angles is not goodin line, as it is not apt to conform to the lines of the face and of thehead wearing it. Have you noticed this?[264]Perhaps you can try to rearrange some of the bows the girls are wearingto school so they will be in better taste. Cleanliness of the head andhair, and a clean, clear complexion, which comes from proper food andgood digestion as well as from cleanliness, are the best backgroundsfor a hat. Any girl who has this charm of cleanliness can with thoughtchoose a hat which will be becoming. Hats, also, emphasize the defects aswell as the good points of the wearer; so neatness and a becoming way ofarranging the hair will help very much. Perhaps some of the girls wouldlike to learn to make hats, too. The hat is the most difficult article ofthe whole wardrobe to select. Most girls and women wear hats that are toosmall and that stand on the top of the head instead of fitting it. Goodtaste, Miss James says, in choosing hats means the very thing we havestudied about: artistic appreciation, a knowledge of line and color andform as well as appropriateness.
Think about the shape and the lines of a hat. Hats shouldbe chosen or planned, if one is making them, in relation to the wholefigure. Do you stand up or sit down before the mirror in selecting a hat?Try standing up so you can see your whole figure and the relation ofthe hat to the whole. You can tell then if the hat is too large or toosmall, whether it overbalances the figure, or if the silhouette will bepleasing. Marjorie Allen says since she has learned about these thingsshe is surprised to notice how few people have thought of this questionof the silhouette. Sometimes,[265]the milliners are to blame too, for they do not always know this secret.Marjorie says her new winter hat does not please her because of thesilhouette.
Miss Travers told the girls to think especially about lines. Theround-faced girl whose nose turns up a little will look best in a hatthat is slightly tilted in front or with a rolling brim at the side orfront. Barbara Oakes says she discovered that for herself. She had twohats which rolled in that way; and she liked them better and was morecomfortable in them than in others. She also learned through experiencethat she did not look well in narrow hats that bend over the face. MissTravers says it is true when one's face is full and the noseretroussé,that such a shape is not apt to be becoming.
Fig. 138.—One canselect a hat which will make a good silhouette when one sees the wholefigure before a mirror.
Miss James says she noticed that long, thin faces look longer andthinner in high pointed trimmings. What kind of trimming, then, would yourecommend for a long, thin face? For long faces, a brim worn slightlyforward will cast a shadow and so tend to shorten the length of the face;and brims that are rolling and wide, counteract the effect of the long,thin face. Do you see[266]how very important it is to study the face and its lines?
The way of dressing one's hair may make it difficult to choose a hat.If the person with the long, thin face also draws back her hair sharplyat the sides, her face will look longer and it will be more difficult tochoose a hat for such a face. If the hair is worn very fluffy when onehas a very round, full face, then the face is apt to look fuller. So yousee hairdressing is very important to study too, if a girl is to look herbest and choose the most becoming hats.
Color, too, should be kept in mind. Some skins are pale; othersare rosy. Black makes the complexion look white and should not be wornnext to a dark, swarthy skin. Browns are apt to look well with auburnhair like Jane Alden's. She has such a clear complexion. Barbara'smother, Mrs. Oakes, with gray eyes and hair, will look well in gray.
We have studied about contrasting colors. The contrasting colors fora person with light hair will be quite different from the colors for aperson with auburn hair. Notice what is said in the lesson about color inselection of dress. This is true of hats too.
Select a hat that is becoming. In choosing hats aim always toget what is becoming toyou andyour style rather than the extremesof fashion. The latest styles can always be adapted to suit your style ifa milliner knows her business.
Remember that very often hats are not becoming because[267]they are notworn properly. Sometimes thewearer forgets and pushes the hat back or to one side; and then its linesdo not conform to the outline of hair and head and face. Study how towear your hats. Large hats are often difficult to wear because of correctbalance.
Fig. 139.—Which waylooks better?
If you would like to try to make a simple summer hat, perhaps youcan buy a frame, and with your teacher's help learn to change and adaptit to your face. It is easy to learn to sew straw on a frame and totrim with a bow or flowers. Simple trimming for young girls is alwaysthe most pleasing; flowers, wings, quills, and simple bows are the mostsuitable.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. What things will you have in mind when you go to the milliner's toselect a new hat, or to have your old hat remodeled? Write a list of theprincipal points to be kept in mind in choosing.
2. Bring to school pictures of hats adapted to faces; some thatare not. You can find these in old fashion magazines; perhaps in oldportraits. Pin them on your classroom Bulletin Board. Criticize. Yourteacher will probably have some too. Why is this a good subject tostudy?
MAKING THE MIDDY BLOUSE
The Pleasant Valley girls will make middy blouses and so completetheir gymnasium suits. Will you not wish to complete your suits too?
The girls have found their bloomers and skirts very useful, and areglad to make the middy blouse too. They will use the same material as forthe skirt.
By this time the Pleasant Valley girls are so expert that they make nomistakes in laying on their patterns or in cutting out garments. They arevery particular to have the long line of single perforations indicatingthe length lying exactly on the warp threads of the cloth. Jane Smithsays she can tell exactly which pieces must be cut double on a fold ofthe goods. Can you? The girls sent for patterns for 34 bust measureand for 38. Some of the girls are quite large for their age—JaneAndrews and Barbara both are large and will need the 38 size.
Miss James opened a pattern and held up all the pieces. She pinnedthem to the dress form so as to show the relationship of each piece tothe figure. Can you do this, too, before you begin to cut, and so learnwhich pieces are to be cut on a fold? Then lay the pattern on your clothmost carefully and pin ready for cutting. Do not cut until your teachersays you may. Learn to use a tracing wheel and trace your seams, so allwill match in putting the middy together. This garment will be madeentirely by machine, except the hand processes of basting and gathering.Hems and facings should be carefully basted before being stitched. Good,perfect stitching improves all such tailored garments. Poor stitchingspoils the effect.
How to make a middy blouse. After the pattern has beencarefully laid on, and the material cut out, this is the way to make andfinish a middy blouse:
1. Baste, with the seams on the outside, shoulder, and underarm seams.Try on. If necessary in order to fit more smoothly across the chest,let the front drop; if extra fullness across the chest is desired, letout under the arms. The shoulder seams will be finished, but not theunderarm. Mark with tracing or pencil the new seam for underarm if youmust change it.
Make a flat fell seam at the shoulder, ½ inch wide finished.You have all learned how.
2. The sleeves, which are in one piece, are put in next, before thesleeves or underarms are seamed. Match the notches, gather the sleeves ifthere is any fullness at armhole, and baste in the sleeves so that theseam is on the right side. Make flat fells, basting the turn which fallsover the sleeves so that it will lie very flat.
3. Baste seams of sleeve and underarm all in one long seam on rightside. Match at armhole. Make flat fell, turning the fell towards thefront (see page 216).
4. Hem the bottom of the middy with one inch hem.
5. Finish the neck next. Prepare the collar with its facing accordingto the notches of the pattern and directions. Sew; turn to right side.If the collar is to be decorated with finishing braid, this decoratingshould be done before the collar and facing are sewed together. Attachcollar to middy, right of center collar to right of the center back ofmiddy. The seam will then fall on the inside towards the neck and willbe concealed by the facing which should be turned in and sewed over theseam. Patterns for middies vary, and other methods of attaching collarmay be suggested. A loose ribbon or scarf of silk can be tied under thecollar to form a sailor's knot.
6. Then finish the sleeve. The sleeve may be finished with a half inchhem and rolled as many are worn, or a cuff can be attached which will beof the same width as the sleeve or just to fit the wrist. In the lattercase, the fullness of the sleeve must be gathered to fit.
Fig. 140.—Eyelets weremade by some girls, in the front of their middy waists.
The girls of Pleasant Valley School made sleeves of three quarterlength, and attached a turned-up cuff of same width as sleeve. This cuffwas made double: the two pieces sewed together, turned, and attachedto the sleeve with the seam, on the outside of sleeve. The facing,then, concealed the seam and, when the cuff was turned up, was entirelyconcealed. This makes a very neat finish inside the sleeve.
Some of the girls, those who worked rapidly, made eyelets at the frontof the middy and laced the middy. Eyelets are punched with a stiletto orsharp point, and are worked like a buttonhole, only perfectly round.
The girls of Pleasant Valley will give an entertainment of calisthenicexercises as soon as their middy suits are entirely completed. Theboys will also give some exercises with the dumbbells and join in thefolk dancing. "The Pleasant Valley News" has already announced thisentertainment at the Town Hall. Every body in Pleasant Valley is going.The money will be used to pay for some of the furnishings of the Ellen H.Richards House.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Draw a sketch of your middy blouse. How will yours differfrom the one in the picture?
2. Try to make another middy at home.
SUGGESTIONS FOR BUYING GARMENTS OF WOOL AND SILK
Miss Travers from the State College talks to the girls of PleasantValley School about buying clothing, especially of wool or silk.You, too, will wish to know what Miss Travers said.
Have you ever considered whether it is wise or not to buy yourclothing ready-made? Most of the mothers of the Pleasant Valleygirls make the garments at home with some assistance from the visitingdressmaker.[272]What a help the Pleasant Valley girls will be when the dressmaker comesto their homes. They are not old enough to take full responsibility, butthey will surely be able to assist after the dressmaker has planned. Thiswill help their mothers, too. Mrs. Allen, Mrs. Stark, and Mrs. Oakes havealready discovered how many good suggestions their daughters have togive.
It is sometimes wise to buy things ready-made. In ourgrandmothers' day this was impossible. Grandmother Stark used to stitchall Grandfather Stark's shirts by hand and make his overalls. To-day onecan buy good serviceable garments like overalls, rompers, shirts, etc.,at moderate prices, ready-made. Just what should be made at home shouldbe determined by the mother, and will depend on her time and duties athome. Some mothers can so organize their household work that they havetime for some sewing too, and they enjoy the change of work. It pays tomake certain garments because the workmanship is often better and one canchoose one's own materials. This means that the life of the garment isapt to be longer. This is economy if one has the time and strength; butit never pays if one sacrifices other things like fresh air, exercise,some relaxation, for the sake of saving a little money.
What should you consider in buying ready-made garments? MissTravers says it never pays to buy flimsy materials, cheap lace edging, orinsertions which are poorly put together and will tear. One can instead[273]purchase ready-made garments which are plain. It is not always possibleto afford the time to make dainty, fine, handmade underwear, which soonwears out; but one can often spare the time to construct a few pairs ofmore durable drawers, and corset covers, by machine for everyday wear,when one realizes how much greater will be the life of the garment.
If one is buying ready-made garments, one should think about thefollowing things:
1. Is thematerial suitable? will it wear well? is the colorsuitable or will it fade very soon?
2. Consider theworkmanship. Are the seams well sewed? Is thestitching very coarse, or does the garment look well finished? Is theappearance neat, or will it pull apart very soon?
3.The construction should be examined. Is the garment well cut,or is it cheap because it is scant in fullness? This may not permit offreedom in movement, and the garment may have to be cast aside becauseuncomfortable. Then money is wasted.
4. It never pays to buy anything which one does not need. It is wellto have foresight and to plan for what one will need for the year,but experience soon teaches one the quantity. It is foolish to buyunnecessary things because they are pretty. One should learn not to betempted.
5. It sometimes pays to wait until certain seasons for purchasinggarments. Between seasons one can get well-made articles of clothing atconsiderable[274]reduction, if one can wait. Winter garments are reduced in January orFebruary, and summer goods in July or August. It often pays to wait. Inplanning one's wardrobe, one can think about this. January is often agood time to buy household linens or other furnishings at a reduction.
6. The use of garments should guide one in making a selection. It isnecessary to study one's whole wardrobe and to know what is needed. Agirl engaged in business will need an entirely different wardrobe fromone who spends most of her time at home helping mother. The first step,then, in economy is to know one's needs and to purchase accordingly.Is the garment needed and suitable for the occasion? Remember aboutappropriateness, and buy garments which will render the service needed.One does not wear silk dresses for housework.
7. Sometimes undergarments are made in sweatshops under veryundesirable conditions for health. The garments are cheap because madeby poorly paid workers under very unsanitary conditions. Do you wishto wear such garments? As long as women buy the cheap kind made at thesacrifice of human life, this sweatshop system will continue. One can buyinexpensive underwear made under sanitary conditions. It is labeled witha tag of the Consumers' League. This is an organization which is tryingto better the conditions in workrooms and shops in which clothing is madeand to improve wages and working hours. This League[275]permits the use of its label on white underwear made under the conditionsthey approve of: no work outside of factories, no child labor undersixteen years of age, and obedience to the state labor laws. The labelsare used by firms agreeing to fulfill the above requirements. If you arepurchasing underwear, perhaps you can buy some with the Consumers' Leaguelabel. It looks like this (Fig. 141). Miss James wears this kind, andMrs. Oakes and Mrs. Allen, too, now that they know about it.
Fig. 141.—Consumers' League Label and Union Label.
8. It is sometimes more economical to decide on a particular colorfor a season. One can, as a rule, wear one's clothes to more economicaladvantage and look better dressed by choosing a particular color than ifone has a red dress, a blue coat, and a green dress for best. The coat isprobably worn with both dresses and may not look well.
9. Remember, if one has only a limited amount of money for clothes,one should not try to buy the very latest fashions. Exaggerated styleslive but a short time, and some of us must wear our clothes for a long[276]time, until they are worn out. If materials are good, one can often haveone's clothes remade, by combination with a little new material of acontrasting kind. A knowledge of textile materials and values will alwayshelp in selecting either ready-made clothing or materials.
10. Remember you mustknow about the things you wish topurchase. Clerks as a rule know very little about the goods they sell.If you know, you can make the dollars earned buy more than if you wereignorant.
Fig. 142.—It takes much thought to learn to buy intelligently.
What should you think about in buying materials? Here are someof the hints for purchasing wool and silk materials or garments whichMiss Travers gave the Pleasant Valley girls. Talk them over with yourteacher. See if you agree.
1. Garments made of wool and cotton mixed do not keep their shape aswell as all wool. If one can afford[277]only wool and cotton, the salesman should tell one in purchasing abouttheir composition. The mixture should be cheaper. It is often sold forall wool at a higher price. If one untwists the fibers of the material,it is possible to detect cotton. Try at school on some ravelings ofgarment seams or other materials. The burning test will help one todecide. We shall learn some tests in our next lesson.
2. Remember wool is an expensive fiber. Do not expect to get all woolfor little money.
3. Remember the weave affects wearing quality. A close twill weave isoften more durable than a basket weave.
Do you remember your lessons about silk; how it is grown and madeby the little worm, and how it is manufactured or spun into threador woven into silk cloth? In buying silk one must remember about itsmanufacture.
1. Silk is seldom pure. It is apt to be weighted. If the silk feelsheavy in the hand, it does not always mean that it is a good piece ofmaterial and will wear; it may be weighted with tin; up to 30 per cent oftin is not harmful. A softer, pliable silk is not apt to be so weighted,and will wear better. Soft silks so woven as to pull at the seams arenot economical. Close weaves are better than loosely woven ones forwearing.
2. Fray some of the threads of the cloth you wish to buy. Is itpossible to break either the warp or woof[278]easily? If so, the silk will split along either warp or filling and willnot wear.
3. One should not expect to get bargains in silk. Cheap silk will notwear. It is better to wear some other material. Is the material made ofreeled silk or of spun silk? You have learned the difference. Articlesmade of reeled silk are more expensive.
4. Silk is sometimes adulterated with cotton or artificial silk andsold for all silk. We shall learn some tests in our next lesson so we maydiscover too.
Miss James talked over all these points with the Pleasant Valley girlsand showed them some good and bad materials. The girls decided to be onthe lookout for these things. Will you?
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Bring to school garments or materials which have not wornwell. Try to find out why. Your teacher will help.
2. Write a composition about things to think about in purchasinga new winter suit ready-made. If you must buy from a catalogue,can you judge about the wearing qualities?
LEARNING TO USE SOME SIMPLE TEXTILE TESTS
Miss James and the girls of Pleasant Valley tried some simpletests for materials. Perhaps you would like to try them too?
The Pleasant Valley girls became so interested inMiss Travers' talk about textiles and how difficult it is[279]to buy intelligently that they decided to learn to judge materials and tostudy about adulterations.
How are clothing materials adulterated? Miss James told thegirls that there are a number of ways of adulterating materials, andthat most women shoppers are so indifferent that manufacturers have beenable to adulterate the materials of everyday use. This increases thecost of living, for materials do not wear so long. Miss James says thattextiles should be labeled so we may know what we are buying. Some kindof adulterations are honest if the goods are so marked; but, when soldfor something they are not, the buyers are fooled. The tests help one toknow whether materials are adulterated or not. Let us learn first some ofthe methods generally used in adulterating, and then some of the simpletests.
Weighting is one method of adulterating. This means that somethingelse has been used beside the material. In cotton and linen material,sizing or starch is pressed in with the rolling in finishing. Afterwashing, this material will be found to be very open in mesh instead ofsmooth. Notice some of the smooth linen table cloths before they arelaundered. Afterwards you will notice they look quite coarse and havelost their smoothness. Sometimes glue or clay or gums are used instead ofstarch.
Silk is often weighted in the finishing process with sugar and somewith dyes and metals. This is because silk has a property which enablesit to absorb a great[280]deal of moisture without changing its quality. The manufacturer canbuy salts and dyes for less than silk, and so he often uses a largeper cent of dye or metal in place of the gum washed out of the silk inmanufacture. One can seldom find to-day silks like our grandmothers usedto use. This is because people wish cheap silks; the manufacturer cannotproduce silks for little money, as the raw fiber is so high; and so heuses other things with silk to weight it.
Fig. 143.—One cansometimes test materialsby burning.
Materials are also adulterated bycombination with other materials.Did you ever buy a handkerchief marked "pure linen" and discover it wasa mixture of cotton and linen? Cotton is also used to adulterate woolenmaterials, and sometimes silk materials; "pure silk" so called, is oftenartificial silk.
Adulteration is also practiced when made-over materials or waste isused to cheapen the cost. We learned about this in studying about wool.Wool materials should be labeled so that the purchaser will know. It isnot fair to pay the price for an all-new wool material if shoddy andmungo and flocks, which are all old wool and waste, have been used. Theper cent of new wool should be told and the price made accordingly.
Silk is sometimes sold as reeled silk when waste from cocoons which iscalled spun silk has been used for the woof or filling thread.
Infinishing of materials, adulteration is sometimes practiced. Inpressing cotton or linen, a luster is given to the surface. Cotton canbe made to appear like silk or like linen, and is often sold for thosefibers. Cotton can be napped in finishing and made to look woolly as inblankets or outing flannel, but it is still only cotton.
Fig. 144.—The microscope reveals many things.
How can clothing material be tested? These are the simple testswhich the Pleasant Valley girls learned:
For sizing. This is easy to identify. Pick at the surface withyour nail, and the starch or sizing will easily come off. Hang a wetpiece in the air and see how the gloss looks then. This sizing oftenconceals defects in the cloth.[282]These can be seen if the material is thin, by holding it against thelight.
Fig. 145.—The test for fading.
Burning tests. The girls unraveled the fibers which Miss Jamesgave them and tested wool, silk, cotton, and linen. They tried bothwarp and filling threads. They burned them with a taper. The animalthreads (which are they?) burned slowly, charred, and smelled like burnedfeathers. Silk burns to an ash, except when weighted. Then it burns moreslowly. When very heavily weighted, the flame does not burn readily andthe form of the silk will remain. The vegetable fibers, cotton and linen,burn quickly and with a flame.
Fig. 146.—The test for shrinkage.
Tests with microscope. You have all seen the appearance of thefibers under the microscope. This reveals many things, and the[283]unraveled fibers are easily identified. The microscope is the only suretest for telling cotton and linen fibers. One can sometimes discovershoddy mixed with the all-wool fiber because of the color. Shoddy issometimes made of old colored woolen rags.
Tests for fading. Pin a piece of cloth on a board with thumbtacks. Cover half with cardboard or heavy paper. Expose to the rays ofsun for several days. Remove paper and notice difference. A piece canalso be exposed near bright light, but not in sun's rays, to see theeffect under ordinary wear. Marjorie Allen tested a piece of cashmereshe was considering for a dress and decided not to buy it, for it fadedquickly near the bright light.
Fig. 147.—The test for strength.
Tests for strength. Try to break either warp or woof threads.Place the two thumbs together and press down on the cloth which should beheld firmly in the hands. Try both sets of threads. Sometimes a weak warpor woof can be discovered.
Tests for shrinkage. Barbara Oakes had a white cotton dresslast year which never seemed to stop shrinking. Sometimes we can testmaterials for shrinkage. Measure width and length of sample to be tested.Wash it in hot water and soap. Dry and measure again. Is it narrower andshorter? In planning for cotton or woolen garments allowance should bemade for shrinkage.
Fig. 148.—The chemical tests showmany things of use in judging materials.
Chemical tests. Chemicals are used for identifying fibers.Have you learned in your eighth grade studies about acids and alkalies?Have you studied at all about chemicals? It is possible to discoverthe composition of woven materials by testing them with chemicals.This is because acids and alkalies affect vegetable and animal fibersin different ways. Look up the difference between acids and alkalies.Study with your teacher and try to discover some of the common food andcleaning materials which we use every day in our homes which are acid oralkali. Some of these teach us we should know what the soaps and washingpowders which we use will do to our clothes. Your teacher will providesome chemicals for testing. It is easier to test samples of cloth if theyare fringed at the edges. Here are directions for some chemical tests:
1. Place a piece of white cotton cloth and a piece of woolen materialin small dishes. Cover with 50 per cent solution of nitric acid. The woolfibers will turn yellow. The cotton remain white. If a piece of woolcloth was mixed with cotton, how would the test prove it?
2. Boil samples of cotton and wool together; then samples ofcotton and silk together, for fifteen minutes in a 5 per cent solution[285]of caustic potash. The animal fibers will dissolve, the cotton willremain. Of what use would this test be?
3. Moisten samples of cotton and of wool with Millon's reagent. Placein porcelain dishes and heat gently. The animal fibers will become red;the vegetable are unchanged.
4. Material made of cotton and linen and sold for all linen can betested. Place fringed sample in a porcelain dish. Heat gently in 50 percent solution of caustic potash for two minutes. Remove with glass rodand dry between blotting papers. The linen will be dark yellow in colorand the cotton white or light yellow.
So we have learned a few tests of different kinds. There are manymore. When you go to high school you can learn about others. The PleasantValley girls enjoyed making these tests with Miss James' help. Perhapsyou may be able to try them with your teacher.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Try the above chemical tests with your teacher's help.
2. Try some of the other tests for adulterations.
3. Tell four ways in which materials are adulterated.
HOW PATTERN IS MADE IN CLOTH
Barbara said she never could quite see how pattern is made in cloth.There seem to be so many different kinds of patterns. Miss Jamesexplained about this. She said there are several ways of making patterns.Some are printed; others woven; some embroidered. Have you discoveredthis?
Patterns are often woven. Do you remember, when you studiedabout linen, you learned that the Jacquard[286]loom has a series of cards above it which are able to control thepattern? Wonderful silks and beautiful velvets and brocades as well asdamask table linen are made in this way by weaving. Patterns of stripesand plaids are also made by the loom in weaving. Sometimes the warp orthe filling threads are colored; and this color forms patterns in stripesor squares. See if you have any pieces in your surprise box in whichpattern is made by colored threads of warp or woof.
Try to find some woven patterns made by the Jacquard loom in silk orlinen. Think of all the beautiful ribbons, silks, tablecloth damasks,towels, and napkins; all such patterns are woven by the loom. Plainpatterns like basket weave, twill, diagonal, satin weave, are also madeby weaving. See if you can work out some of these patterns on your schoolloom.
Some patterns are printed. On the plain woven material,patterns are printed by means of rollers on which the pattern has beenstamped. The colors are put on by this roller. The picture shows themachine. Did you ever have a calico apron or dress of percale or cambricon which the pattern showed on one side only? Many ribbons are printedwith a pattern, but sometimes patterns are put on both sides of thecloth. Again, printing is sometimes done on the warp threads before thefilling thread is woven in. This makes a dull effect in pattern. MissJames had a piece of ribbon which was so printed. When it was ravelledout a little, the printed warp could be seen.
Courtesy of Cheney Bros.
Fig. 149.—Printing cloth by machinery.
Did you ever see a foulard silk dress with white spots? Do you knowhow they are made? There are two. methods. One is called "resist," andthe other "discharge." The first method, "resist," is easy to understand.[288]The material is printed before it is dyed. The spots are printed witha chemical which resists the dye when it is put in the dye bath. Sothe cloth comes out of the dye with white spots where the chemical wasstamped. The "discharge" method is just the opposite. The cloth is dyedblue or black or whatever the color is to be, and then it is passedbetween rollers something like your wringing machine and the color istaken out in spots by chemicals. Sometimes, when the chemicals are toostrong or cheap, they eat the cloth. Jane Alden's cousin had a dress fromwhich the white spots fell out, leaving holes.
Patterns are sometimes printed on cloth by means of wood blocks orstencils. Perhaps you can do some printing on plain cloth. You can make astencil pattern. Cut out the design in it and paint through the holes, orcut a design from a piece of wood, dip it in color, and print the cloth.Lovely materials are made by hand in this way. Miss James has a beautifulEnglish piece of Morris block printing which she values highly.
Many patterns are embroidered. Look in the piece box. Sometimesembroidered designs are worked on cloth by hand, but many are made bymachine. Miss James has a scarf which came from India. It is embroideredin gold with little bits of glass sewed on the right side, and held bythe embroidery. This is all hand work. Miss James has a waist with littlespots of white embroidered in silk. This is done by machine[289]on a loom. Find some piece of material embroidered by machine.
So Barbara Oakes now understands about the patterns. Miss James hadsome books to show the girls, too. They looked up in the encyclopediaabout printing of materials and about the other things they wished toknow about patterns. Barbara says to her the most wonderful thing isthe way in which the warp threads of the loom can be controlled by theJacquard pattern cards and other devices. The shed of the warp as itis raised for each filling thread is governed by the devices, and adifferent set of threads bobs up for each shuttle throw.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Mount on strips of cardboard, samples of material made:
a. By weaving, plain, stripes, diagonal, etc.
b. By printing, resist, discharge, machine, block, stencil;
c. By embroidery.
2. Look up in the encyclopedia or other books the subject of cottonprinting.
3. Try to find pictures of modern looms and more primitive ones inwhich pattern is controlled by the harness which raises the warp threadsand makes the so-called shed.
REVIEW PROBLEMS
I. Look over the fashion pages of your magazines at home andfind:
1. A young woman suitably dressed for business.
2. A girl dressed for outdoor sports.
3. A girl in a party gown.
Tell why you think each is "well dressed." If not, why?
II. What textile tests would you suggest when buying a silk dress.Mrs. Stark expects to have one next summer. How will she be able to judgeif it will wear?
III. Can you make another middy at home. Perhaps you are so expert youcan take an order for one.
Courtesy of Mr. R. J. Planten.
Fig. 150.—The Ellen H. Richards house.
You will be glad to know that all the townspeople in Pleasant Valleywere delighted with the year's work in homemaking in the new schoolhouse.Mr. Roberts, the President of the Pleasant Valley Bank, was so pleasedwith the results both at school and in the homes of the valley that hegave the house that you see[292]in the picture (Fig. 150), to be used for homemaking work by the girls,and for the boys' clubs as well. The house was named for Mrs. Ellen H.Richards, the great and good woman who lived in Boston, Massachusetts,but whose friends are found all over the world, and who helped to developthe teaching of home economics everywhere.
What are some of the facts about clothing and health that a girlmay learn, useful to herself and her family? This is the question atthe beginning of the first chapter. Do you not think that you can allgive an answer to this question now? And would you not like to write acomposition about it? Perhaps your teacher will have a gathering at theschool of all the fathers and mothers; and maybe one of you can write alittle play or pageant connected in some way with household arts for thisclosing party of the school year. Perhaps you are able now to design yourcostumes and make some of your garments or, at least, to select them morewisely.
And where is Pleasant Valley? Perhaps you asked this questionwhen you looked at the picture on one of the first pages. Pleasant Valleyis your own home town; and, though it has really quite another name, itmay still be Pleasant Rivers, or Pleasant Hill, or Pleasant Fields, orPleasant Plain. Why not? In this wide country of ours there are manyforms of natural beauty; and even in the dry sections, where trees aregrown with difficulty, there are still the far reaches of the plains andthe beautiful effects of cloud, sunrise,[293]and sunset. If our own town is ugly and unhealthy, it is not Nature'sfault; for the beauty and home-likeness and the healthfulness of anyplace depend upon its inhabitants. Even the simplest and plainest villageor countryside has one kind of beauty if it is kept perfectly clean, andit costs but little money in many places to plant trees and shrubs andkeep the grass green.
You must see, however, that it is something more than beauty in thethings about us that we have been studying together. You boys and girlsin your school are to be the men and women who will make the homes andthe town the best possible places for successful and happy living. Doyou realize what it means to be citizens of a great commonwealth likethis of our United States? Do you understand the meaning of the word"commonwealth"? It is a good old word that means a land where all thepeople share everything alike and work together for the good of all. Wecannot succeed in doing this unless we begin in our home and in our hometown. More and more must our country stand for democracy for ourselvesand for the whole world, and you must bring to the problems of thefuture, bodies strong and clean, and strong hearts and minds.
Printed in the United States of America.
Transcriber notes:
P.242. "5." changed to '3.".
P.262. 'characterisics' changed to 'characteristics'.
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