14 billion-2.6 million BP (Before Present)

13.7 billion BP (Before Present)Universe born in Big Bang

13.7-4.6 billion BPElements heavier than iron created primarily in two ways: rapid collapse and explosion of massivestars at end of their life into supernovas, and slow expansion of second- or third-generationmid-size stars such as Sun at end of their life into red giants; supernovas account for gold,platinum, and most silver, fusion in massive stars and supernovas for copper and nickel, red giants for most tin, fusion in massive stars and supernovas and red giants for zinc

2.6 million BP-3500 BC

6000 BCDiscovery of gold

3500-1200 BC

3500 BCBronze, strong man-made alloy of copper and tin, invented independently in Middle East and FarEast

2500 BC Indo-European speaking peoples begin arriving in Europe from Pontic-Caspian steppe (region northeastof Black Sea and northwest of Caspian Sea corresponding to ancient Scythia and Sarmatia and present-day easternUkraine, Russian Volga and Southern districts, and western Kazakhstan)

2200 BC Mycenaean Greeks, an Indo-European speaking people, begin entering mainland Greece from north,founding cities such as Mycenae, Thebes, and Athens

2000 BC Italic tribes begin arriving in Italy

1200-800 BC

1200-1100 BC BC Dorians (Spartans) immigrate from north into Greek mainland, ending Mycenaean civilization; Sea Peoples, who may have been barbarian mercenary infantry soldiers who rebelled against ruling kingdoms, invade Mediterranean coasts, destroying Hittite Empire and weakening Egyptian Empire; Dorians and Sea Peoples succeed with use of iron weaponry; drought and earthquakes may have created instability that helped the invaders

1100-1000 BC Ionians (Athenians), displaced by Dorians, immigrate into Asia Minor

800-500 BC

610 BC Lydians of Asia Minor invent coinage; shortly afterward it spreads to Greek cities in Asia Minor,then Greek islands, then Greek mainland, then rest of world

600 BC China issues its first coins, cast bronze pieces in shape of farm tools

560 BC Lydians invent bimetallic coinage, issuing coins of pure gold and pure silver

550 BC First coinage minted in mainland Greece, in Athens and Corinth

509 BC Rome replaces monarchy with aristocratic republic

500-330 BC

499-495 BC Unsuccessful Ionian revolt against Persian domination of Greek Asia Minor

490 BC First Persian invasion of Greece; Battle of Marathon

480-479 BCSecond Persian invasion of Greece; Persians defeat Spartans at Thermopylae; Persians occupyAthens; Greeks defeat Persians at Salamis

477 BC Athens-dominated Delian League formed to unite Greece against Persians

449 BC Greeks and Persians make peace, the Peace of Callias

450 BC Sicilian Greeks issue Western world's first bronze coins

443-429 BCPericles is leader of Athens during its Golden Age

431-404 BCAthens fights and loses Peloponnesian War to Sparta, ending its military domination of Greece

395-340 BC Warfare among rival Greek leagues

392 BC Rome begins conquest of Italy, sacking Etruscan city of Veii

338 BC Philip of Macedonia founds League of Corinth, ends autonomy of Greek city states

336-323 BC Alexander the Great's reign; conquers Persian Empire and most of known world east of Greece,spreading Greek culture

330-30 BC

323-148 BCGreek city states remain relatively independent; frequent warfare continues among rival leagues

289 BCRome issues its first coins, crude heavy cast bronzes

280 BCCelts arrive in the Balkans and Asia Minor

264-146 BCRome defeats Carthage in three Punic Wars, establishing dominance in western Mediterranean

250 BCChina introduces its first round coinage, cast in copper with hole in middle; similar coins usedby China until 1912

221 BCChina unites for first time, under Qin (Ch'in) dynasty

215 BCRome introduces denarius, silver coin replacing slightly larger drachm; serves as main Roman coindenomination for 500 years; evolves into French denier and English silver penny and later both English copper pennyand U.S. cent

200-196 BCFirst Roman victories over Greece

168 BC Rome wins Third Macedonian War

148 BC Rome annexes Macedonia, making it Roman province, and begins stripping it of material wealth

146 BC Rome conquers Greece, sacking Corinth and ending Greek independence

88-86 BCAthens joins revolt against Roman rule led by Mithradates the Great of Pontos, Asia Minor, whichends in sack of Athens by Roman general Sulla

64 BCRome annexes Syria

57 BCCaesar conquers Gaul

55 BCCaesar invades Britain

50 BCRome introduces the gold coin aureus

31 BCOctavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra and annexes Egypt, ending Hellenistic Age

27 BC-476 AD

27 BCOctavian becomes Augustus, first Roman emperor

27 BC-180 ADPax Romana, 200-year period of relative peace within Roman Empire, corresponding to pinnacleof Roman influence, ending with death of emperor Marcus Aurelius

9 ADRome loses the Battle of Teutoburg Forest to the Germanic Cherusci tribe, ending its northern expansion

43 ADLondon founded as Roman settlement

70 ADRoman emperor Titus destroys Temple of Jerusalem and sacks the city, leading to the diaspora ofthe Jews to Armenia, Iraq, Iran, Arabia, Egypt, Italy, Spain, and Greece

267 ADGothic tribes (East Germanic tribes who probably originated in southern Sweden) sack Byzantium,Athens, and Corinth

306-337 ADRule of Constantine the Great, first emperor to fully embrace Christianity; moves Roman capital to Byzantium

360 ADBeginning of the intensification of Germanic incursions into Roman territory, with Visigoths,Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians, and Franks increasingly threatening Roman hegemony in the West

360-363 ADReign of Julian the Philosopher, last Roman emperor who tried to restore classical paganism

410 ADRome withdraws from Britain

476 ADRomulus Augustulus, last Western Roman emperor, exiled and replaced by Germanic king Odoacer;traditionally considered end of the Roman Empire, though the Eastern Roman Empire of the Bytantines, with Constantinopleas its capital, would last until 1453

Note: Many of the above dates are approximate and debatable; some early events are commonly accepted theories;division of time into particular ages is partly from a Western perspective. SeeTravelingback in time: Nature's Objects for photos and descriptions of several natural objects that span the eons. SeeAncient Timeline for a more comprehensive timeline.