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Confining Jews in ghettos was not Hitler's brainchild. For centuries, Jews had faced persecution, and were often forced to live in designated areas called ghettos

. The Nazis' ghettos differed, however, in that they were a preliminary step in the annihilation of the Jews, rather than a method to just isolate them from the rest of society. As the war against the Jews progressed, the ghettos became transition areas, used as collection points for deportation to death camps and concentration camps

Hitler incorporated the western part of Poland into Germanyaccording to race doctrine. He intended that Poles were to becomethe slaves of Germany and that the two million Jews therein were tobe concentrated in ghettos in Poland's larger cities. Later thiswould simplify transport to the death camps. Nazi occupationauthorities officially told the story that Jews were naturalcarriers of all types of diseases, especially typhus, and that itwas necessary to isolate Jews from the Polish community. Jewishneighborhoods thus were transformed into prisons. The five major ghettos were located in Warsaw

, Lódz, Kraków,Lublin, and Lvov.

On November 23, 1939 General Governor Hans Frank issued an ordinance thatJews ten years of age and older living in the General Government had to wear the Star of Davidon armbands or pinned to the chest or back. This madethe identification of Jews easier when the Nazis began issuing orders establishing ghettos.

Eight images show different ways that Jews were segregatedfrom the rest of society.

In total, the Nazis established 356 ghettos in Poland, the Soviet Union,the Baltic States, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Hungary between 1939 and1945. There was no uniformity to these ghettos. The ghettos in small townswere generally not sealed off, which was often a temporary measure useduntil the residents could be sent to bigger ghettos.

Larger cities had closed ghettos, with brick or stone walls, wooden fences,and barbed wire defining the boundaries. Guards were placed strategicallyat gateways and other boundary openings. Jews were not allowed to leave theso-called "Jewish residential districts," under penalty of death.

All ghettos had the most appalling, inhuman living conditions.The smallest ghetto housed approximately 3,000 people. Warsaw, thelargest ghetto, held 400,000 people. Lódz, the second largest, held about 160,000.Other Polish cities with large Jewish ghettos included Bialystok,Czestochowa, Kielce, Kraków, Lublin, Lvóv, Radom, and Vilna.

Many of the ghetto dwellers were from the local area. Others were fromneighboring villages. In October 1941, general deportations began fromGermany to major ghettos in Poland and further east. Also, Jews fromAustria and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia were sent to the ghettos.

Ghetto life was wretched. The ghettos were filthy, with poor sanitation. Extremeovercrowding forced many people to share a room. Disease was rampant.Staying warm was difficult during bitter cold winters without adequate warmclothes and heating fuel. Food was in such short supply that manyslowly starved to death.

Additional notes on ghetto nutrition including examples of daily caloric rations.

Even in the midst of these horrible conditions, many ghetto dwellersresisted dehumanization. Parents continued to educate their children,although it was considered an illegal activity. Some residents secretly continuedto hold religious services and observe Jewish holidays.

The Nazis established the Theresienstadt (or Terezín) ghetto in northwestern Czechoslovakia as a so-called model Jewish settlement tocounter rumors in the international community about the poor conditions inthe ghettos. Flower gardens, cafés, and schools were constructed todemonstrate to visiting International Red Cross inspectors and audiences ofNazi propaganda films the humane conditions of a "typical" ghetto. Terezínalso functioned as a transit camp for many who were later sent to Auschwitzor other death camps.

Visit the Janusz Korczak site to learn more about the teacher who resisted by carrying on his work in an orphanage in the Warsaw Ghetto.

More information aboutTerezín, before, during, and after the war, is available at this Web site.

Photographs, maps, and an article about the Theresienstadt ghetto.

The story of Valie Borsky who spent four years in Theresienstadt.

Scenes of Warsaw ghetto life including arrival of inmates, the Jewish police, and the walls.

Scenes of Warsaw ghetto life including crowded streets, forced labor, smuggling, and homeless children.

Images of life in other Polish ghettos outside of Warsaw including a marketplace, an execution, and a ghetto newspaper.

Artworks by four ghetto artists.

Many photographs of life (and death) in the ghettos.

A history of the Vilna ghetto including maps, documents, and many photographs.

"The Cultural Life of the Vilna Ghetto" by Solon Beinfeld.

Photographs, documents, maps and an extensive article about the Lodz ghetto.

Photographs, maps and an article about the Lvov ghetto.

Read a translation ofKovno Ghetto Diary by Dmitri Gelpernus.

The Nazis undertook to liquidate the ghettos as they began full implementation of "The Final Solution to the Jewish Question"in 1942. Massive deportations of Jews to concentration and death camps continued until the summer of 1944. By that time, almost all of the ghettos had been liquidated.

Interactive quiz on the ghettos.

Lesson plans, discussion questions, term paper topics, reproducible handouts, and other resources for teaching about the ghettos are available here.

A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust

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