Matthias Halwarta and Anne A. van Damb
a FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Rome, Italy
b UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands
Halwart, M. & van Dam, A.A. 2006.Development of integrated irrigation and aquaculture in West Africa: theway forward.In M. Halwart& A.A. van Dam, eds.Integrated irrigation andaquaculture in West Africa: concepts, practices and potential,pp. 169–174. Rome, FAO. 181 pp.
Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of critical elements forthe promotion of integrated irrigation-aquaculture (IAA) in West Africa. Itemphasizes that IIA should be interpreted more broadly than merely in terms ofaquaculture in irrigation schemes. Options for integration of fish production(capture fisheries and aquaculture) with production of crops exist in a widerange of environments, from river floodplains and lake basins to inland valleysand irrigation systems. The constraints for development of IIA are differentfor these different environments and also depend on local conditions. Manydetailed constraints for countries in the West Africa region were mentioned inthe preceding chapters. Some key factors for successful adoption of IIA acrossa wide range of environments are reiterated. Participation and empowerment ofthe resource users (farming and fishing communities) in development of newtechnologies is crucial for ensuring relevance and making use of existingknowledge about resource use. Cross-sectoral, multi-disciplinary collaborationis needed to bring together the various agencies involved (water, agriculture,environment, fisheries, etc.) at local, national and regional levels. Improvedknowledge management is needed to ensure the generation, storage and sharing ofknowledge and information on IIA. Innovative ways of working together andmodern information and communication technology should be used to support thisprocess through networking.
Integratedirrigation and aquaculture development potential: a synopsis
The results of various meetings and workshops on IIA(Moehlet al., 2001; FAO/WARDA, 2005) and the contributions in this bookshow the general agreement on the significant potential for developingintegrated aquaculture activities in irrigation networks. This potential shouldbe explored, particularly in irrigated systems dominated by rice production.But why is the technology not spreading like wildfire when it has so muchpotential and so many obvious advantages?
In most studies and reviews, IIA has been interpreted as acombination of aquaculture in irrigation schemes. However, there is a range ofenvironments in which people grow crops or produce fish, and fish productioncan be enhanced in all these environments ranging from floodplains, lake basinsand inland valleys without formal governance arrangements to large-scaleirrigation systems with official management authorities. In between, a varietyof crop production systems can be found, from different forms offlood-recession agriculture in wetlands through rainfed upland agriculture toirrigated crops. Likewise, fish production can range from unregulated capturefisheries, through different forms of management and enhanced fisheries, toaquaculture with fully controlled culture cycles and clearly defined ownershipof stocks. The contributions in this volume show that IIA development effortsshould not be limited to “formal” aquaculture in “formal” irrigation systems. Alot of the potential increases in crop and fish production in West Africa liesin enhancing production from extensive, seasonal wetland agriculture andfisheries. Technologies for enhancing such traditional systems should bedeveloped further, building on valuable local knowledge and incorporatingconcepts from other parts of the world. IIA in this wider sense is a set oftechnologies for integration of fish production into crop production systems.IIA then becomes part of a natural resources management approach in which waterand nutrients are managed wisely for the benefit of the resource users andwithout detrimental effects on the environment.
Many of the constraints that havebeen listed for the various environments are not particular to IIA but ratherto the development of aquaculture and agriculture in general. The recentrecommendations for aquaculture development in sub-Saharan Africa (Moehletal. 2005) are therefore also valid for IIA development. Manyrecommendations for dissemination of integrated agriculture-aquaculture in Asiacontain valid points for IIA development (e.g., Phillipset al., 2001;Prein, 2002). In general, synergies between irrigation and aquaculture shouldbe exploited to the fullest extent so that aquaculture operations can produceas much fish as possible while irrigation also benefits, possibly beyondenhanced water productivity. An approach to fish farming development at theirrigation system level has been proposed, as this will alleviate constraintsthat are inevitably encountered if aquaculture is developed in only oneirrigation system component (Fernando and Halwart, 2000, 2001).
For individual countries, IIAdevelopment requires a sequence of developing a national strategy, identifyinghigh potential areas, identifying suitable production systems, ensuring anadequate number of development participants in a specific zone, and targetingwell-focused participatory extension services to these selected groupsregularly and over a substantial period of time. It also requires efforts in datacollection and documenting successful examples so that suitable technologiescan be scaled up, preferably with the involvement of the early adopters. Adviceand support mechanisms will be needed at local, national and sub-regional orregional levels so that communities and countries can benefit from each other’sknowledge and experience. The recent developments initiated in the Committeefor Inland Fisheries of Africa (CIFA) for the establishment of an organizationfor Africa similar to the Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia-Pacific (NACA)in Asia will be critically important in successful networking.
Specific recommendations for IIA development by keyenvironment (irrigated systems, floodplains, inland valley bottoms) and thetype of constraint/intervention (technical, institutional, economic, social,environmental) have been put forward (FAO/WARDA 2005). It is obvious thattechnical difficulties make up only a small portion of the constraints thathave to be overcome. Much can be done to create an enabling environment for IIAdevelopment particularly on the institutional side, and governments,non-governmental organizations and the private sector should work together inthis direction. The following paragraphs provide an overview of criticalelements that need to be considered in the promotion of IIA based on FAO/WARDA(2005) and contributions in this volume. Three main issues are highlighted,roughly corresponding to the local, national and (sub-)regional levels:locally, the need for participation of targeted communities and support fortheir efforts; at a national level, the need for an integrated, multisectoralapproach; and at a (sub-)regional level, the need for networking and knowledgemanagement.
Participationand institutional support for local development
IIA development should take a participatory approach,involving the target communities who are expected to adopt IIA technology rightfrom the start of the process in identifying promising technologies and culturesystems, developing and adapting technology to local conditions, incorporatinglocal and traditional knowledge into innovative techniques, and disseminatingsuccessful approaches to other prospective adopters. Choosing the right targetgroups is essential. Prevalence of local customs, attitudes to work andinnovations, and ethnic origin are factors that can influence the success anduptake of IIA activities. Understanding and sensitivity to these differencesand their influence on perception of IIA is a prerequisite. Inter-ethnic relationsare equally important and will condition the long-term success of IIA,especially in areas where land is shared by several ethnic groups and rises inland value following the introduction of aquaculture could lead to possibleconflicts.
The potential role of farmers in dissemination of IIAtechnology in West Africa is not completely clear. Farmer-to-farmer trainingcan be inefficient in sub-Sahara Africa because of the long distances travelledand the low number of participants. Conversely, group training was moreappropriate and well received (Harrisonet al. 1994). Extension of IIAshould focus on the groups and systems in high priority areas as identified inthe national aquaculture development strategy. Trainers need to spend aconsiderable amount of time with the farmers, usually at least once a week overa whole season. Also, considerable time is required for farmers/households tobecome familiar with IIA innovations and new land and water managementtechniques. A Farmer Field School curriculum that combines integrated pestmanagement, aquaculture and rice farming is urgently needed.
Organized support for farmers at the local level isextremely important. Multi-stakeholder partnerships, consisting of farmer'sgroups, government agencies (e.g., agricultural and fisheries extension,environmental agencies, research institutes and universities) andnon-governmental organizations should be established to assist farmers indevelopment and adaptation of new approaches. Management committees representingall local water users should be established or strengthened. Extension servicesshould be sufficiently funded, and the technical capacity of all stakeholdersshould be increased with the training of technicians and the strengthening ofproducers’capacity for the organisational, technical and financial managementof IIA activities.
Technically, production technologyis important but the rest of the production chain (fingerling and feedproduction, processing and marketing) and general management aspects shouldalso receive attention. Low-cost systems using locally available materials havemore promise of success than intensive, high-input systems. Extensiveaquaculture in irrigated rice areas of inland valley bottoms is more suitablethan semi-intensive aquaculture in which fish areas are smaller and requiremore inputs (Coulibaly, 2000). Special consideration needs to be given tomarketing issues and prices for fish since rice-fish farmers have lessflexibility about timing of harvest and selling the fish than farmers withponds. Private fingerling production and distribution should be promoted. Wildseed collection and stocking methods for fish to be raised in command areasshould be developed. Farmer Field Schools would consider all aspects ofproduction and post-harvest issues leaving flexibility to incorporatefarmers’needs.
Agricultural extension staff shouldbe trained in aquaculture and in participatory development approaches (Halwart& Gupta, 2004). These ideas are currently put into practice in a regionalTechnical Cooperation Project in Guyana and Suriname with considerable success.The extension support should be delivered by a small and well-trained group ofextension agents. This group would provide the core trainers who will trainothers. The extension approach should be participatory in nature giving specialattention to gender issues as has been done in the Farmer Field Schools whichhave so successfully introduced the concept of Integrated Pest Management toAsian and African farmers.
Integrated,multisectoral, collaborative approach within an IWRM framework
Although the more efficient utilization of scarcewater resources is one of the objectives of IIA development, IIA systems willbe competing with other water uses. IIA development should therefore be part ofan integrated water resources management (IWRM) or integrated watershed orriver-basin management approach and be on the agenda of river and lake basinmanagement authorities. Necessary precautions to limit the negative impacts ofIIA activities and to strengthen environmental protection should be taken.Potential conflicts between different user groups (e.g. irrigation, fishers,drinking water) can only be resolved at high levels. Caution is needed asmultisectoral integration is difficult and requires strong mediation skills. A“sustainable governance” approach to IIA development should beadopted. The governance concept implies the involvement of both public andprivate actors who share an interest in resource management. Apart from theactor level where most of the resource-use problems and conflicts becomevisible, institutional arrangements and structures (organizations involved,laws, agreements etc.) as well as shared norms and principles are important.Research for IIA should focus not only on exploitation of the natural andagricultural resources but must include the context in which the exploitationtakes place (Giampietro, 2003; Kooiman and Bavinck, 2005).
Most of the environments in whichintegrated production of fish and crops take place are multi-functionalecosystems (often wetlands) that serve a variety of sectors and stakeholders.However, they are often subject to uni-sectoral planning and as a result, theirmultiple values are frequently ignored. Fisheries and aquaculture are oftenseparated institutionally, which does not help their integrated development.Many other sectoral agencies are involved, such as environment (wildlife),water and infrastructure departments. Considering aquaculture as a branch ofagriculture could be an initial step towards the more consistent promotion ofintegrated aquaculture and IIA. This should facilitate its integration intoagricultural development programmes linked to irrigation use as well as itspromotion to farmers by agricultural extension agents. This will only bepossible with a strengthening of interdisciplinary collaboration amongstinstitutions and cross-sectoral partnerships encompassing the multipleinterests at stake: water for rice and other crops, irrigation, fish and otheruses. Links should be established with the environment and development sectorsto look for common objectives of environmental protection and povertyeradication. National IIA strategies should be part of agricultural developmentstrategies. Such an integrated approach can also help states to fulfil theirobligations to international conventions such as the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (CBD), the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands or the Code of Conduct forResponsible Fisheries (CCRF). Organizations that are traditionally concernedprimarily with protection of wetlands in relation to waterfowl and migratorybirds are now seeking collaboration with development agencies and try todevelop “wise use” approaches that link the livelihoods of wetlandcommunities to the conservation of ecosystem integrity (see e.g., Ramsar, 2005;Wetlands International, 2005). IIA may facilitate collaboration between wetlandand agricultural sectors and provide opportunities to enhance the direct usevalues of wetlands without destroying their ecological services and functions.
Agriculturalservices should take the lead in implementation but participation shouldinclude other interest groups and the private sector. Rice-fish farmingdevelopment should be included in national rice production strategies (Halwart& Gupta 2004). Such action is supported by the policy recommendations madeto the 61 member countries of the International Rice Commission at its lastsession in Bangkok in 2002, both on enhancing aquatic biodiversity in ricefields as well as the deliberate farming of fish in rice fields (Box 1). Ineach country, a multisectoral entity coordinating the development of IIA shouldbe created. This new entity should be financed from existing resources in theparticipating agencies. Such a body would be instrumental in facilitating theformation of farmer associations and facilitation of credit. Projects onirrigation development and rehabilitation would be screened by this entityensuring that due consideration is given to the various aquaculture systems inthese irrigation systems at the earliest stage, if possible already at theplanning or design phase.
A supportive legal and regulatory framework for IIAdevelopment should be created, including an updating of regulatory texts on themanagement of command areas and a revision of land tenure arrangements.Priority zones of intervention need to be identified based on an inventory ofall resources and infrastructures to identify IIA potential. Target groups needto be identified, in particular rice farmers and beneficiaries from integratedpest management (IPM) programmes in rice farming. Participatory identificationof IIA systems according to the means and characteristics of target groupsshould be initiated or continued. In this context, better acknowledgement oftraditional resource management and enhancement systems is an essentialcomponent of a more appropriate and effective approach to inland fisheries andaquaculture development (COFAD, 2001). The needs for and access to credit forthe adoption of IIA technologies should be evaluated and facilitated,micro-financing schemes should be reviewed to negotiate preferential rates forIIA producers. The local availability of inputs for IIA should be assessed.Introduction of IPM and reduced pesticide use leads to cleaner aquatic environmentsand should be stimulated.
| Box 1. Recommendations of the 20th Session of the International Rice Commission, 23–26 July 2002, to its 61 member countries. |
The FAO's International Rice Commission is the forum where senior policy makers and rice specialists from rice producing countries review their national rice research and development programmes. Its objective is the promotion of national and international action in matters relating to the production, conservation, distribution and consumption of rice. With regard to the presentation on “Recent initiatives on the availability and use of aquatic organisms in rice-based farming” the Commission made the following recommendations:
|
| Source: FAO (2002) |
Knowledge management and networking
A large body ofknowledge and information on IIA is available. Valuable traditional knowledgeabout fish and crop resources and their management is present among theproposed target groups for IIA development (farming and fishing communities).More formal knowledge about fisheries management, aquaculture, agronomy(including irrigation), environmental impact, marketing, processing and otherrelevant fields is available in national institutions (universities, governmentresearch institutes) and in international agencies. A conscious knowledgemanagement approach should be followed to mobilize, store, organize andexchange knowledge on IIA.
The impact of research ondevelopment should be increased. Formulation of research questions should bebased on the identification of problems by stakeholders (resource users/farmersand policy/decision makers) in the field. A better communication betweenresearchers and the “consumers” of knowledge will increase the impactof research on development. At a local level, multi-stakeholder partnershipscan facilitate this process, but it should also be pursued at national andregional levels to ensure rapid dissemination of successful approaches andprevent duplication of research efforts. Highly successful initiatives, such asthe preparation of the resource book on the utilization of different aquaticresources for livelihoods in Asia (IIRRet al., 2001) should be repeatedin Africa. Collaborative and integrative learning approaches should be exploredto achieve more rapid and effective upscaling of stakeholder-driven innovationprocesses. An example are Learning Alliances, a series of linked platforms atcommunity, district and national levels that bring together stakeholders in anarea of common interest, such as IIA (Lundyet al., 2004; Moriartyetal., 2005).IIA development should be periodically evaluated based onparticipatory monitoring programmes in the field. Farmers can be involved inmonitoring of IIA activities. This would help to evaluate in a comprehensiveand inclusive manner the social, economic, environmental and institutionalsustainability of IIA systems.
Networking for information exchangeand harmonization of approaches should be stimulated at all levels ofinvolvement (policy and decision-making, research, extension, inter-sectoral).Existing national and international networks should be used to enhance the flowof IIA information and knowledge. Knowledge of a wide range of systems andenvironments is available from all over the world. Information andcommunication tools should be used to store, organize and mobilize knowledge onIIA.
Need for action
It is high time that the conclusions andrecommendations of the wide range of experts who participated in the IIAWorkshop in Bamako in 2003 and contributed to this volume are now taken up andimplemented. Most countries have the necessary knowledge and otherprerequisites to start with small “seed” activities that can demonstrate topolicy makers and donors that investing into the scaling up of IIA will be awise decision with high returns on the food security and poverty alleviationagendas.
At the same time, there aremechanisms available to assist countries in initiating activities on IIA.Besides the bilateral as well as various multilateral opportunities, theTelefood anti-hunger campaign of the FAO can be approached for small-scaleprojects (FAO, 2005a). Several authors have highlighted the importance of the NationalSpecial Programmes for Food Security. Through projects in over one hundredcountries worldwide the SPFS promotes effective and tangible solutions to theelimination of hunger, undernourishment and poverty (FAO 2005b). The SPFSstrongly promotes national ownership and local empowerment in the countries inwhich it operates, and it is in the countries'best interest if they make IIA apillar of their national agricultural development work. Yet another opportunityis through FAO's Technical Cooperation Programme which supports the FAO MemberNations through small projects which address specific problems in theagriculture, fisheries and forestry sectors (FAO, 2005c).
The successful development of IIAin West Africa will need to take place incorporating various components atlocal, national and regional levels. A regional programme will be necessary tosupport development efforts, and in fact a programme proposal on integratedinland water resources management in drought-prone West African countries throughdevelopment of IAA has been prepared and presented to the Committee for InlandFisheries of Africa (CIFA) at its 11th session in Abuja, Nigeria in October2000. The Committee unanimously endorsed this regional programme (FAO, 2001).Some time has passed, but with the recent advancement of our knowledge on theconcepts, practices and potential of IIA the proposed programme has become evenmore relevant. It is elaborated in detail in the next chapter, for reference,and in the hope that funds can be secured for its timely implementation.
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