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Early history

There is no doubt that the single most important power to emerge in the long twilight of theMughal dynasty was theMaratha confederacy. Initially deriving from the westernDeccan, the Marathas were a peasant warrior group that rose to prominence during the rule in that region of the sultans ofBijapur andAhmadnagar. The most important Maratha warrior clan, theBhonsles, had held extensivejāgīrs (land-tax entitlements) under the ʿĀdil Shāhī rulers, and these were consolidated in the course of the 1630s and ’40s, as Bijapur expanded to the south and southwest.Shahji Bhonsle, the first prominent member of the clan, drew substantialrevenues from theKarnataka region, in territories that had once been controlled by the rulers ofMysore and other chiefs who derived from the collapsingVijayanagar kingdom. One of his children,Shivaji Bhonsle, emerged as the most powerful figure in the clan to the west, while Vyamkoji, half-brother of Shivaji, was able to gain control over the Kaveri (Cauvery) River delta and the kingdom ofThanjavur in the 1670s.

Shivaji’s early successes were built on a complex relationship of mixed negotiation and conflict with the ʿĀdil Shāhīs on the one hand and the Mughals on the other. His raids brought him considerable returns and were directed not merely at agrarian resources but also at trade. In 1664 hemounted a celebrated raid on the Gujarat port city ofSurat, at that time the most important of the ports under Mughal control. The next year he signed a treaty with the Mughals, but this soon broke down after a disastrous visit by the Maratha leader toAurangzeb’s court inAgra. Between 1670 and the end of his life (1680), Shivaji devoted his time to a wide-ranging set of expeditions, extending from Thanjavur in the southeast to Khandesh andBerar in the north. This was a portent of things to come, for the mobility of the Marathas was to become legendary in the 18th century.

Rise of thepeshwas

The good fortune of Shivaji did not fall to his son and successor,Sambhaji, who was captured and executed by the Mughals in the late 1680s. His younger brother,Rajaram, who succeeded him, faced with a Mughal army that was now on the ascendant, moved his base into the Tamilcountry, where Shivaji too had earlier kept an interest. He remained in the great fortress ofJinji (earlier the seat of a Nayakadynasty subordinate to Vijayanagar) for eight years in the 1690s, under siege by a Mughal force, and for a time it may have appeared that Maratha power was on the decline. But a recovery was effected in the early 18th century, in somewhat changed circumstances. A particularly important phase in this respect is the reign ofShahu, who succeeded Rajaram in 1708 with some acrimony from his widow, Tara Bai.

Lasting some four decades, to 1749, Shahu’s reign was marked by the ascendancy of a lineage ofCitpavan Brahman ministers, who virtually came to control central authority in the Maratha state, with the Bhonsles reduced to figureheads. Holding the title ofpeshwa (chief minister), the first truly prominent figure of this line isBalaji Vishvanath, who had aided Shahu in his rise to power. Vishvanath and his successor,Baji Rao I (peshwa between 1720 and 1740), managed to bureaucratize the Maratha state to a far greater extent than had been the case under the early Bhonsles. On the one hand, they systematized the practice of tribute gathering from Mughal territories, under the heads ofsardeshmukhi andcauth (the two terms corresponding to the proportion of revenue collected). But, equally, they seem to have consolidated methods ofassessment and collection of land revenue and other taxes, which were derived from the Mughals. Much of the revenue terminology used in the documents of thepeshwa and his subordinates derives from Persian (the language of Mughal administration), which suggests a far greatercontinuity between Mughal and Maratha revenue practice than might have been imagined.

By the close of Shahu’s reign, a complex role had been established for the Marathas. On the one hand, in the territories that they controlled closely, particularly in the Deccan, these years saw the development of sophisticated networks of trade, banking, and finance; the rise of substantial banking houses based atPune, with branches extending into Gujarat, the Ganges River valley, and the south; and an expansion of the agricultural frontier. At the same time, maritime affairs were not totally neglected either, and Balaji Vishvanth took some care tocultivate the Angria clan, which controlled a fleet of vessels based in Kolaba and other centers of the west coast. These ships posed a threat not only to the new English settlement of Bombay (Mumbai) but to the Portuguese atGoa,Bassein, andDaman.

On the other hand, there also emerged a far larger domain of activity away from the original heartland of the Marathas, which was either subjected to raiding or given over to subordinate chiefs. Of these chiefs, the most important were theGaekwads (Gaikwars), theSindhias, and theHolkars. Also, there were branches of the Bhonsle family itself that relocated toKolhapur andNagpur, while the main line remained in the Deccan heartland, atSatara. The Kolhapur linederived from Rajaram and his wife, Tara Bai, who had refused in 1708 to accept Shahu’s rule and who negotiated with some Mughal court factions in a bid to undermine Shahu. The Kolhapur Bhonsles remained in control of a limited territory into the early 19th century, when the raja allied himself with the British against thepeshwas in theMaratha Wars.

Unlike the KolhapurBhonsles and the descendants of Vyamkoji at Thanjavur, both of whom claimed a status equal to that of the Satara raja, the line atNagpur was clearly subordinate to the Satara rulers. A crucial figure from this line isRaghuji Bhonsle (ruled 1727–55), who was responsible for the Maratha incursions onBengal andBihar in the 1740s and early ’50s. The relations of hissuccessors, Janoji, Sabaji, and Mudoji, with thepeshwas and the Satara line were variable, and it is in this sense that these domains can be regarded as only loosely confederated, rather than tightly bound together.

Subordinate Maratha rulers

Other subordinate rulers who emerged under the overarching umbrella provided by the Satara ruler and hispeshwa were equally somewhat opportunistic in their use of politics. TheGaekwads, who came to prominence in the 1720s with the incursions of Damaji and Pilaji Gaekwad into Gujarat, were initially subordinate not only to the Bhonsles but also to the powerful Dabhade family. Their role in this period was largely confined to the collection of thecauth levy, and they consolidated their position by taking advantage of differences between thepeshwa and the Dabhades. The fact that various interests at the Mughal court were at loggerheads with each other also worked to the Gaekwads’ advantage. However, it was only after the death of Shahu, when the power of thepeshwas was furtherenhanced, that the position of the Gaekwads truly improved. By the early 1750s, the rights of the family to an extensive portion of the revenues of Gujarat were recognized by thepeshwa, and anamicable division was arranged. The expulsion of the Mughal governor of the Gujaratsubah (province) from his capital ofAhmedabad in 1752 set the seal on the process. The Gaekwads preferred, however, to establish their capital inBaroda, causing a realignment in the network of trade andconsumption in the area.

The rule ofDamaji (died 1768) at Baroda was followed by a period of some turmoil. The Gaekwads still remained partly dependent on Pune and thepeshwa, especially to intervene in moments of succession crisis. The eventual successor of Damaji,Fateh Singh (ruled 1771–89), did not remain allied to thepeshwa for long, though. Rather, in the late 1770s and early ’80s, he chose to negotiate a settlement with theEnglish East India Company, which eventually led to increased British interference in his affairs. By 1800 the British rather than thepeshwa were the finalarbiters in determining succession among the Gaekwad, who became subordinate rulers under them in the 19th century.

In the mid-18th century a great part of the holdings of the Gaekwads was described in thepeshwa’s correspondence and papers assaranjam (nonhereditary grants to maintain troops), and the ruler himself was termedsaranjamdar, or at timesjāgīrdār. The same was broadly true of theHolkars and Sindhias and also of another relatively minor dynasty of chiefs, the Pawars ofDhar. In the case of the Holkars, the rise in status and wealth was particularly rapid and marked. From petty local power brokers, they emerged by the 1730s into a position in whichMalhar Rao Holkar could be granted a large share of thecauth collection inMalwa, eastern Gujarat, and Khandesh. Within a few years, Malhar Rao consolidated his own principality atIndore, from which his successors controlled important trade routes as well as the crucial trading center ofBurhanpur. After him, control of the dynastic fortunes fell largely to his son’s widow,Ahalya Bai, who ruled from 1765 to 1794 and brought Holkar power to itsapogee. Nevertheless, their success could not equal that of the last great chieftain family, theSindhias, who carved a prominent place for themselves in north Indian politics in the decades following the third battle ofPanipat (1761). Again, like the Holkars, the Sindhias were based largely in central India, first atUjjain, and later (from the last quarter of the 18th century) inGwalior. It was during the long reign ofMahadaji Sindhia, which began after Panipat and continued to 1794, that the family’s fortunes were truly consolidated.

Mahadaji, employing in the 1780s a large number of European mercenaries in his forces, proved an effective and innovative military commander who went beyond the usual Maratha dependence on light cavalry. His power, however, had already grown in the 1770s, when he managed to make substantial inroads into a north India that had been weakened by Afghan attacks. He intervened with some effect in the Mughal court during the reign ofShah ʿĀlam II, who made him the “deputy regent” of his affairs in the mid-1780s. His shadow fell not only across the provinces ofDelhi and Agra but also onRajasthan andGujarat, making him the mostformidable Maratha leader of the era. He causedtrepidation among the personnel of the East India Company and also at Pune, where his relations with the actingpeshwa, Nana Fadnavis, were fraught with tension. Eventually, the momentum generated by Mahadaji could not be maintained by his successor, Daulat Rao Sindhia (ruled 1794–1827), who was defeated by the British and forced under theTreaty of Surji-Arjungaon(1803) to surrender his territories both to the north and to the west.