It was a whole day's journey from I-ch'eng to Chü-wo which, in turn, is about 60li east of Chiang Chou — one of the most important cities in southern Shansi and a center for curio-dealers.
1999 [1994], Zou Heng (邹衡), “The Early Jin State Capital Discovered: a Personal Account”, in Roderick Whitfield,Wang Tao, transl.,Exploring China's Past: New Discoveries and Studies in Archaeology and Art[3], Saffron Books, Eastern Art Publishing,→ISBN,→OCLC,page106:
In 1979, while we were conducting our archaeological work in Yucheng and Quwo, Shanxi province, I noticed another historical record in theKuodizhi (a comprehensive account of geography written in 641), which stated that "the ancient city of Tang was 20li west of Yuchengxian in Jiangzhou."
2000,Chen Shui-Bian, “Learning and Transformation”, in David J. Toman, transl.,The Son of Taiwan: The Life of Chen Shui-Bian and His Dreams for Taiwan[4], Taiwan Publishing Co., Ltd.,→ISBN,→OCLC,page40:
The two gods who accompany Matsu, one with eyes that can see 1000li⁶ and the other with ears that can hear far over the horizon, represent empathy, observation, and feeling. Government should be like Matsu, equipped with acute powers of observation; see clearly to the bottom of issues, and know how to respond.
For more quotations using this term, seeCitations:li.
While scaling the Laoyeling Mountains, the Chinese Worker-Peasant Red Army, under the command of Mao Ze-dong and Zhu De, was successfully stepping up the historic 25 000-li Long March in China proper, breaking through the surrounding rings formed by Chiang Kai-shek’s army.
Orel suggests fromSouth Slavic, compareSerbo-Croatianlȉh(“exclusive”),lȋh(“false, odd”),Slovenelȋh(“uneven, odd”).[1] However, generally thought to be fromAncient Greekεὐλογία(eulogía) "blessing", with a euphemistic sense development.[2][3] Compare e.g. the euphemistic synonym "e lume" (the happy/blessed one)[4]
^Eqrem Çabej, Studime etimologjike në fushë të shqipes, Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë, Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i Letërsisë, 1996, page 168
^Eqrem Çabej, Studime Filologjike, Akademia e Shkencave e RPSSH, Instituti i Gjuhësisë dje i Letërsisë., 1990, page 99
^Eqrem Çabej, Studime gjuhësore: Nga historia e gjuhës shqipe, Rilindja, 1977, page 22
Li is traditionally used as both a masculine and a gender-neutral pronoun, but since the 1970s generic usage has sometimes been criticized and is increasingly being avoided and replaced by "ĝi" and or "oni" and or "li aŭ ŝi". Some people (reformists) think this is an imperfect solution which is inappropriately long. In response to such criticisms, there have been various proposals for new pronouns, but the only proposal that has been gaining some adoption isri.
As an unstressed clitic, it does not triggersyntactic gemination of the following consonant. It also actively blocks syntactic gemination of its initial consonant, such as after a word likeperò(“but”) that would normally trigger syntactic gemination. (This does not apply to the enclitic form-li, e.g.dalliame(“give them to me”).)
Grammatically third person forms used semantically in the second person as a formal or polite way of addressing someone (with the first letter frequently capitalised as a sign of respect, and to distinguish them from third person subjects). Unlike the singular forms, the plural forms are mostly antiquated terms of formal address in the modern language, and second person plural pronouns are almost always used instead.
6
Also used as indefinite pronoun meaning “one”, and to form the passive.
7
Formal (capitalisation optional); in many regions, can refer to just one person (compare with Frenchvous).
8
Traditional grammars still indicate the formsegli (animate),ella (animate),esso (inanimate),essa (inanimate),essi,esse as the nominative forms of the third person pronouns; outside of very formal or archaizing contexts, all such forms have been replaced by the obliqueslui,lei,loro.
9
Forms used when followed by a third-person direct object proclitic (lo,la,li,le, orne).
10
Used after verbs.
11
Unstressed forms, stand alone forms are found proclitically (except dativeloro /Loro), others enclitically (-mi,-ti, etc.).
12
Disjunctive, emphatic oblique forms used as direct objects placed after verbs, in exclamations, along prepositions (prepositional) and some adverbs (come,quanto, etc.); also used witha to create alternative emphatic dative forms.
(archaic or dialectal)the(masculine plural definite article),sometimes untranslated, depending on context
1300s–1310s,Dante Alighieri, “Canto I”, inInferno [Hell], lines67–69; republished asGiorgio Petrocchi, editor,La Commedia secondo l'antica vulgata [The Commedia according to the ancient vulgate], 2nd revised edition, Florence:publ.Le Lettere,1994:
Rispuosemi: "Non omo, omo già fui, / eli parenti miei furon lombardi, / mantoani per patrïa ambedui.
He[Virgil] replied to me: "Not a man; I once was a man, and my parents were Lombard, both of them Mantuan by country.["]
(literally, “He answered me: "Not a man, a man I already was, andthe parents of mine were Lombard, Mantuan by country both.”)
1350s, anonymous author, “De papa Benedetto e dello tetto de Santo Pietro de Roma lo quale fu renovato [About pope Benedict, and about the roof of Saint Peter in Rome, which was renovated]” (chapter 7), inCronica [Chronicle][6] (overall work in Old Italian); republished as Giuseppe Porta, editor,Anonimo romano - Cronica, Adelphi,1979,→ISBN:
Allora mutao favella lo papa e disse: «E conveose allo abbate dello venerabile monistero de Santo Pavolo essere buffone? Va’ perli fatti tuoi!»(Romanesco)
Then the pope changed his tone, and said: "And is it appropriate for the abbot of the venerable monastery of Saint Paul to be a buffoon? Get out of here!"
(literally, “Then changed speech the pope and said: "And it is appropriate for the abbot of the venerable monastery of Saint Paul to be a buffoon? Go aboutthe business of yours!"”)
1350s, anonymous author, “De papa Benedetto e dello tetto de Santo Pietro de Roma lo quale fu renovato [About pope Benedict, and about the roof of Saint Peter in Rome, which was renovated]” (chapter 7), inCronica [Chronicle][7] (overall work in Old Italian); republished as Giuseppe Porta, editor,Anonimo romano - Cronica, Adelphi,1979,→ISBN:
E·lla soa paura non potéo nasconnere, ca subitamente la mesa della varvali deventao canuta.(Romanesco)
And he was unable to hide his fear, for half of his beard immediately turned white
(literally, “And the fear of his he could not hide, because immediately the half of the beardto him became white.”)
(Thisetymology is missing or incomplete. Please add to it, or discuss it at theEtymology scriptorium. Particularly: “May be unrelated to French "il" or "lui".”)
FromArabicاَلَّذِي(allaḏī,relative pronoun). Compare common dialectalArabicاللي(illi, lli). The use as a conjunction is widely found in Maghrebi Arabic, so there is no reason to consider it a Romance influence (as might otherwise be thought; compareItalianche, which is both a relative pronoun and the conjunction “that”).
Unlike standard Arabic, the relative pronoun is normally used also with indefinite referents (example sentence 2). However, it is optional in this case.
Transcriptions of Mandarin into the Latin script often do not distinguish between the criticaltonal differences employed in the Mandarin language, using words such as this one without indication of tone.
In most cases, "li" refers toon rather thanin. The more south it goes the more the sense becomes much more extensive; inCentral Kurdish encapsulatingfrom, on, in, over, etc. as a whole. Around more Northern dialects,(li) ser ("on top") is used to meanon and in those regions "li" especially has the meaning ofin, often times replacingdi in "di ... de" ("in, inside"), compareli ... de.
"li" can be added pretty much before any preposition exceptdi,ji,bi; as inli ber,li pêş,li dijî,li hember, etc., all of which can be used without theli.
FromLatinillī(“those”). The use for the nominative singular is due to a Vulgar Latin alteration ofille under the influence of the pronounquī(“who, which”). The same influence (through the dativecui) also explains the Vulgar Latin forms mentioned in etymology 2 below.Doublet ofil(“he”).
Either directly fromLatinillī, dative singular ofille(“that one”), or from reduction of Old Frenchlui,lei, themselves fromVulgar Latin*illui, *illei. This depends on whether the innovative forms had replacedillī entirely in Gaul or whether they existed side by side with it. CompareItaliangli,Spanishle,Portugueselhe.
1939 [end of the 14th century], Ryszard Ganszyniec, Witold Taszycki, Stefan Kubica, Ludwik Bernacki, editors,Psałterz florjański łacińsko-polsko-niemiecki [Sankt Florian Psalter]scantransliteration,transcription, numbers72, 11,Krakow: Zakład Narodowy imienia Ossolińskich, z zasiłkiem Sejmu Śląskiego [The Ossoliński National Institute: with the benefit of the Silesian Parliament]:
Kaco bog we y iestli wedzene (si est scientia) na wysocosci?
[Kako Bog wie? I jestli wiedzenie (si est scientia) na wysokości?]
1959 [1395], Henryk Kowalewicz, Władysław Kuraszkiewicz, editors,Wielkopolskie roty sądowe XIV-XV wieku, Roty poznańskie, volume I, number187,Poznań:
Kedi w wogewodi bili, tedi go szø pitali, moszeli goscza dafnoszcø sbicz
[Kiedy u wojewody byli, tedy go się pytali, możeli gościa dawnością zbyć]
Opatrzicze... lvd, genze bydli w nyey, gestli silni, czili mdli, iestli mali, czili wyeliki (considerate... et populum, qui habitator est eius, utrum fortis sit, an infirmus, si pauci numero, an plures)
[Opatrzycie... lud, jenże bydli w niej, jestli silny czyli mdły, jestli mały czyli wieliki (considerate... et populum, qui habitator est eius, utrum fortis sit, an infirmus, si pauci numero, an plures)]
1861 [1427],Pismo poświęcone naukom, sztukom i przemysłowi[16], volume III, Biblioteka Warszawska, page40:
Szescz czlowyekow ranyono, o pyancz gich mowyą tim rasem, szostego *wygmugyo, czso leszy we szmyertnich ranach, bo nye wem, bądzeli szyw, abo umrze
[Sześć człowiekow raniono, a pięć jich mowią tym razem, szostego wyjmują, cso leży we śmiertnych ranach, bo nie wiem, będzieli żyw, abo umrze]
1939 [end of the 14th century], Ryszard Ganszyniec, Witold Taszycki, Stefan Kubica, Ludwik Bernacki, editors,Psałterz florjański łacińsko-polsko-niemiecki [Sankt Florian Psalter]scantransliteration,transcription, numbers129, 3,Krakow: Zakład Narodowy imienia Ossolińskich, z zasiłkiem Sejmu Śląskiego [The Ossoliński National Institute: with the benefit of the Silesian Parliament]:
Bødzeszly lychoty chowacz (si iniquitates observaveris), pane, pane, kto sczyrzpy?
[Będzieszli lichoty chować (si iniquitates observaveris), Panie, Panie, kto ścirzpi?]
Ktoricole... zaklad weszmye..., tho gest konye abo gynsze bydlo..., nye mayą... dzelicz myedzy sobą, ale gestly zymye (si autem hiemali), tedy za tydzen, a gestly lecze (si fuerit in aestivo tempore), tedy za dwie nyedzeli mayą bycz chowany
[Ktorykole... zakład weźmie..., to jest konie abo jinsze bydło..., nie mają... dzielić miedzy sobą, ale jestli zimie (si autem hiemali, Sul 22: paknięli zimie), tedy za tydzień, a jestli lecie (si fuerit in aestivo tempore), tedy za dwie niedzieli mają być chowany]
Boryś, Wiesław (2005), “li”, inSłownik etymologiczny języka polskiego (in Polish), Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie,→ISBN
Bańkowski, Andrzej (2000), “li”, inEtymologiczny słownik języka polskiego [Etymological Dictionary of the Polish Language] (in Polish)
B. Sieradzka-Baziur,Ewa Deptuchowa, Joanna Duska, Mariusz Frodyma, Beata Hejmo, Dorota Janeczko, Katarzyna Jasińska, Krystyna Kajtoch, Joanna Kozioł, Marian Kucała, Dorota Mika, Gabriela Niemiec, Urszula Poprawska, Elżbieta Supranowicz, Ludwika Szelachowska-Winiarzowa, Zofia Wanicowa, Piotr Szpor, Bartłomiej Borek, editors (2011–2015), “li”, inSłownik pojęciowy języka staropolskiego [Conceptual Dictionary of Old Polish] (in Polish), Kraków:IJP PAN,→ISBN
pokušašli me napasti, ja ću ti uzvratiti ―should you try to attack me, I'll strike you back (when "li" is used in this sense, it is usually translated as a subjunctive form "should", and when "ako" is used, it is usually translated as "if" -ako me pokušaš napasti =if you try to attack me)
used as an emphatic intensifier
a sn(ij)eg padali pada ―the snow just keeps falling and falling...
d(ij)ete plačeli plače ―the child just keeps crying and crying...
This article is nowadays an obsolete variant, unlike its illiquid counterparti. It is currently used only in some restricted areas where it is still withheld in conversational communications.
Today it is mostly used in crystallized contexts, such as singing, poetry or sayings and proverbs. In all these cases this definite article is more euphonetic than the variants, now predominant, which have undergone the lenition of the initial liquid consonant.
Its use is however almost undisputed before nouns (or nominalized forms of other parts of speech, most often adjectives) that begin with vowels. In this case the form is an apocopicl'. Otherwise, illiquid definite articles are phonetically absorbed by the following noun. I.e:l'arancini (liquid) andârancini (illiquid).
This pronoun is now an obsolete variant. It is currently used only in some restricted areas where it is still withheld in conversational communications.
Today it is mostly used in crystallized contexts, such as singing, poetry or sayings and proverbs. In all these cases this definite article is more euphonetic than the variants, now predominant, which have undergone the lenition of the initial liquid consonant.
Its use is however almost undisputed before words that begin with vowels. In this case the form is an apocopicl'.
In the present tense,-li was only used with locatives. In other cases, no copula was used. (The focus particleni could appear, and later turned into a copula due to such use.) In other tenses,-li was used both with locatives and with other complements.[2]
2008,Ekitabu Ekirukwera N'Ebitabu Ebyeetwa Deturokanoniko/Apokurifa [Bible in Runyoro/Rutooro Interconfessional Translation], Bible Society of Uganda,Okubanza4:9:
Since this is a defective verb, it does not have many conjugations, and the remaining conjugations needed are constructed using-ba as an auxiliary verb. For example, the 1st person singular negative remote past of-li isnkabantali(literally,“I was not being”).
This verb removes the augment of the noun after it (e.g.ndimanzi, not*ndi emanzi "I am a courageous person").
The 3rd person singular present and 3rd person plural present forms are usually only used after a locative class or a place name. In other cases, the noun is almost always left augmentless (e.g.muntu "he/she is a person").
Kaji, Shigeki (2007),A Rutooro Vocabulary[20], Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA),→ISBN, pages313-315, 409
