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Thereis a profound irony to the relationship between Freemasonry and the Middle East.No world organization owes more to the region in the way of its motifs, itssymbols, and its rituals. But no organization in the course of its presence inthe Middle East has encountered more criticism, more disapproval, and moreoutright government persecution.

MostMasons are aware, although perhaps only vaguely, that Islamic countries ingeneral, and the religion of Islam in particular, have a problem withFreemasonry. However few, one suspects, are aware of the reasons for this, or ofthe historical and current situations. The purpose of this paper is to examinethe causes of Islamic antipathy towards the Craft, locate them within anhistorical perspective, and discuss the surrounding issues. The focus will be onArabic countries, but reference will be made to other Islamic countries.

Scotlandestablished the first lodge erected in the Middle East, at Aden in 1850. A lodgein Palestine followed it in 1873. However, most Masonic development was spawnedin this century, beginning with English lodges located in Iraq shortly after theFirst World War. Unfortunately, the lot of the Craft in the Middle East has notgenerally been a happy one. Only in Israel, which possesses a mainstream GrandLodge, and to a lesser extent in Lebanon, has Masonry flourished in recenttimes.

Outsideof Israel and Lebanon, only one mainstream and two Prince Hall lodges remain –a Scottish lodge in Jordan, Lodge Jordan #1339, dating from 1925; and James R.Jones Military Lodge #172 and Pernell Cooper Military Lodge #177, under thePrince Hall Grand Lodge of Oklahoma, which meet on US military bases in thePersian Gulf. British-warranted lodges that formerly existed in Iraq, SouthYemen (Aden), and elsewhere on the Arabian Peninsula have all been extinguishedas the result of political/religious pressure. A few German lodges are warrantedfor Saudi Arabia, but these effectively do not meet, and their longer-termfuture must be uncertain. In Iran, which has lately had a regular Grand Lodge,Freemasonry has been destroyed, almost literally, and this occurrence must rateas one of the greatest tragedies in Masonic history.

NorthernAfrica has seen an analogous Masonry history. Freemasonry arrived in Morocco inthe 1860s. A Scottish lodge was formed in the country in 1902, and an Englishlodge in 1927. Both subsequently moved to Gibraltar. A self-constituted GrandLodge was erected in Morocco in 1967, but within a few years it seeminglydisappeared. Somewhat surprisingly, the Grande Loge Nationale Française (GLNF)chartered three lodges in Morocco on 30 June 1997 – atCasablanca,Rabat, and Marrakech.TheGLNF obtained permission of the Moroccan Government to erect lodges because thisFrench Masonic grand body, the only one generally recognized by mainstream GrandLodges, strictly prohibits political and religious discussion in its lodges. Thethree lodges were constituted by the GLNF into the Grand Lodge of the Kingdom ofMorocco (Grande Loge du Royaume du Maroc) on 15 June 2000, in Marrakech.

Algeria,Libya and Tunisia all had lodges during their French or Italian colonialperiods, and Egypt once possessed an active Grand Lodge, together with manylodges under the home Grand Lodges. Popular opinion has it that no lodgesoperate in these countries, but that is not entirely the case.

TheMasonic history of Egypt, in terms of influence on prevailing Arab/Moslemopinion towards freemasonry, is pivotal. A brief resumé will be offered here,although certain aspects will be revisited shortly. Lodges began appearing inEgypt in the early 19th century, with the first warrants coming from France andGermany. In the 1860s, England, Scotland, and the Grand Orient of Italy allchartered a number of lodges in the country. In the period immediately followingthe Second World War, Scotland had three lodges under charter, and England hadfourteen lodges—the oldest of which, Bulwer Lodge of Cairo #1068 EC, waschartered in 1865—under a District Grand Lodge formed in 1899.

Thestory of the non-British lodges is one of schism and confusion, with severalGrand Orients rising and falling, combined with heavy influences from SupremeCouncils and other ‘higher’ degrees and rites. A National Grand Lodge ofEgypt was the predominant body, and it had an uneasy relationship with theBritish Grand Lodges. Its lodges worked variously in Arabic, Greek, French,Italian, Hebrew, and German. As will become clear shortly, it is not unlikelythat general Arab opposition to Masonry stems from perceptions of this period.

Therise of the Nationalist Movement in Egypt and the assumption of power byPresident Nasser led to Freemasonry being suppressed in the mid-1950s. AllBritish lodges were subsequently closed, with most English lodges being formallyerased from the United Grand Lodge of England’sRollof Lodges in 1965. Similarly, Nasser closed Egyptian-chartered lodges.[ii]

Clearly,the lot of the Craft in Islamic countries in general, and Arab countries inparticular, has not been a happy one. The question is why?

MostMasons will be aware of various Papal Bulls issued, historically, by the RomanCatholic Church against Freemasonry, as it understood (or more correctly,misunderstood) it. In reviewing Islamic attitudes towards Masonry, it must befirst observed that this religion has no personage analogous to the Pope.However, most Islamic countries do have an official legal/religious consultant.A number of articles have been written on the subject, dating back as far as themid-nineteenth century.

Possiblythe most influential body in promulgating and interpreting Islamic Law is theIslamic Jurisdictional College (IJC). At its meeting on 15 July 1978, it issuedan opinion concerning ‘The Freemasons Organization’.[iii]The SAJS declared:[iv]

Aftercomplete research concerning this organization, based on written accounts frommany sources, we have determined:

1.Freemasonry is a clandestine organization, which conceals or reveals its system,depending on the circumstances. Its actual principles are hidden from members,except for chosen members of its higher degrees.

2.The members of the organisation, worldwide, are drawn from men withoutpreference for their religion, faith or sect.

3.The organization attracts members on the basis of providing personal benefits.It traps men into being politically active, and its aims are unjust.

4.New members participate in ceremonies of different names and symbols, and whoare frightened from disobeying its regulations and orders.

5.Preferred members are free to practice their religion, but only members who areatheist are promoted to its higher degrees, based on how much they are willingto serve its dangerous principles and plans.

6.It is a political organization. It has served all revolutions, military andpolitically transformations, and in all dangerous changes a relation to thisorganization appears either exposed or veiled.

7.It is a Jewish Organization in its roots. Its secret higher internationaladministrative board are Jews and it promotes Zionist activities.

8.Its primary objectives are the distraction of all religions and it distractsMuslims from Islam.

9.It tries to recruit influential financial, political, social, or scientificpeople to utilize them. It does not consider applicants it cannot utilize. Itrecruits kings, prime ministers, high government officials and similarindividuals.

10.It has branches under different names as a camouflage so people cannot trace itsactivities, especially if the name of ‘Freemasonry’ has opposition. Thesehidden branches are known are Lions, Rotary and others. They have wickedprinciples that completely contradict the rules of Islam. There is a clearrelationship between Freemasonry, Judaism, and International Zionism. It hascontrolled the activities of high Arab Officials in the Palestinian Problem. Ithas limited their duties, obligations and activities for the benefit of theJudaism and International Zionism.

Giventhat Freemasonry involves itself in dangerous activities, it is a great hazard,with wicked objectives, the Jurisdictional Synod determines that Freemasonry isa dangerous, destructive organization. Any Muslim who affiliates with it,knowing the truth of its objectives, is an infidel to Islam.

Undoubtedly,we would see many of the assertions in this ten-point pronouncement as absurd,or at best inaccurate. But it does give us several clues as to the reasonsbehind Arab/Islamic antipathy toward the Craft. This would be seem to be basedlargely on political considerations, with religion used as its justification.

Interms of the Arab world, an interesting article recently appeared in Cairo’sEgyptianGazette, under the title: ‘FREEMASONRYIN EGYPT. Is it still around?’[v]Authored by Samir Raafat, it is quoted here in full:

InEgypt, arguments levelled against Freemasonry were selectively derived from thewritings of George Zaidan and Shaheen Makarius—turn of the century writers andfreemasons. Both had commended contemporary businessmen and entrepreneurs, manyof them Jewish, for their active role in reviving Egypt’s capitalisticeconomy. Six decades later their statements were being salaciouslyre-interpreted so that the businessmen and entrepreneurs of yonder wereportrayed as eager tools of a Judeo-Zionist collusion bent on dominating theregional economy. In his 660-page volume entitledFreemasonry in the ArabWorld, Hussein Omar Hamada dedicates much of his book juggling to Masonicconspiracy theories.

Asthe predominant conspiracy hypothesis takes credence in the Near East, thelegality of Freemasonry is questioned and subsequently tabled on the ArabLeague's agenda. In any case, with the post-1952 departure of Egypt’shautekhawagerie, lodges and Masonic Temples were rapidly losing their members.Some freemasons, whether out of fear or self-interest, simply stopped turning upat the meetings so that even the all-Egyptian Star of the East Lodge had a hardtime supporting itself.

On4 April 1964, the Masonic Temple on Alexandria’s Toussoun Street was shut downby order of the Ministry of Social Affairs. ‘Associations with undeclaredagendas were incompatible with rules covering non profit organizations.’Further disturbing evidence for the State concerning Freemasonry’s politicalgoals would turn up the following year in Damascus when master spy Eli Cohen (anEgyptian freemason) was apprehended.

InJordan and I believe in other parts of the Middle East, the obligation is takenon the Holy Quran, the Bible or the Old Testament when Jews were members of alodge. The perception of ‘What Freemasonry is?’ is the problem. We can’tpromote something people know nothing about. There are too many myths that areallowed to continue.

Itis noteworthy that Raafat in this article poses the proposition that Rotary andLions clubs are a front for Masonic lodges. Interestingly, this fancifulassertion, in Egyptian terms, gains even less credence given that Mrs. SusanMubarak, the wife of Egypt’s current President, is a strong supporter ofRotary and plays a prominent role in its international activities. Nonetheless,it does indicate, again, a measure of paranoia within Arabic opinion.

Otherauthors have tackled the subject. Mustufa El-Amin, in his bookFreemasonry,Ancient Egypt and the Islamic Destiny,[vi] compares the symbolism of the Ancient Egyptianmysteries, and Islamic scriptures, with those of the Craft. He draws oncomparisons made by several authors, including C W Leadbeater,[vii]who asserts ‘Although our modern Freemasonic rites and symbols are derivedfrom Egypt…they have reached us for the most part through the Jews…thewisdom of Egypt was handed down in the secret lodges of Masonry’. While theveracity of Leadbeater’s thesis is open to question, it undoubtedly has itsuses for anti-Masonists, particularly those with an Islamic perspective.

El-Amin’sstudy is rational and studied, rather than sensational, and not rabidlyanti-Masonic. He concedes that the purpose of Masonry is to seek truth. Hestates: ‘I have observed through my research that there are some aspects ofFreemasonry that point in the direction of the Islamic destiny’. However, hestops short of pronouncing on the compatibility of Islam and the Craft.Expectedly, he asserts that truth is to be found through the revelations of theProphet Mohammad. In addition, he does take exception to a number of aspects ofFreemasonry from his religious position. He is particularly unhappy with theAmerican ‘Masonic’ order of the Shriners. ‘It should be noted that TheShriner’s ritual and initiation pertaining to the ‘Kissing of the BlackStone’ [an allusion to the Kaaba at Mecca] is ridiculous, offensive anddisgraceful. It is a direct mockery of that solemn tradition in the life ofMuslims.’[viii]

Anotherauthor addresses the ‘problem’ of Masonry ‘mocking the Moslem Faith’.Dr. Paul Rich states:[ix]

Theprohibition of Masonry in the Muslim countries of the Middle East is partlybecause there are aspects of Masonry which religious people feel verge onmocking their faith. An example of Masonic ritual which offends some, and thatshows the gulf between believers and Masons, is the resemblance between theassassination and exhumation of the candidate in the third or Master Masondegree and religious accounts of resurrection. Almost nothing can be said tocorrect their common interpretation of the third degree that the Mason is savedby Freemasonry, and not by religion.

Thestudied work of El-Amin contrasts with widespread sensationalist anti-Masonicpropaganda, much of which the regular Mason would find incredible. An article inthe AmericanNew Solidarity newspaperin 1983 is a case in point. Under the banner heading ‘British Masons Push MidEast Holy Wars’, the author states that ‘The Duke of Kent, controller of theinternational Mafia from his position as Grand Master of Freemasonry, arrivedlast week in Saudi Arabia…(as) the flag-bearer in a widespread effort todestabilise the Middle East.’ As ridiculous as such assertions may be, they donot enhance the image of Masonry amongst the unwitting body of the Islamicworld.[x]

Theoverriding impression of Freemasonry in the Arab world is that of a pro-Zionist,anti-Islamic organisation; involved in conspiracies to undermine theirpolitical-religious status quo. Religious antipathy, based upon the perceptionthat Masonry mocks the Islamic faith, is certainly a relevant factor. However,it can be argued that the larger problem lies in the fact that Arab governments,in looking for someone to blame for their colonized past, saw Freemasonry as aconvenient victim. As a result, Zionism and Freemasonry are largely seen as thesame thing. On the other side, the ‘side of the defence’ if one will, thereis little doubt that indigenous Freemasons in Arab countries have remainedsilent for fear of persecution. It is noteworthy that, officially at least,Islam recognizes and respects both the Jewish and Christian faiths. Thus, whilereligion is a factor, politics would seem to be more so. El-Amin draws a cleardistinction when he states: ‘There is a difference between Arab nationalismand Islam. Arab nationalism oppresses…enslaves…denies women theirrights…is racist. Islam is universal; it is not nationalist.’[xi]

Aproblem for regular, mainstream Freemasonry, even in Western countries, has beenthe anti-clerical and atheistic attitudes of the Grand Orient of France and itsminions. To the uninformed, regular Freemasonry and irregular ‘Freemasonry’are indistinguishable. The Grand Orient of France has historically been veryactive in the Middle East. On 14 September 1877, the Grand Orient voted toeliminate reference to the existence of God from its Constitution, andsubsequently altered its rituals accordingly. As a result, The Grand Orient, asfar as regular Grand Lodges were concerned, ceased to be ‘Masonic’.

Thissplit in Freemasonry into two ‘camps’ was certainly felt in the Middle East.The Grand Orient of Egypt was the mother of several lodges and Grand Lodgesacross the area. Initially widely recognized by other mainstream Grand Lodges,it effectively followed the Grand Orient of France into irregularity. Onesuspects that subsequently it was convenient for Arab governments and Islamicreligious authorities, even if they had the knowledge to differentiate betweenregular and irregular Freemasonry, to tar the Craft with the anti-religiousbrush.

Asthe Egyptian Masonic experience is probably the basis for much of the Islamicantipathy towards the Craft, it is useful to consider Egyptian Masonry in moredepth. The degree to which Freemasonry permeated Egyptian society prior to itsbanning in 1964 is not particularly clear. Gerard Galtier suggests that theCraft, especially the ‘Egyptian’ Order of Memphis and Misraim, enjoyed‘immense success’ among the high society of various nationalities andreligious groups until at least the reign of King Farouk in 1952. Subsequent tothe demise of the Egyptian monarchy, lodges were viewed with considerablesuspicion and began to fade away.[xii]

Afterthe 1956 Suez War, Egypt’s first president, Gamal Nasser, expelled mostresident foreigners, which included many Masons. As a result, lodges lostmembers, and those remaining undoubtedly became very circumspect, given the newregime. According to Galtier, in 1964, after a huge scandal involving theIsraeli master spy Eli Cohen, who reportedly belonged to an Egyptian lodge,‘the Egyptian government banned Freemasonry from Egyptian soil altogether’.[xiii]

Thearticle of Samir Raafat, if nothing else, does reflect the extreme sensitivitywith which Masonry is viewed in the Arab world. In his discourse on Freemasonryin Egypt, particularly during the formative years of the modern Egyptian state,author Karim Wissa, a civil servant in the Egyptian Foreign Affairs Ministry,makes a number of accusations concerning the Craft. In summary, Wissa’shypothesis is that early Egyptian political parties, which served as thebackbone of the country’s 1952 revolutionary movement, were eitherpseudo-Masonic organisations or, at least, highly influenced by Masonicprinciples and ideals. Unlike many other Arabic researchers, Wissa does seem torecognise the difference (‘strong rivalry’, in his terms) between French andBritish Masonic groupings. He noted that the British brand of Freemasonry,regulated in Egypt by the United Grand Lodge of England, was traditionalist instyle, and practiced religious tolerance with no political overtones. The Frenchbrand, regulated by the Grand Orient of France (and to a lesser extent by theOrders of Memphis and Misraim), was definitely ‘anti-clerical’ and‘anti-monarchy’ with extremely political overtones, especially in thespreading of ideals of revolution and republicanism. He asserts, not withoutproof, that this French brand of Masonry infiltrated the Egyptiannewelite – those people who played a prominent part in the revolution tofollow.[xiv]

Ashis evidence, Wissa identifies a wide assortment of important Egyptianpersonalities who were directly involved with Masonic lodges in Egypt prior toits outlawing in 1964. These included several members of the Royal Family, fromIsmail Pasha (known to the West as the ‘Khedive’) to the last monarch ofEgypt, the exiled King Farouk. Wissa also identifies the Masonic affiliations ofEgyptian political leaders such as Ahmad Orabi, who headed the failed coupagainst Tewfik Pasha in 1882, and Mohamad Farid and Saad Zaghloul, who headedthe influential National and Wafd Party which started the popular uprisingagainst British rule in Egypt. After Nasser’s revolution, the tide turnedsharply against the Egyptian Masonry, with the new Order looking upon it withsuspicion, and accusing it, conveniently, of strong Zionist tendencies.[xv]

Itis an interesting aside that, although Masonry is banned in Egypt, the AmericanRosicrucian Order (AMORC)—not to be confused with the Masonic Rosicrucianorder (SRIA in England, SRIS in Scotland)—is tolerated in Egypt today. AMORCdoes possess ritualistic aspects that are imitative of Freemasonry being,arguably, a hybrid of Hermeticism and Gnosticism. Reportedly, it has even beenpermitted to perform its rituals and ceremonies inside ancient Egyptianmonuments, including the Great Pyramid.[xvi]

Giventhe political-religious-social history of the Arab world, it is possible tocomprehend the causes of Arabic-Islamic antipathy towards Freemasonry, asMoslems have been led to understand it (or more correctly, mostly,misunderstandit). If regular Freemasonry is to address the issues and problems involved inthe future, it is necessary that we have this understanding. That said, it isnonetheless difficult to see Islamic anti-Masonic attitudes being arrestedswiftly.

However,there is some hope. The re-introduction of regular Freemasonry into Morocco,with government permission, would seem to indicate that at least in thatcountry, an understanding of the issues has been achieved. However, given theunresolved Arab-Israeli dispute, and the rising tide of religious fundamentalismin the Arab world, it would appear that general Masonic prospects in the Islamicworld do not look widely positive, at least in the short term.

APPENDIX

Anhistorical synopsis of each country in the Arab/Islamic world, which follows,provides a useful background to the subject. They are detailed alphabetically.

Algeria

Theintroduction of Freemasonry into Algeria, a former French colony, goes back to1831 with the creation of the French military lodge ‘Cirrus’ followed bylodge ‘Bélisaire’ and lodge ‘Ismaël’ in 1833. All three were erectedunder the Grand Orient of France. A major step towards the acceptance ofnon-Europeans in colonial Algeria was achieved with the initiation in 1864 ofEmir Abd-el-Kader, who had led the war against the French conquest from 1832 to1847. However, this breakthrough was short-lived and few Muslims subsequentlyjoined Freemasonry in Algeria, evidently because they could generally not sharethe anti-religious views of the Grand Orient of France Masons.

In1939, just before WWII, Algeria possessed eleven lodges under the Grand Lodge ofFrance and twenty-one lodges under the Grand Orient of France, plus a couple oflodges underLe Droit Humain and a lodge of Memphis-Misraïm. After 1945Freemasonry did not regain its former importance and with the independence ofAlgeria in 1963 it disappeared altogether, following the repatriation of mostFrench nationals back to France. Freemasonry is today prohibited.[xvii]

Bahrain

Thisoil-rich Arab State on the Persian Gulf has until relatively recently possessedseveral lodges. Its first lodge was St. Andrew of Bahrain, erected in 1949 underthe Grand Lodge of Scotland. It first met in an aerodrome, and then in a churchhall, prior to building its own temple in the desert. The then Emir of Bahraingave the lodge the land on a ninety-nine year lease at nominal rent. In 1954, StGeorge Bahrain #7389, was founded under the English Constitution. Both lodgeslargely consisted of British oil workers. Plainly, to this point the Bahraingovernment was decidedly not anti-Masonic. However, by the 1970s it had becomeso, and both lodges ceased operations in the country. Why this change occurredis unclear, although the reasons can be surmised. The Scottish lodge wassubsequently erased, while St George Bahrain Lodge moved to Ashford, England,where it continues to meet.[xviii]

Iran(Persia)

Thefate of the Craft in Iran forms the greatest Masonic catastrophe since theSecond World War. The discovery of oil in Persia brought many British workersand traders, a percentage of whom were Masons. Scotland was the most active inissuing warrants, beginning with Lodge Light in Iran #1191 at Shiraz in 1919,which later moved to Teheran. Three other Scottish lodges followed prior toWorld War Two. England weighed in with St George Abadan Lodge #6058 at Abadan in1945. French (GLNF) and German lodges were also erected in the country after theWar.

Subsequently,the growth of the Craft in Iran led to moves to form a Grand Lodge, and this wasachieved with Scottish sponsorship in 1969. By 1978, the Grand Lodge of Iran had43 lodges and 1,035 members. That was the last year of its existence in Iran.The Islamic Revolutionary Government took control of Iran in that year,whereupon the Islamic Revolution Guards immediately raided all Masonic Templesand confiscated the property of all lodges. They reportedly found a list of 700members in the residence of the Grand Master, Ja’afar Sherif Emami, who wasformerly Prime Minister to the Shah. The Islamic Revolution in Iran sawFreemasonry swept away rapidly, and it appears that a number of Masons sufferedexecution at its hands. Whether these deaths were occasioned for political oranti-Masonic reasons will probably never be known, and the fate of many IranianMasons may equally remain a mystery.

ManyIranian Masons, however, escaped to the USA, where they formed the Grand Lodgeof Iran in exile. A reasonable number of American Grand Lodges, in particular,accord fraternal recognition to the Grand Lodge of Iran in exile, whichmaintains an office in California.[xix]

Iraq

Iraq’sfirst lodge, Mesopotamia Lodge #3820 EC, was established in 1917. The firstlodge in Baghdad was Baghdad Lodge #4022 EC, erected in 1919. By the 1950s, Iraqpossessed nine lodges under an English District Grand Lodge. A Scottish lodge,Lodge Faiha #1311, was erected at Baghdad in 1923. However, the coming of Iraqiindependence, and the subsequent left-wing government attained by that country,made the continuance of Masonry impossible. All lodges in the country wereforced to close their doors in 1965.[xx]

Israel

Inthe land of the legendary birthplace of Freemasonry, the Craft has flourished,particularly since the Second World War. The first symbolic lodge (Royal SolomonMother Lodge) was established under charter from the Grand Lodge of Canada about1873. It was comprised mostly of North American Masons who had come to Palestineexpecting to establish an agricultural settlement. Their colony floundered andso did the lodge. However, some of their members then applied to theMisraimRite then active in Egypt, and established Port of Solomon’s Temple Lodgein Jaffa. Shortly afterwards this lodge received a large contingent of Frenchengineers who had come to build the Jaffa–Jerusalem railroad. In 1906 thelodge changed affiliation to the Grand Orient of France and became Barkai Lodge.Today, it meets at Tel Aviv as Barkai #17, within the Grand Lodge of Israel.Lodge Barkai admitted many prominent Turkish, Arabic and Jewish citizens ofJaffa, and later Tel Aviv.

Subsequently,several lodges were established in the Holy Land by the then widely-recognisedNational Grand Lodge of Egypt, which in turn formed themselves into the NationalGrand Lodge of Palestine in 1933. In the years between 1930 and 1940, the UnitedGrand Lodge of England warranted three lodges in the area, and Scotlandchartered eleven in the same period. In addition, German Masons who had fled theNazi tyranny established five German lodges in the 1930s.

In1948, the British mandate over Palestine ended and all English lodges withdrewfrom the Holy Land. A general desire for administrative and fraternal unityamong lodges in what was now the State of Israel was felt at this time. In 1953,the Grand Lodge of the State of Israel came into being, largely under Scottishsponsorship. Its thirty founding lodges consisted of all those in Israel holdingScottish charters, those under the National Grand Lodge of Palestine, and thefive German lodges. Rarely in the formation of a new grand body has suchunanimity of purpose been seen, as it was in Israel, and it has since expandedsteadily.

Theseal of the Grand Lodge of Israel is of particular interest. It is unique indesign and includes the square and compasses, together with the emblems of thethree great faiths to which the great majority of members belong: the Star ofDavid of the Jews, the Crescent of the Muslims, and the Cross of the Christians.

After1948 about 200,000 Arabs remained in the Palestinian sections of what becameIsrael, comprising 20% of the total population. Of the thirty lodges that formedthe Grand Lodge of the State of Israel, ten worked in the Tel Aviv/Jaffa area,five in Jerusalem, four in Haifa and one lodge in Tiberius. Arabic, Hebrew andEnglish were the working languages for most of the lodges. The majority thatworked in Arabic subsequently changed their language to Hebrew. Interestingly,in 1981, Brother Jamil Shalhoub, from Nazareth, was the first Arab who waselected as Grand Master. He was re-elected in 1982.

Presently,four lodges work in Arabic in Israel, as follows: Akko Lodge #36 and HaddarLodge #45 at Acre; Torch Lodge #65 at Jerusalem; and Nazareth Lodge #71 atNazareth.[xxi]

Jordanand the West Bank

Nolodges remained working in the Palestinian territories of West Bank and Gazaafter 1967. After the Oslo Accords of 1996, some members of the Arab ‘OrientLodge’ of Jericho tried to revive lodges to work in Jerusalem, Jericho andNablus, but they were unsuccessful.‎

Jordan,formerly the British protectorate of Trans-Jordan, is an independent Monarchy.It would seem that Jordan, based on its present boundaries, has never possessedmany lodges. The first lodge in Trans-Jordan was Lodge Quraish founded by anEgyptian Freemason in 1923. The lodge subsequently changed its affiliation andname to Lodge Al-Naser (‘Victory’). In 1956 it united with another fourlodges that were working in Palestine prior to 1948 on the West Bank of Jordan,to form Beit Al-Maqdes (Jerusalem) Lodge.

In1956, a Grand Lodge of Jordan was self-constituted, with all its lodges on theWest Bank. The origin of these lodges is obscure. These lodges (now in the areapolitically under the Palestinian National Authority), then numbering five,ceased operation after the annexation of the West Bank by Israel in 1967. Itwould appear the Palestinian lodges were subsequently revived, but ceasedoperation in 1994 in the face of political opposition. In 1995, there wereevidently attempts to revive the West Bank lodges, but the result is unknown,although anecdotal evidence suggests at least some are operating.

Theonly remaining mainstream lodge is Lodge Jordan #1339 SC. The Grand Lodge ofScotland originally chartered it in 1925 at Jaffa (Tel-Aviv), but it moved toAmman in 1952, where it has worked since. Lodge Jordan now has the unhappydistinction of being the only British-warranted lodge still working anywhere inthe Middle East, and effectively the only mainstream lodge operating in thisarea outside Israel and Lebanon. It has had something of a beleaguered history.In very recent years it was forced to close through political pressure. It isagain operating, but understandably keeps a low profile. It works in Arabic,using a Scottish ritual.[xxii]

Kuwait

Anothersmall Arab State bordering the Persian Gulf, oil-rich Kuwait had, untilrecently, two English lodges. These were Kuwait Lodge #6810, and the RowlandChadwick Lodge #7472. The former was erected in 1949, the latter in 1956. Strongopposition from the Kuwait Government saw both these lodges become dormant, andsadly, neither re-appeared on the English Roll of Lodges in 1982. Members ofvarious Prince Hall jurisdictions commenced a Masonic study club in 1999,meeting every Saturday on a US military base, with Masons of all Prince Hall andmainstream jurisdictions welcome to attend. However, as personnel are rotatedevery few months, this does not enhance the club’s chances of longevity.[xxiii]

Lebanon

Lebanonhas an unparalleled Masonic history. It has been the Grand Lodge of Scotlandand, somewhat surprisingly, the Grand Lodge of New York that have beenresponsible for most of the regular lodges located in this country. The firstScottish lodge was formed at Beirut in 1862, working in French. After severaldormant periods, it ceased operation in 1895. Four other Scottish lodges wereerected in Lebanon up until the time of the First World War, but only some ofthese revived thereafter. The Grand Orient of France was next into Lebanon,forming a lodge in 1869, working in Arabic. Two further lodges followed. Nonesurvived the First World War.

Othernew lodges formed before the Great War were a lodge at Beirut under the OttomanGrand Lodge (later the Grand Lodge of Turkey), and a lodge under the NationalGrand Lodge of Egypt, erected about 1914. A number of other Egyptian-warrantedlodges were chartered thereafter, and after the First World War these wereformed into a District Grand Lodge. By the end of World War Two, it would seemthese lodges were extinct, merged, or hived off into various spurious‘Masonic’ bodies. An exception would appear to be a ‘Grand Lodge ofLebanon’, which was founded in 1936, probably descended from Egyptian lodges,which stills exists today, and with relative success.

Untilrecent years, five Scottish lodges had survived in Lebanon, with a few othersbeing less fortunate. The three lodges in Beirut met at the aptly named PeaceLodge Building, in Beshara Street, Beirut. With the arrival of the LebaneseCivil War in 1975, the Scottish lodges found continuance impossible and all fivebecame dormant. The Peace Lodge Building was badly damaged in the war, and hasnot yet been restored.

Thefirst New York-chartered lodge was the Syrio-American Lodge #1, formed in 1924by returning American-Lebanese immigrants. Several further lodges were erectedprior to World War Two, and subsequently. With the exception of one lodgeoriginally erected in Syria, all New York chartered lodges in its Syria-LebanonDistrict (ten in total) have operated in recent times. During the Lebanese CivilWar, most lodges became dormant, although at least Syrio-American lodgecontinued to meet intermittently. Since the cessation of the civil war, onlythree of the five Scottish lodges has re-commenced work, though it is hoped thetwo still remaining dormant will be restored in the future. All the New Yorklodges revived subsequent to the civil war, although some are still experiencingmeeting difficulties. Presently, six of the New York lodges are working, but indue course it is expected that all ten will again be operating. One furthermainstream lodge has been previously chartered in Lebanon. This is FraternitàItalo-Libanse, erected at Jounieh in 1989 under the Grand Orient of Italy.However, it is reported as not meeting currently.

Alarge range of other lodges and Grand Lodges operate in Lebanon. The GrandOrient of France has two lodges in Beirut. Over the years a large number ofspurious and/or self-constituted Grand Lodges have been erected in Lebanon.Aside from the Grand Lodge of Lebanon, already mentioned, others include theLebanese Grand Lodge, the Federal Grand Lodge of Lebanon, the United Grand Lodgefor Lebanon, the United Lebanese Grand Lodge, and about twenty other so-calledMasonic bodies. Many of these ‘Grand Lodges’ have one constituent lodge anda ‘Grand Master for Life’. Not a few sell Masonic degrees for profit. Theexistence of these spurious and disreputable ‘Grand Lodges’ does nothing toenhance the public profile of Masonry in Lebanon, or the wider Arab world.[xxiv]

Morocco

Thisformer French and Spanish colony has an interesting Masonic history. From 1860onwards a small number of ‘colonial-type’ lodges were created, mainly inTangier, under the Grand Orient of France, the Grand Lodge of France, the GrandOrient of Spain, the Grand Lodge of Spain and even the Grand Lodge Lusitania ofPortugal.

In1902, Lodge Coronation #934 was established with a Scottish charter, and in 1927England warranted New Friendship Lodge #4997. These two British lodges startedtheir lives in Tangier, but both soon moved to Gibraltar. New Friendship Lodgelater changed its named to Gibraltar Lodge.

Theperiod between the two World Wars was one of further development of Freemasonryin Morocco, but also one of increasing leftist political and anti-religiousinvolvement of the French Masonic grand bodies. In 1925 a radical member of theGrand Orient of France was appointedResident-General of French Morocco.In 1936 the Fascists took over in Spain, and as a result Freemasonry wasbrutally suppressed in Spanish Morocco.

Subsequentto Moroccan independence in 1956, all Masonic lodges disappeared from publicview from 1958 onwards, as a result of a law banning all ‘foreign inspiredorganizations’. After a difficult period in semi-clandestine operation, theGrand Lodge ‘Atlas’ of Morocco was erected at Casablanca ‘by three lodgesunder the aegis of the Grand Lodge of Switzerland’ on 24 July 1967, threeyears after the first of these lodges was formed.

Itwould seem that the original lodge in Casablanca (erected in 1964) was‘self-constituted’, although its members largely hailed from mainstreamlodges in Switzerland. Swiss Masons sponsored it, but it was not actually placedon the Roll of the Swiss Grand Lodge, it being ‘totally independent ofSwitzerland’. The reason for this is that the Constitution of the Grand Lodge‘Alpina’ of Switzerland does not permit it to charter lodges outsideSwitzerland.

Itwould appear likely that the original ‘self-constituted’ lodge split itselfinto three in order to form a Grand Lodge. It is noteworthy that it was twelvemonths after the Grand Lodge ‘Atlas’ was formed that ‘Alpina’ recognizedit. Had ‘Alpina’ sponsored/constituted ‘Atlas’, it would probably haverecognized it immediately. Given that ‘Atlas’ was, in fact,self-constituted, this would almost certainly explain why it was neverrecognized by any other mainstream Grand Lodge.

Between1971 and 1974, some members under the Grand Lodge ‘Atlas’ broke away inorder to create a rival Grande Loge du Maroc. Subsequently, Moroccan Governmentauthorities became highly suspicious of the assumed leftist anti-religious andanti-royalist activities of Grand Orient Masons and effectively forced allexisting lodges to cease functioning. In would appear that a few remainingMoroccan Masons continued to work although, not surprisingly, little or nothingwas heard of them either inside or outside the country.

Happily,a change has taken place since 1997, with the official constitution of threelodges in Morocco by the Grande Loge Nationale Française (GLNF). The GLNFobtained permission of the Moroccan Government to erect lodges because thisFrench Masonic grand body, the only one generally recognized by mainstream GrandLodges, strictly prohibits political and religious discussion in its lodges. Itis unclear whether any ‘remnant’ Masons from the defunct Grand Lodge‘Atlas’, or Grande Loge du Maroc, became founders of these three lodges.

Thethree GLNF lodges were consecrated on 30 June 1997. These areLoge elAndalouss #1081, which works in Casablanca in both French and English;LogeAhl al Kitab #1082, which works in Rabat in Arabic; andLoge al Hikmat#1083, which works in Marrakech, in both Arabic and French.Thesethree lodges were constituted by the GLNF into the Grand Lodge of the Kingdom ofMorocco (Grande Loge du Royaume du Maroc) on 15 June 2000, in Marrakech.[xxv]

SaudiArabia

Onewould suspect that Saudi Arabia, being a very traditional Islamic Monarchy,would be devoid of Masonic lodges. Indeed, that was the case until 1962, whenthe American Canadian Grand Lodge (within the United Grand Lodges of Germany)erected Arabian Lodge #882. It was followed by four others. All these lodgeswere formed to cater for foreigners in the country, mainly North American andBritish Masons in Saudi Arabia as a result of its oil. However, followingsuccessive crackdowns by the Saudi police, none of these lodges are effectivelyoperating, except as casual fraternal groups.[xxvi]

Syria

TheBritish Counsel to the Ottoman Empire, Sir Alexander Drummond, opened a lodge inAleppo (now in modern Syria) on the 3 February 1748, but it would appear to havebeen short-lived. It has been claimed that Drummond was appointed District GrandMaster (EC) for the Orient in 1747. There are also claims that a Syrian prince,who was initiated in Egypt, introduced Masonry into Syria in the 1860s, butevidence appears scant. The Grand Orients of Italy and France established lodgesat Damascus in Syria (then part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire) in the 1860s, butdetails of both are sparse. The French lodge,Loge le Liban, inparticular, seems to have involved itself in political activities. The Italianand French lodges appear to have to expired by the turn of the century, althoughthere are also suggestions that Egyptian and Turkish-chartered lodges wereworking in Damascus by the time.

Thereis evidence of a lodge being formed in Damascus under the National Grand Lodgeof Egypt in late 1936. This lodge appears to have promptly split itself intothree, whereupon they then formed a Grand Lodge of Syria, under Egyptianpatronage, although it may have only been a District Grand Lodge underEgypt—the available documentation being ambiguous. Either way, theseindigenous lodges seem to have remained active, although they appear to haveremained unrecognised outside the country, until the Craft was banned in Syriaby decree, on 9 August 1965.

Scotlandchartered Lodge Light in Damascus #1058, in 1909; and the Grand Lodge of NewYork had Ibrahim el Khalil Lodge #4, formed in 1924, at the same location, underits District of Syria-Lebanon. Subsequent to the Second World War and SyrianIndependence, as with the unrecognised lodges, these also were closed in 1965.There was no change in this situation in the 1990s.[xxvii]

Tunisia

Freemasonrycame to Tunisia in the 19th century, with a number of lodges being chartered bythe Grand Orient of France. In 1879, eight French lodges formed the Grand Orientof Tunisia, under a warrant from the Grand Orient of Italy. Lodges were stillreported to be working in Tunisia after the Second World War, but they did notsurvive Tunisian independence in 1956 and the subsequent proclamation of Islamas the state religion.

However,in 1998, a lodge was formed in Tunisia under the recently formed Italian‘Grand Lodge of the Union’ (Gran Loggia dell’ Unione). This is LoggiaItalia #16. It meets quarterly at the Oriental Hotel, Tunis. The legal positionof this lodge is unclear.[xxviii]

UnitedArab Emirates

Thisoil-based Persian Gulf country is made up of several small Arab Emirates, whichused to be referred to collectively as Trucial Oman. England erected its firstand only lodge, at Sharjah, in 1967. This was Trucial Lodge #8160, and itlargely serviced Masons who were British oil workers. However, this lodge hadbecome dormant by the early 1980s, and was later erased.[xxix]

Yemen

Yemen,located at the base of the Arabian Peninsula, consisted of two separatecountries, North Yemen and South Yemen, until they were politically united in1990. South Yemen was formerly known simply as ‘Aden’, or more correctly,the British Protectorate of South Arabia. Aden had the honour of receiving thefirst charter for a lodge in the Middle East. The Grand Lodge of Scotlandgranted this in 1850 to Lodge Felix #335. Lodge Centenary #1449, was erectedunder the same authority in 1900. England stepped in with Lodge Light in Arabia#3870, in 1918. This lodge now works at Croydon, England. After World War Two, athird Scottish lodge was established in Aden, Lodge Pioneer #1305. The Scottishlodges ‘went into darkness’, but two of them have since been resurrected asresearch lodges meeting in Scotland. The Independence of South Yemen brought itunder the control of a totalitarian government, which made the conditions forFreemasonry untenable. North Yemen appears to have never had a lodge.[xxx]

OTHERISLAMIC COUNTRIES

Threeother Islamic countries that are not Arabic are also useful to considercomparatively. They are Indonesia, Malaysia and Turkey.

Indonesia

Freemasonryno longer exists in Indonesia, having been banned by the Indonesian Governmentin 1965. England had established a lodge at Sumatra as early as 1765, but itlater expired. By the 1950s, the Grand East of the Netherlands has four lodgesin Sumatra and nineteen in Java. In April 1955, four lodges in Djakarta combinedto form a Grand Lodge (calledTimur Agung Indonesia). President Soekarnodissolvedit in 1965. One Dutch lodge,De Ster in het Oosten#14 (Star ofthe East), dating from 1759, moved back to the Netherlands where it still meetsat Bilthoven. There are occasional reports concerning a Grand Lodge working inIndonesia, but if it does operate, the politics of the country would suggest anundergroundexistence. It is certainly not recognised outside Indonesia by any mainstreamGrand Lodge. That stated, Co-Masonry (Le Droit Humain) still has at leastone lodge in Indonesia, LodgeHermes at Bandung, although there may beothers. Co-Masonry was evidently not banned, as its membership includes women,and thus ‘could not be involved in political activity’.[xxxi]

Malaysia

Malaysiais a South East Asian country consisting of the former British colonies ofMalaya (now East Malaysia), and North Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah, now WestMalaysia). Masonry in this area is controlled by District Grand Lodges underEngland and Scotland. The first lodge in the country then known as Malaya wasestablished at Penang in 1809. This was an English lodge warranted by theAntients,but it subsequently expired. It was not until 1875 that Malaya received a lodgethat was to survive. This was the English lodge, Royal Prince of Wales #1555,which still works happily at Penang. Scotland’s earliest surviving lodge alsoworks at Penang, Lodge Scotia #1003, warranted in 1906. Currently, twenty-nineregular lodges work in the country.

Inrecent decades, the Malaysian Government has taken an interest in the Craftwithin its boundaries. The Government’sSocieties Act requires thatMasonic lodges regularly disclose their membership and certain other details totheRegistrar of Societies. However, this statute does not appear to havebeen directed against Freemasonry in particular, although the Craft has in thepast been discussed in the Malaysian Parliament. Nevertheless, satisfactoryrelations between Craft authorities and the Government have been maintained, andthere appears to be no reason to suspect that this relationship will not becontinued in the future. It is interesting to note that Malaysia does have asubstantial ethnic Chinese minority, and that membership of the Craft is largelydrawn from that quarter, rather than from the Malays who are mostly Moslem.[xxxii]

Turkey

Turkeyis not an Arabic country, but it is people are overwhelmingly Moslem. Thedifference is that, unlike Arabic countries, Islam is not the State religion,thanks to the founder of modern Turkey, Kemal Ataturk, who constructed astrictly secular state.

Thereis documented reference to the existence of lodges in Turkey in 1738. Theselodges appear to have emanated from various European sources. In 1748 SultanMahmud I used the pretext of Pope Clement XII’s Bull, ‘In Eminenti’ (April1738), to ban Freemasonry by royal edict, but the edict was never put intoforce. By the end of the 18th century many lodges were operating and theyflourished after the French Revolution and during Napoleon’s reign. On 15/16June 1826, in order to reform the army, Sultan Mahmud II abolished the corruptmilitary order of the Janissaries in a bloodbath. The Janissaries were mostlymembers of the Bektachi sect, which was also abolished. Freemasonry was closedwith the pretext that it was a kind of ‘Bektachism’ and many Freemasons weresent into exile.

However,the political climate eventually changed, and the Craft was re-introduced duringthe Crimean War, in 1856. In that year an English-warranted lodge, Oriental#988, was formed in Constantinople (later Instanbul), with Lord Bulwer, theBritish Ambassador, as Foundation Master. After an irregular Grand Lodge wascreated by an Irish officer (Captain Atkinson) in the British contingent duringthe Crimean War, the United Grand Lodge of England decided to create its ownDistrict Grand Lodge in the area, with Bulwer as District Grand Master. TheDistrict Grand Lodge was consecrated on the 24 June 1862 in the British Embassy.Ten English lodges were established in Turkey between 1860 and 1870. Ireland,Scotland and several other Grand Lodges/Grand Orients issued charters in Turkeyduring this period. Italy had fourteen lodges, Germany five, France three,Poland two, Spain two, Greece two, Hungary one and Egypt one.[xxxiii]

Theexpansion of the Craft was slow, as various Ottoman Sultans issued edictssuppressing Freemasonry. However, during the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II(1876–1909), the position changed. Abdülhamid favoured Anglo-SaxonFreemasonry, and even donated money towards its balls and charities. On theother hand, he considered Freemasons working under lodges chartered by the GrandOrients of France and Italy to be politically suspect, and he had them closelywatched by his police. His fears were to prove justified. Members of theselodges favoured the overthrow Abdülhamid’s rule and the establishment of aconstitutional monarchy. This ‘politically-active Freemasonry’ achieved itsgoal through the ‘Unity and Progress’ political party, which organized itspolitical and subversive activities in Masonic lodges under the Italian, Frenchand Spanish jurisdictions. In 1908 a constitutional monarchy was declared and acommittee of deputies deposed Abdülhamid, all of whom were Freemasons.

ATurkish Supreme Council had been founded in Istanbul in 1861 by Prince AbdülhalimPasha, brother of the Khedive of Egypt (who was also District Grand Master forEgypt, EC). This Supreme Council became dormant in the 1880s but was revived on3 March 1909 and immediately formed the Grand Lodge of the Ottoman Empire (13July 1909). The new Grand Orient attracted the allegiance of most lodges undernon-British foreign jurisdictions. It initially consisted of fourteen lodgesthen holding French, Italian or Spanish charters. It modelled its constitutionon that of the Grand Orient of France. The Grand Lodge of the Ottoman Empire(later re-named the Grand Orient of Turkey) enjoyed a period of sustainedexpansion, erecting 65 lodges prior to 1935. However, the political climate inTurkey had been deteriorating, and the Grand Orient became dormant in 1935.[xxxiv]

TheTurkish Supreme Council revived in 1948, and controlled Turkish Craft lodgesuntil it divested control to the Grand Lodge of Turkey, founded in 1956 andformed by 29 Craft lodges. The Grand Lodge of Scotland consecrated the ‘new’Grand Lodge in April 1965, and Turkish lodges at this time largely adopted theCraft ritual of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, although still exhibiting aContinental heritage, particularly French. The Grand Lodge also adopted,largely, the rules and regulations of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. The GrandLodge of Turkey was recognised by England and Ireland in 1970, and today enjoysfraternal relations with most mainstream Grand Lodges around the world.

Intotal, the secular nature of the Turkish body politic, combined with itsFreemasonry adopting regularity despite doubtful antecedents, has created a mostsuccessful Masonic establishment.[xxxv]