Southern Indian kingdoms

Significant, historically attested contact between the north and theTamil regions can be reasonably dated to the Mauryan period. Evidence on the early history of the south consists of the epigraphs of the region, theTamilcankam (sangam) literature, and archaeological data.

Inscriptions in Brahmi (recently read as Tamil Brahmi) date to between the 2nd centurybce and the 4th centuryce. Most of the inscriptions record donations made by royalty or by merchants and artisans to Buddhist and Jain monks. These are useful incorroborating evidence from thecankam literature, a collection of a large number of poems in classical Tamil that, according to tradition, were recited at three assemblies of poets held atMadurai. Included in this literature are the Eight Anthologies (Ettutokai) and Ten Idylls (Pattupattu). The grammatical workTolkappiyam also is said to be of the same period. The literature probably belongs to the same period as the inscriptions, although some scholars suggest an earlier date. The historical authenticity of sections of thecankam literature has been confirmed by archaeological evidence.

Tamilakam, theabode of the Tamils, was defined incankam literature as approximately equivalent to the area south of present-dayChennai (Madras). Tamilakam was divided into 13nadus (districts), of which the region of Madurai was the most important as the core of the Tamil speakers. The three major chiefdoms of Tamilakam were those of thePandya dynasty (Madurai), theCeras (Cheras;Malabar Coast and the hinterland), and theColas (Cholas;Thanjavur and the Kaveri valley), founders of theCola dynasty. The inscriptions of the Pandyas, recording royal grants and other grants made by local citizens, date to the 2nd centurybce. The chiefNedunjeliyan (early 3rd centuryce) is celebrated by the poets of thecankam as the victor in campaigns against the Ceras and the Colas. Cera inscriptions of the 2nd centuryce referring to theIrrumporai clan have been found near Karur (Tiruchchirapalli district), identified with the Korura of Ptolemy.Cankam literature mentions the names of Cera chiefs who have been dated to the 1st centuryce. Among them,Nedunjeral Adan is said to have attacked the Yavana ships and held the Yavana traders to ransom. His sonShenguttuvan, much eulogized in the poems, also is mentioned in thecontext ofGajabahu’s rule inSri Lanka, which can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd centuryce, depending on whether he was the earlier or the later Gajabahu.Karikalan (late 2nd centuryce) is the best known of the early Cola chiefs and was to become almost a kind ofeponymous ancestor to many families of the south claiming Cola descent. The early capital was at Uraiyur, in an area that stretched from theVaigai River in the south to Tondaimandalam in the north. The three chiefdoms were frequently at war; in addition there were often hostilities with Sri Lanka. Mention is also made of the ruler ofTondaimandalam with its capital atKanchipuram. There is also frequent mention of the minor chieftains, theVel, who ruled small areas in many parts of the Tamilcountry. Ultimately all the chiefdoms suffered at the hands of theKalvar, or Kalabras, who came from the border to the north of Tamilakam and were described as evil rulers, but they were overthrown in the 5th centuryce with the rise of theCalukya (Chalukyas) andPallavadynasties.

Cankam literature reflects theindigenous cultural tradition as well as elements of the intrusion of the northern Sanskritic tradition, which by now was beginning to come into contact with these areas, some of which were in the process of change from chiefdoms to kingdoms. In poems praising the chiefs, heroism in raids and gift-giving are hailed as the main virtues. The predominant economy remained pastoral-cum-agrarian, with an increasing emphasis on agriculture. The Tamil poems divide the land into five ecological zones, ortinais. Among the poems that make reference to social stratification, one uses the wordkudi (“group”) to denote caste. Each village had itssabha, or council, for administering local affairs, an institution that was to remain a fixture of village life. Religious observance consisted primarily in conducting sacrifices to various deities, among whom Murugan was preeminent.

Trade with the Yavanas and with the northern parts of the subcontinent provided considerable economic momentum for the southern Indian states. Given the terrain of the peninsula and theagricultural technology of the time, large agrarian-based kingdoms like those of northern India were notfeasible, although the cultivation of rice provided a base for economic change. Inevitably, trade played more than a marginal role, and overseas trade became a major economic activity. Almost as soon as the Roman trade began to decline, the Southeast Asian trade commenced; in subsequent centuries this became the focus of maritime interest.