Originating from Zoroaster's reforms of theancient Iranian religion, Zoroastrianism began during theAvestan period (possibly as early as the 2nd millennium BCE), but was first recorded in the mid-6th century BCE. For the following millennium, it was the official religion of successive Iranian polities, beginning with theAchaemenid Empire, which formalized and institutionalized many of its tenets and rituals, and ending with theSasanian Empire, which revitalized the faith and standardized its teachings.[8] In the 7th century CE, therise of Islam and the ensuingMuslim conquest of Iran marked the beginning of the decline of Zoroastrianism. Thepersecution of Zoroastrians by theearly Muslims in the nascentRashidun Caliphate prompted much of the community to migrate to theIndian subcontinent, where they were granted asylum and became the progenitors of today'sParsis. Once numbering in the millions, the world's total Zoroastrian population is estimated to comprisebetween 100,000 and 200,000 people as of 2024. Most Zoroastrians reside either inIndia (50,000–60,000), inIran (15,000–25,000), or inNorth America (22,000). The religion is thought to be declining due to restrictions on conversion, strictendogamy, and low birth rates.[9]
The central beliefs and practices of Zoroastrianism are contained in the Avesta, a compendium of sacred texts assembled over several centuries. Its oldest and most central component are theGathas, purported to be the direct teachings of Zoroaster and his account of conversations with Ahura Mazda. These writings are part of a major section of theAvesta called theYasna, which forms the core of Zoroastrian liturgy. Zoroaster's religious philosophy divided the early Iranian gods ofProto-Indo-Iranian paganism into emanations of the natural world—theahura and thedaeva; the former class consisting of divinities to be revered and the latter class consisting of divinities to be rejected and condemned. Zoroaster proclaimed that Ahura Mazda was the supreme creator and sustaining force of the universe, working ingētīg (the visible material realm) andmēnōg (the invisible spiritual and mental realm) through theAmesha Spenta, a class of seven divine entities that represent variousaspects of the universe and the highest moral good. Emanating from Ahura Mazda is Spenta Mainyu (the Holy or Bountiful Spirit), the source of life and goodness,[10] which is opposed by Angra Mainyu (the Destructive or Opposing Spirit), who is born fromAka Manah (evil thought). Angra Mainyu was further developed byMiddle Persian literature into Ahriman (𐭠𐭧𐭫𐭬𐭭𐭩), Ahura Mazda's direct adversary.
Zoroastrian doctrine holds that, within this cosmic dichotomy, human beings have the choice betweenAsha (truth, cosmic order), the principle of righteousness or "rightness" that is promoted and embodied by Ahura Mazda, andDruj (falsehood, deceit), the essential nature of Angra Mainyu that expresses itself as greed, wrath, and envy.[11] Thus, the central moral precepts of the religion are good thoughts (hwnata), good words (hakhta), and good deeds (hvarshta), which are recited in many prayers and ceremonies.[5][12][13] Many of the practices and beliefs of ancient Iranian religion can still be seen in Zoroastrianism, such as reverence for nature and its elements, such as water (aban). Fire (atar) is held by Zoroastrians to be particularly sacred as a symbol of Ahura Mazda himself, serving as a focal point of many ceremonies and rituals, and serving as the basis for Zoroastrian places of worship, which are known asfire temples.
Etymology
The nameZoroaster (Ζωροάστηρ) is aGreek rendering of theAvestan nameZarathustra. He is known asZartosht andZardosht inPersian andZaratosht inGujarati.[14] The Zoroastrian name of the religion isMazdayasna, which combinesMazda- with the Avestan wordyasna, meaning "worship, devotion".[15] InEnglish, an adherent of the faith is commonly called a Zoroastrian or a Zarathustrian. An older expression still used today isBehdin, meaning "of the good religion", deriving frombeh < Middle Persianweh 'good' +din < Middle Persiandēn < Avestandaēnā".[16] In the Zoroastrianliturgy, this term is used as a title for a lay individual who has been formally inducted into the religion in aNavjote ceremony, in contrast to the priestly titles ofosta,osti,ervad (hirbod),mobed anddastur.[17]
The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in English scholarship is attributed toThomas Browne (1605–1682), who briefly refers to Zoroaster in his 1643Religio Medici.[18] The termMazdaism (/ˈmæzdə.ɪzəm/) is an alternative form in English used as well for the faith, takingMazda- from the nameAhura Mazda and adding the suffix-ism to suggest a belief system.[19]
The theological category of Zoroastrianism is hard to define. The reasons are the difficulties in assigning precise dates to the principle texts and the fact that many contain much older material. Furthermore, Zorastrianism shaped only slowly over time and was not complete even by the time of theMuslim conquest of Persia. Polytheistic, monotheistic, and dualistic strands can be identified in the wider Zorastrian tradition, with dualism being the dominant tendency. The major difference toManichaeism lies in the insistence of good in the creation account.[20]
Some scholars believe Zoroastrianism started as an Indo-Iranian polytheistic religion: according to Yujin Nagasawa,like the rest of the Zoroastrian texts, the OldAvesta does not teach monotheism.[21] By contrast, Md. Sayem characterizes Zoroastrianism as being one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world.[22]
Zoroastrians treatAhura Mazda as the supreme god, but believe in lesser divinities known as Yazatas, who share some similarities with theangels in Abrahamic religions.[23] Theseyazatas ("good agents") includeAnahita,Sraosha,Mithra,Rashnu, andTishtrya. HistorianRichard Foltz has put forth evidence thatIranians of pre-Islamic era worshipped all these figures; especially the godsMithra andAnahita.[24]Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, anda dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos.[3]
Brian Arthur Brown states that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief inone god, two gods, or a best god henotheism.[25]
Economist Mario Ferrero suggests that Zoroastrianism transitioned from polytheism to monotheism due to political and economic pressures.[26]
In the 19th century, through contact with Western academics and missionaries, Zoroastrianism experienced a massive theological change that still affects it today. TheRev. John Wilson led various missionary campaigns in India against the Parsi community, disparaging the Parsis for their "dualism" and "polytheism" and as having unnecessary rituals while declaring the Avesta to not be "divinely inspired". This caused mass dismay in the relatively uneducated Parsi community, which blamed its priests and led to some conversions towardsChristianity.[citation needed]
The arrival of the German orientalist and philologistMartin Haug led to a rallied defense of the faith through Haug's reinterpretation of the Avesta through Christianized and European orientalist lens. Haug postulated that Zoroastrianism was solely monotheistic with all other divinities reduced to the status of angels while Ahura Mazda became both omnipotent and the source of evil as well as good. Haug's thinking was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory, and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine (though being re-evaluated in modern Zoroastrianism and academia).[27] It has been argued by Almut Hintze that this designation of monotheism is not wholly perfect and that Zoroastrianism instead has its "own form of monotheism" which combines elements of dualism and polytheism.[28]Farhang Mehr asserts that Zoroastrianism is principally monotheistic with some dualistic elements.[29]
Lenorant and Chevallier assert that Zoroastrianism's concept of divinity covers both being and mind asimmanent entities, describing Zoroastrianism as having a belief in an immanent self-creating universe with consciousness as its special attribute, thereby putting Zoroastrianism in thepantheistic fold sharing its origin withIndian Hinduism.[30][31]
Nature of the divine
Zoroastrianism contains multiple classes of divine beings, who are typically organised into tiers and spheres of influence.[citation needed]
TheAhura are a class of divine beingsinherited by Zoroastrianism from the prehistoric Indo-Iranian religion. In theRig Veda,asura denotes the "older gods", such as the "Father Asura",Varuna, andMitra, who originally ruled over the primeval undifferentiated Chaos.[32]
Ahura Mazda, also known as Oromasdes, Ohrmazd, Ormazd, Ormusd, Hoormazd, Harzoo, Hormazd, Hormaz and Hurmz, is thecreator deity and the supreme god in Zoroastrianism.Ahura Mazda stands for the dual deityMitrāˊ-Váruṇā of theHindu holy book known as theRigveda.[32]
According to scholars, Ahura Mazda is an uncreated, omniscient, omnipotent and benevolent God who has created the spiritual and material existences out of infinite light, and maintains the cosmic law of Asha. He is the first and most invoked spirit inYasna, and is unrivaled, has no equals and presides over all creation.[33] In Avesta, Ahura Mazda is the only true God, and the representation of goodness, light, and truth. He is in conflict with the evil spirit Angra Mainyu, the representation of evil, darkness, and deceit. Angru Mainyu's goal is to tempt humans away from Ahura Mazda. Notably, Angra Mainyu is not a creation of Ahura Mazda but an independent entity.[34] The belief in Ahura Mazda, the "Lord of Wisdom" who is considered an all-encompassing Deity and the only existing one, is the foundation of Zoroastrianism.[35]
Mitra, also calledMithra, was originally an Indo-Iranian god ofcovenant, agreement, treaty, alliance, promise. Mitra is considered a being worthy of worship and is "characterized by riches".[36]
TheYazata (Avestan: 𐬫𐬀𐬰𐬀𐬙𐬀) are divine beings worshiped by song and sacrifice in Zoroastrianism, in accordance with theAvesta. The word 'Yazata' is derived from 'Yazdan', the Old Persian word for 'god',[37] and literally means "divinity worthy of worship or veneration". As a concept, it also contains a wide range of other meanings; though generally signifying (or used as an epithet of) a divinity.[38][39]
The origins ofYazata are varied, with many also being featured as gods inHinduism, or otherIranian religions. In modern Zoroastrianism, the Yazata are considered holy emanations of the creator, always devoted to him and obey the will ofAhura Mazda. While subject to repression by theIslamic Caliphate, theYazata were often framed as "angels" to counter accusation ofpolytheism (shirk).[40] According to theAvesta TheYazata assistAhura Mazda in his battle against the evil spirit, and are hypostases of moral or physical aspects of creation. The yazatas collectively arethe good powers under Ahura Mazda, who isthe greatest of the yazatas.[37]
Yazatas are further divided into Amesha Spentas, their "ham-kar" or "Collaborators" who are Lower Ranking divinities,[41] and also certain healing plants, primordial creatures, the fravashis of the dead, and certain prayers that are themselves considered holy.
The Amesha Spentas and their "ham-kar" or "collaborator" Yazatas are as follows:
Faravahar, one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of aFravashi or theKhvarenah.
In Zoroastrianism,Ahura Mazda is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything that can and cannot be seen, the eternal and uncreated, the all-good and source of Asha.[15] In theGathas, the most sacred texts of Zoroastrianism thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, Zoroaster acknowledged the highest devotion to Ahura Mazda, with worship and adoration also given to Ahura Mazda's manifestations (Amesha Spenta) and the other ahuras (Yazata) that support Ahura Mazda.[42]
Daena (din in modernPersian and meaning "that which is seen") is representative of the sum of one's spiritual conscience and attributes, which through one's choice Asha is either strengthened or weakened in the Daena.[43] Traditionally, themanthras (similar to the Hindu sacred utterancemantra) prayer formulas, are believed to be of immense power and the vehicles of Asha and creation used to maintain good and fight evil.[44]Daena should not be confused with the fundamental principle ofAsha, believed to be the cosmic order which governs and permeates all existence, and the concept of which governed the life of the ancient Indo-Iranians. For these,asha was the course of everything observable—the motion of the planets and astral bodies; the progression of the seasons; and the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset, and was strengthened through truth-telling and following the Threefold Path.[45]
All physical creation (getig) was thus determined to run according to a master plan—inherent to Ahura Mazda—and violations of the order (druj) were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda.[46] This concept ofasha versus thedruj should not be confused with Western and especially Christian notions of good versus evil, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, theasha versusdruj concept is more systemic and less personal, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or "uncreation", evident as natural decay (that opposes creation); or more simply "the lie" (that opposes truth and goodness).[45] Moreover, in the role as the one uncreated creator of all, Ahura Mazda is not the creator ofdruj, which is "nothing", anti-creation, and thus (likewise) uncreated and developed as the antithesis of existence through choice.[47]
In thisschema ofasha versusdruj, mortal beings (both humans and animals) play a critical role, for they too are created. Here, in their lives, they are active participants in the conflict, and it is their spiritual duty to defend Asha, which is under constant assault and would decay in strength without counteraction.[45] Throughout theGathas, Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions within society and accordingly extremeasceticism is frowned upon in Zoroastrianism but moderate forms are allowed within.[48]
Humata, Huxta, Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds), the Threefold Path of Asha, is considered the core maxim of Zoroastrianism especially by modern practitioners. In Zoroastrianism, good transpires for those who do righteous deeds for its own sake, not for the search of reward. Those who do evil are said to be attacked and confused by the druj and are responsible for aligning themselves back to Asha by following this path.[49] There is also a heavy emphasis on spreading happiness, mostly through charity,[50] and respecting the spiritual equality and duty of both men and women.[51]
Central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, to choose the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, or to give up this duty and so facilitate the work ofdruj. Similarly,predestination is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching and the absolute free will of all conscious beings is core, with even divine beings having the ability to choose. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act toward one another. Reward, punishment, happiness, and grief all depend on how individuals live their lives.[52]
In Zoroastrian tradition, life is a temporary state in which a mortal is expected to participate actively in the continuing battle between Asha and Druj. Prior to its incarnation at the birth of the child, theurvan (soul) of an individual is still united with itsfravashi (personal/higher spirit), which has existed since Ahura Mazda created the universe. Prior to the splitting off of theurvan, the fravashi participates in the maintenance of creation led by Ahura Mazda. During the life of a given individual, the fravashi acts as a source of inspiration to perform good actions and as a spiritual protector. The fravashis of ancestors cultural, spiritual, and heroic, associated with illustrious bloodlines, are venerated and can be called upon to aid the living.[53]
The religion states that active and ethical participation in life through good deeds formed from good thoughts and good words is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. This active participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept offree will, and Zoroastrianism as such rejects extreme forms ofasceticism andmonasticism but historically has allowed for moderate expressions of these concepts.[48] On the fourth day after death, the urvan is reunited with its fravashi, whereupon the experiences of life in the material world are collected for use in the continuing battle for good in the spiritual world. For the most part, Zoroastrianism does not have a notion ofreincarnation; albeit Followers ofIlm-e-Kshnoom in India, among other currently non-traditional opinions, believe in reincarnation and practice vegetarianism.[54]
Zoroastrianism's emphasis on the protection and veneration of nature and its elements has led some to proclaim it as theworld's first proponent of ecology.[55] The Avesta and other texts call for the protection ofwater, earth, fire, and air making it, in effect, an ecological religion:It is not surprising that Mazdaism... is called the first ecological religion. The reverence for Yazatas (divine spirits) emphasizes the preservation of nature (Avesta: Yasnas 1.19, 3.4, 16.9; Yashts 6.3–4, 10.13).[56] However, this particular assertion is limited to natural forces held as emanations of asha by the fact that early Zoroastrians had a duty to exterminate "evil" species, a dictate no longer followed in modern Zoroastrianism.[57] Although there have been various theological statements supporting vegetarianism in Zoroastrianism's history and those who believe that Zoroaster was vegetarian.[58]
Zoroastrianism is not entirely uniform in theological and philosophical thought, especially with historical and modern influences having a significant impact on individual and local beliefs, practices, values, and vocabulary, sometimes merging with tradition and in other cases displacing it.[59] The ultimate purpose in the life of a practicing Zoroastrian is to become anashavan (a master of Asha) and to bring happiness into the world, which contributes to the cosmic battle against evil. The core teachings of Zoroastrianism include:
According to the Zoroastriancreation myth, there is one universal,transcendent, all-good, and uncreated supremecreator deity Ahura Mazda,[15] or the "Wise Lord" (Ahura meaning "Lord" andMazda meaning "Wisdom" inAvestan).[15][60]Zoroaster keeps the two attributes separate as two different concepts in most of theGathas yet sometimes combines them into one form. Zoroaster also proclaims that Ahura Mazda is omniscient but not omnipotent.[15] Ahura Mazda existed in light and goodness above, whileAngra Mainyu, (also referred to in later texts as "Ahriman"),[61][62] the destructive spirit/mentality,existed in darkness and ignorance below. They have existed independently of each other for all time, and manifest contrary substances. In the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is noted as working through emanations known as the Amesha Spenta[63] and with the help of "otherahuras".[27] These divine beings calledAmesha Spentas, support him and are representative and guardians of different aspects of creation and the ideal personality.[63] Ahura Mazda isimmanent in humankind and interacts with creation through these bounteous/holy divinities. In addition to these, He is assisted by a league of countless divinities calledYazatas, meaning "worthy of worship." Each Yazata is generally ahypostasis of a moral or physical aspect of creation. Asha,[15][45] is the main spiritual force which comes from Ahura Mazda.[45] It is the cosmic order and is theantithesis of chaos, which is evident asdruj, falsehood and disorder, that comes from Angra Mainyu.[47][33] The resulting cosmic conflict involves all of creation, mental/spiritual and material, including humanity at its core, which has an active role to play in the conflict.[64] The main representative of Asha in this conflict isSpenta Mainyu, the creative spirit/mentality.[61] Ahura Mazda then created the material and visible world itself in order to ensnare evil. He created the floating, egg-shaped universe in two parts: first the spiritual (menog) and 3,000 years later, the physical (getig).[46] Ahura Mazda then createdGayomard, the archetypical perfect man, andGavaevodata, the primordial bovine.[52]
While Ahura Mazda created the universe and humankind, Angra Mainyu, whose very nature is to destroy, miscreated demons, evildaevas, and noxious creatures (khrafstar) such as snakes, ants, and flies. Angra Mainyu created an opposite, evil being for each good being, except for humans, which he found he could not match. Angra Mainyu invaded the universe through the base of the sky, inflicting Gayomard and the bull with suffering and death. However, the evil forces were trapped in the universe and could not retreat. The dying primordial man and bovine emitted seeds, which were protect byMah, the Moon. From the bull's seed grew all beneficial plants and animals of the world and from the man's seed grew a plant whose leaves became thefirst human couple. Humans thus struggle in a two-fold universe of the material and spiritual trapped and in long combat with evil. The evils of this physical world are not products of an inherent weakness but are the fault of Angra Mainyu's assault on creation. This assault turned the perfectly flat, peaceful, and daily illuminated world into a mountainous, violent place that is half night.[52] According to Zoroastriancosmology, in articulating theAhuna Vairya formula, Ahura Mazda made the ultimate triumph of good against Angra Mainyu evident.[65] Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail over the evilAngra Mainyu, at which point reality will undergo a cosmic renovation calledFrashokereti[66] and limited time will end. In the final renovation, all of creation—even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to or chose to descend into "darkness"—will be reunited with Ahura Mazda in theKshatra Vairya (meaning "best dominion"),[67] being resurrected to immortality.[citation needed]
Cosmography
Zoroastriancosmography, which refers to the description of the structure of the cosmos in Zoroastrian literature and theology, involves a primary division of the cosmos into heaven and earth.[68] The heaven is composed of three parts: the lower-most part, which is where the fixed stars may be found; the middle part, where the domain of the moon is located, and the upper part, which is the domain of the sun and unreachable by Ahirman.[69] Further above the highest level of the heaven/sky includes regions described as the Endless Lights, as well as the Thrones of Amahraspandān and Ohrmazd.[70] Although this is the basic framework which occurs in Avestan texts, later Zoroastrian literature would elaborate on this picture by further subdividing the lowest part of heaven to achieve a total of six or seven layers.[71] The Earth itself was described as possessing three primary mountains: Mount Hukairiia, whose peak was the focal point of the revolution of the star Sadwēs; Mount Haraitī, whose peak was the focal point of the revolution of the sun and the moon, and the greatest of them all, the Harā Bərəz whose peak was located at the center of the Earth and which was the first in a chain of 2,244 mountains which, together, encircled the Earth.[72] Although the planets are not described in early Zoroastrian sources, they entered Zoroastrian thought in the Middle Persian period: they were demonized and took on the namesAnāhīd (Pahlavi forVenus),Tīr (Mercury),Wahrām (Mars),Ohrmazd (Jupiter), andKēwān (Saturn).[73]
Individual judgment at death is at theChinvat Bridge ("bridge of judgement" or "bridge of choice"), which each human must cross, facing a spiritual judgment, though modern belief is split as to whether it is representative of a mental decision during life to choose between good and evil or an afterworld location. Humans' actions under their free will through choice determine the outcome. According to tradition, the soul is judged by the YazatasMithra,Sraosha, andRashnu, where depending on the verdict one is either greeted at the bridge by a beautiful, sweet-smelling maiden or by an ugly, foul-smelling old hag representing theirDaena affected by their actions in life. The maiden leads the dead safely across the bridge, which widens and becomes pleasant for the righteous, towards the House of Song. The hag leads the dead down a bridge that narrows to a razor's edge and is full of stench until the departed falls off into the abyss towards the House of Lies.[52][74] Those with a balance of good and evil go toHamistagan, a purgatorial realm mentioned in the 9th century workDadestan-i Denig.[75]
The House of Lies is considered temporary and reformative; punishments fit the crimes, and souls do not rest in eternal damnation. Hell contains foul smells and evil food, a smothering darkness, and souls are packed tightly together although they believe they are in total isolation.[52]
In ancientZoroastrian eschatology, a 3,000-year struggle between good and evil will be fought, punctuated by evil's final assault. During the final assault, the sun and moon will darken, and humankind will lose its reverence for religion, family, and elders. The world will fall into winter, and Angra Mainyu's most fearsome miscreant,Azi Dahaka, will break free and terrorize the world.[52]
According to legend, the final savior of the world, known as theSaoshyant, will be born to a virgin impregnated by the seed of Zoroaster while bathing in a lake. The Saoshyant will raise the dead—including those in all afterworlds—for final judgment, returning the wicked to hell to be purged of bodily sin. Next, all will wade through a river of molten metal in which the righteous will not burn but through which the impure will be completely purified. The forces of good will ultimately triumph over evil, rendering it forever impotent but not destroyed. The Saoshyant and Ahura Mazda will offer a bull as a final sacrifice for all time and all humans will become immortal. Mountains will again flatten and valleys will rise; the House of Song will descend to the moon, and the earth will rise to meet them both.[52] Humanity will require two judgments because there are as many aspects to our being: spiritual (menog) and physical (getig).[52]
Throughout Zoroastrian history, shrines andtemples have been the focus of worship and pilgrimage for adherents of the religion. Early Zoroastrians were recorded as worshiping in the 5th century BCE on mounds and hills where fires were lit below the open skies.[77] In the wake of Achaemenid expansion, shrines were constructed throughout the empire and particularly influenced the role ofMithra,Aredvi Sura Anahita,Verethragna andTishtrya, alongside other traditional Yazata who all have hymns within the Avesta and also local deities and culture-heroes. Today, enclosed and covered fire temples tend to be the focus of community worship where fires of varying grades are maintained by the clergy assigned to the temples.[78]
The incorporation of cultural and local rituals is quite common and traditions have been passed down in historically Zoroastrian communities such as herbal healing practices, wedding ceremonies, and the like.[79][80][44] Traditionally, Zoroastrian rituals have also includedshamanic elements involvingmystical methods such asspirit travel to the invisible realm and involving the consumption offortified wine,Haoma,mang, and other ritual aids.[81][46][82][83][84]
Ossuary with reliefs of Zoroastrian priests attending a fire, Mullakurgan (near Samarkand), Uzbekistan, 7–8th century CE.[85]
In Zoroastrianism, water (aban) and fire (atar) are agents of ritual purity, and the associated purification ceremonies are considered the basis of ritual life. In Zoroastriancosmogony, water and fire are respectively the second and last primordial elements to have been created, and scripture considers fire to have its origin in the waters (re. which conception seeApam Napat).
A corpse is considered a host for decay, i.e., ofdruj. Consequently, scripture enjoins the safe disposal of the dead in a manner such that a corpse does not pollute the good creation. These injunctions are the doctrinal basis of the fast-fading traditional practice of ritual exposure, most commonly identified with the so-calledTowers of Silence for which there is no standard technical term in either scripture or tradition. Ritual exposure is currently mainly practiced by Zoroastrian communities of theIndian subcontinent, in locations where it is not illegal anddiclofenac poisoning has not led to the virtual extinction of scavenger birds.[citation needed]
The central ritual of Zoroastrianism is theYasna, which is a recitation of the eponymous book of the Avesta and sacrificial ritual ceremony involvingHaoma.[86] Extensions to the Yasna ritual are possible through use of theVisperad andVendidad, but such an extended ritual is rare in modern Zoroastrianism.[87][88] The Yasna itself descended fromIndo-Iranian sacrificial ceremonies and animal sacrifice of varying degrees are mentioned in the Avesta and are still practiced in Zoroastrianism albeit through reduced forms such as the sacrifice of fat before meals.[89] High rituals such as the Yasna are considered to be the purview of theMobads with a corpus of individual and communal rituals and prayers included in theKhordeh Avesta.[86][90]
A Zoroastrian is welcomed into the faith through theNavjote/Sedreh Pushi ceremony, which is traditionally conducted during the later childhood or pre-teen years of the aspirant, though there is no defined age limit for the ritual.[44][91] After the ceremony, Zoroastrians are encouraged to wear theirsedreh (ritual shirt) andkushti (ritual girdle) daily as a spiritual reminder and for mystical protection, though reformist Zoroastrians tend to only wear them during festivals, ceremonies, and prayers.[92][44][91]
Historically, Zoroastrians are encouraged to pray the five dailyGāhs and to maintain and celebrate the various holy festivals of theZoroastrian calendar, which can differ from community to community.[93][94] Zoroastrian prayers, calledmanthras, are conducted usually with hands outstretched in imitation of Zoroaster's prayer style described in the Gathas and are of a reflectionary and supplicant nature believed to be endowed with the ability to banish evil.[95][96][65] Devout Zoroastrians are known to cover their heads during prayer, either with traditionaltopi, scarves, other headwear, or even just their hands. However, full coverage and veiling which is traditional in Islamic practice is not a part of Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian women in Iran wear their head coverings displaying hair and their faces to defy mandates by theIslamic Republic of Iran.[97]
TheAvesta is a collection of the central religious texts of Zoroastrianism written in the old Iranian dialect ofAvestan. The history of the Avesta is speculated upon in manyPahlavi texts with varying degrees of authority, with the current version of the Avesta dating at oldest from the times of the Sasanian Empire.[98] The Avesta wascomposed at different times, providing a series of snapshots of the religion that allow historians to see how it changed over time.[99] According to Middle Persian tradition, Ahura Mazda created the twenty-one Nasks of the original Avesta which Zoroaster brought toVishtaspa. Here, two copies were created, one which was put in the house of archives and the other put in the Imperial treasury. During Alexander's conquest of Persia, the Avesta (written on 1200 ox-hides) was burned, and the scientific sections that the Greeks could use were dispersed among themselves. However, there is no strong historical evidence for this and they remain contested despite affirmations from the Zoroastrian tradition, whether it be theDenkart,Tansar-nāma,Ardāy Wirāz Nāmag,Bundahsin,Zand-i Wahman yasn or the transmitted oral tradition.[98][100]
As tradition continues, under the reign of King Valax (identified with aVologases of theArsacid dynasty[101]), an attempt was made to restore what was considered the Avesta. During theSassanid Empire, Ardeshir ordered Tansar,his high priest, to finish the work that King Valax had started.Shapur I sent priests to locate the scientific text portions of the Avesta that were in the possession of the Greeks.[102] UnderShapur II, Arderbad Mahrespandand revised the canon to ensure its orthodox character, while underKhosrow I, the Avesta was translated into Pahlavi.
The compilation of the Avesta can be authoritatively traced, however, to the Sasanian Empire, of which only fraction survive today if theMiddle Persian literature is correct.[98] The later manuscripts all date from after the fall of the Sasanian Empire, the latest being from 1288, 590 years after the fall of the Sasanian Empire. The texts that remain today are theGathas,Yasna,Visperad and theVendidad, of which the latter's inclusion is disputed within the faith.[103] Along with these texts is the individual, communal, and ceremonial prayer book called theKhordeh Avesta, which contains theYashts and other important hymns, prayers, and rituals. The rest of the materials from the Avesta are called "Avestan fragments" in that they are written in Avestan, incomplete, and generally of unknown provenance.[104]
Middle Persian (Pahlavi)
Middle Persian and Pahlavi works created in the 9th and 10th century contain many religious Zoroastrian books, as most of the writers and copyists were part of the Zoroastrian clergy. The most significant and important books of this era include theDenkard,Bundahishn,Menog-i Khrad,Selections of Zadspram,Jamasp Namag, Epistles of Manucher,Rivayats, Dadestan-i-Denig, andArda Viraf Namag. All Middle Persian texts written on Zoroastrianism during this time period are considered secondary works on the religion, and notscripture.[citation needed]
Zoroastrianism was founded by Zoroaster in ancient Iran. The precise date of the founding of the religion is uncertain and estimates vary wildly from 2000 BCE to200 years before Alexander. Zoroaster was born – in either Northeast Iran or Southwest Afghanistan – into a culture with apolytheistic religion, which featured excessiveanimal sacrifice[105] and the excessive ritual use of intoxicants. His life was influenced profoundly by the attempts of his people to find peace and stability in the face of constant threats of raiding and conflict. Zoroaster's birth and early life are little documented but speculated upon heavily in later texts. What is known is recorded in theGathas, forming the core of the Avesta, which contain hymns thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself. Born into theSpitama clan, he refers to himself as a poet-priest andprophet. He had a wife, three sons, and three daughters, the numbers of which are gathered from various texts.[106]
Zoroaster rejected many of the gods of theBronze Age Iranians and their oppressiveclass structure, in which the Kavis and Karapans (princes and priests) controlled the ordinary people. He also opposed cruel animal sacrifices and the excessive use of the possiblyhallucinogenicHaoma plant (conjectured to have been a species ofephedra orPeganum harmala), but did not condemn either practice outright, providing moderation was observed.[89][107]
Legendary accounts
According to later Zoroastrian tradition, when Zoroaster was 30 years old, he went into the Daiti river to draw water for aHaoma ceremony; when he emerged, he received a vision ofVohu Manah. After this, Vohu Manah took him to the other six Amesha Spentas, where he received the completion of his vision.[108] This vision radically transformed his view of the world, and he tried to teach this view to others. Zoroaster believed in one supreme creator deity and acknowledged this creator's emanations (Amesha Spenta) and other divinities which he called Ahuras (Yazata).[32] Some of the deities of the old religion, theDaevas (etymologically similar to theSanskritDevas), appeared to delight in war and strife and were condemned as evil workers of Angra Mainyu by Zoroaster.[109]
Zoroaster's ideas were not taken up quickly; he originally only had one convert: his cousin Maidhyoimanha.[110]
The Cypress of Kashmar is a mythical cypress tree of legendary beauty and gargantuan dimensions. It is said to have sprung from a branch brought byZoroaster from Paradise and to have stood in today'sKashmar in northeastern Iran and to have been planted by Zoroaster in honor of the conversion ofKing Vishtaspa to Zoroastrianism. According to the Iranian physicist and historianZakariya al-Qazwini King Vishtaspa had been a patron of Zoroaster who planted the tree himself. In hisʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt, he further describes how theAbbasid caliphAl-Mutawakkil in 247 AH (861 CE) caused the mighty cypress to be felled, and then transported it across Iran, to be used for beams in his new palace atSamarra. Before, he wanted the tree to be reconstructed before his eyes. This was done in spite of protests by the Iranians, who offered a very great sum of money to save the tree. Al-Mutawakkil never saw the cypress, because he was murdered by aTurkish soldier (possibly in the employ of his son) on the night when it arrived on the banks of the Tigris.[111][112]
Fire Temple of Kashmar
Kashmar Fire Temple was the first Zoroastrian fire temple built byVishtaspa at the request of Zoroaster in Kashmar. In a part ofFerdowsi'sShahnameh, the story of finding Zarathustra and accepting Vishtaspa's religion is regulated that after accepting Zoroastrian religion, Vishtaspa sends priests all over the universe And Azar enters the fire temples (domes) and the first of them isAdur Burzen-Mihr who founded in Kashmar and planted a cypress tree in front of the fire temple and made it a symbol of accepting the Bahi religion And he sent priests all over the world, and commanded all the famous men and women to come to that place of worship.[113]
Geographical horizon of the Avestan people during the Young Avestan period. Sources for the different localizations are in the file description.
The roots of Zoroastrianism are thought to lie in a common prehistoricIndo-Iranian religious system dating back to the early 2nd millennium BCE.[115] The prophet Zoroaster himself, though traditionally dated to the 6th century BCE,[116][14][117] is thought by many modern historians to have been a reformer of the polytheistic Iranian religion who lived much earlier during the second half of the second millennium BCE.[118][119][120][121] Zoroastrian tradition namesAiryanem Vaejah as the home of Zarathustra and the birthplace of the religion. No consensus exists as to the localization of Airyanem Vaejah, but the region ofKhwarezm has been considered by modern scholars as a candidate.[122] Zoroastrianism as a religion was not firmly established until centuries later during theYoung Avestan period. At this time, the Zoroastrian community was concentrated in the eastern portion ofGreater Iran.[123] Although no consensus exists on the chronology of the Avestan period, the lack of any discernablePersian andMedian influence in theAvesta makes a time frame in the first half of the first millennium BCE likely.[124]
The Histories is a primary source of information on the early period of theAchaemenid era (648–330 BCE), in particular with respect to the role of theMagi. According to Herodotus, the Magi were the sixth tribe of theMedes (until the unification of the Persian empire underCyrus the Great, all Iranians were referred to as "Mede" or "Mada" by the peoples of the Ancient World) and wielded considerable influence at the courts of the Median emperors.[127]
Following the unification of the Median and Persian empires in 550 BCE, Cyrus the Great and later his sonCambyses II curtailed the powers of the Magi after they had attempted to sow dissent following their loss of influence. In 522 BCE, the Magi revolted and set up a rival claimant to the throne. The usurper, pretending to be Cyrus' younger sonSmerdis, took power shortly thereafter.[128] Owing to thedespotic rule of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt,the whole people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years.[127]
Darius I and laterAchaemenid emperors acknowledged their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions, as attested to several times in theBehistun inscription and appear to have continued the model of coexistence with other religions. Whether Darius was a follower of the teachings of Zoroaster has not been conclusively established as there is no indication of note that worship of Ahura Mazda was exclusively a Zoroastrian practice.[129]
According to later Zoroastrian legend (Denkard and theBook of Arda Viraf), many sacred texts were lost whenAlexander the Great's troops invadedPersepolis and subsequently destroyed the royal library there.Diodorus Siculus'sBibliotheca historica, which was completedc. 60 BCE, appears to substantiate this Zoroastrian legend.[130] According to one archaeological examination, the ruins of the palace ofXerxes I bear traces of having been burned.[131] Whether a vast collection of (semi-)religious textswritten on parchment in gold ink, as suggested by theDenkard, actually existed remains a matter of speculation.[132]
Alexander's conquests largely displaced Zoroastrianism withHellenistic beliefs,[121] though the religion continued to be practiced many centuries following the demise of the Achaemenids in mainland Persia and the core regions of the former Achaemenid Empire, most notablyAnatolia,Mesopotamia, and theCaucasus. In theCappadocian kingdom, whose territory was formerly an Achaemenid possession, Persian colonists, cut off from their co-religionists in Iran proper, continued to practice the faith [Zoroastrianism] of their forefathers; and thereStrabo, observing in the first century BCE, records (XV.3.15) that these "fire kindlers" possessed manyholy places of the Persian Gods, as well as fire temples.[133] Strabo further states that these werenoteworthy enclosures; and in their midst there is an altar, on which there is a large quantity of ashes and where the magi keep thefire ever burning.[133] It was not until the end of theParthian Empire (247 BCE – 224 CE) that Zoroastrianism would receive renewed interest.[121]
A Zoroastrianossuary, 7–8th century CE, Hirman Tepe, Uzbekistan.[134]
As late as theParthian period,a form of Zoroastrianism was without a doubt the dominant religion in theArmenian lands.[135] TheSassanids aggressively promoted theZurvanite form of Zoroastrianism, often building fire temples in captured territories to promote the religion. During the period of their centuries-longsuzerainty over theCaucasus, the Sassanids made attempts to promote Zoroastrianism there with considerable successes.[citation needed]
Due to its ties to the ChristianRoman Empire, Persia's archrival since Parthian times, the Sassanids were suspicious ofRoman Christianity, and after the reign ofConstantine the Great, sometimes persecuted it.[136] In 451 CE, the Sassanid authority clashed with theirArmenian subjects in theBattle of Avarayr, making them officially break with the Roman Church. But the Sassanids tolerated or even sometimes favored the Christianity of theChurch of the East. The acceptance of Christianity in Georgia (Caucasian Iberia) saw the Zoroastrian religion there slowly but surely decline,[137] but as late the 5th century CE, it was still widely practised as something like a second established religion.[138][139]
Over the course of 16 years during the 7th century, most of the Sasanian Empire wasconquered by the emerging Muslim caliphate.[140] Although the administration of the state was rapidly Islamicized and subsumed under theUmayyad Caliphate, in the beginningthere was little serious pressure exerted on newly subjected people to adopt Islam.[141] Because of their sheer numbers, the conquered Zoroastrians had to be treated asdhimmis (despite doubts of the validity of this identification that persisted down the centuries),[142] which made them eligible for protection. Islamic jurists took the stance that only Muslims could be perfectly moral, butunbelievers might as well be left to their iniquities, so long as these did not vex their overlords.[142] In the main, once the conquest was over andlocal terms were agreed on, the Arab governors protected the local populations in exchange for tribute.[142]
The Arabs adopted the Sasanian tax-system, both the land-tax levied on landowners and thepoll-tax levied on individuals,[142] calledjizya, a tax levied on non-Muslims (i.e., thedhimmis). In time, this poll-tax came to be used as a means to humble the non-Muslims, and a number of laws and restrictions evolved to emphasize their inferior status. Under the early orthodoxcaliphs, as long as the non-Muslims paid their taxes and adhered to thedhimmi laws, administrators were enjoined to leave non-Muslimsin their religion and their land.[143]
UnderAbbasid rule, Muslim Iranians (who by then were in the majority) in many instances showed severe disregard for and mistreated local Zoroastrians. For example, in the 9th century, a deeply veneratedcypress tree inKhorasan (which Parthian-era legend supposed had been planted by Zoroaster himself) was felled for the construction of a palace in Baghdad, 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away. In the 10th century, on the day that aTower of Silence had been completed at much trouble and expense, a Muslim official contrived to get up onto it, and to call theadhan (the Muslim call to prayer) from its walls. This was turned into a pretext to annex the building.[144]
Ultimately, Muslim scholars likeAl-Biruni found few records left of the belief of for instance theKhawarizmians because figures likeQutayba ibn Muslimextinguished and ruined in every possible way all those who knew how to write and read the Khawarizmi writing, who knew the history of the country and who studied their sciences. As a result,these things are involved in so much obscurity that it is impossible to obtain an accurate knowledge of the history of the country since the time of Islam...[145]
Conversion
Though subject to a new leadership and harassment, the Zoroastrians were able to continue their former ways, although there was a slow but steady social and economic pressure to convert,[146][147] with the nobility and city-dwellers being the first to do so, while Islam was accepted more slowly among the peasantry and landed gentry.[148]Power and worldly-advantage now lay with followers of Islam, and although theofficial policy was one of aloof contempt, there were individual Muslims eager toproselytize and ready to use all sorts of means to do so.[147]
In time, a tradition evolved by which Islam was made to appear as a partly Iranian religion. One example of this was a legend thatHusayn, son of the fourth caliphAli and grandson of Islam's prophetMuhammad, had married a captive Sassanid princess namedShahrbanu. This "wholly fictitious figure"[149] was said to have borne Husayna son, the historical fourthShi'aimam, who insisted that the caliphate rightly belonged to him and his descendants, and that theUmayyads had wrongfully wrested it from him. The alleged descent from the Sassanid house counterbalanced theArab nationalism of the Umayyads, and the Iranian national association with a Zoroastrian past was disarmed. Thus, according to scholarMary Boyce,it was no longer the Zoroastrians alone who stood for patriotism and loyalty to the past.[149] The "damning indictment" that becoming Muslim wasun-Iranian only remained an idiom in Zoroastrian texts.[149]
With Iranian support, theAbbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and in the subsequent caliphate government—that nominally lasted until 1258—Muslim Iranians received marked favor in the new government, both in Iran and at the capital inBaghdad. This mitigated the antagonism between Arabs and Iranians but sharpened the distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims. The Abbasids zealously persecuted heretics, and although this was directed mainly at Muslimsectarians, it also created a harsher climate for non-Muslims.[150]
The 9th century came to define the great number of Zoroastrian texts that were composed or re-written during the 8th to 10th centuries (excluding copying and lesser amendments, which continued for some time thereafter). All of these works are in theMiddle Persian dialect of that period (free of Arabic words) and written in the difficultPahlavi script (hence the adoption of the term "Pahlavi" as the name of the variant of the language, and of the genre, of those Zoroastrian books). If read aloud, these books would still have been intelligible to thelaity. Many of these texts are responses to the tribulations of the time, and all of them include exhortations to stand fast in their religious beliefs.[citation needed]
InKhorasan in northeastern Iran, a 10th-century Iranian nobleman brought together four Zoroastrian priests to transcribe a Sassanid-era Middle Persian work titledBook of the Lord (Khwaday Namag) from Pahlavi script into Arabic script. This transcription, which remained in Middle Persian prose (an Arabic version, byal-Muqaffa, also exists), was completed in 957 and subsequently became the basis forFirdausi'sBook of Kings. It became enormously popular among both Zoroastrians and Muslims, and also served to propagate the Sassanid justification for overthrowing the Arsacids.[citation needed]
Among migrations were those to cities in (or on the margins of) thegreat salt deserts, in particular toYazd andKerman, which remain centers of Iranian Zoroastrianism to this day. Yazd became the seat of the Iranian high priests duringMongol Ilkhanate rule, when thebest hope for survival [for a non-Muslim] was to be inconspicuous.[151] Crucial to the present-day survival of Zoroastrianism was a migration from the northeastern Iranian town of"Sanjan in south-western Khorasan",[152] toGujarat, in western India. The descendants of that group are today known as theParsis—"as theGujaratis, from long tradition, called anyone from Iran"[152]—who today represent the larger of the two groups of Zoroastrians in India.[153]
A special container carrying the holy fire fromAden to the Lonavala Agiary, India
The struggle between Zoroastrianism and Islam declined in the 10th and 11th centuries. Local Iranian dynasties, "all vigorously Muslim,"[152] had emerged as largely independentvassals of the Caliphs. In the 16th century, in one of the early letters between Iranian Zoroastrians and their co-religionists in India, the priests ofYazd lamented that "no period [in human history], not eventhat of Alexander, had been more grievous or troublesome for the faithful than 'this millennium of thedemon ofWrath'."[154]
Zoroastrianism has survived into the modern period, particularly in India, where the Parsis are thought to have been present since about the 9th century.[155]
Today Zoroastrianism can be divided in two main schools of thought: reformists and traditionalists. Traditionalists are mostlyParsis and accept, beside the Gathas and Avesta, also theMiddle Persian literature and like the reformists mostly developed in their modern form from 19th century developments. They generally do not allowconversion to the faith and, as such, for someone to be a Zoroastrian they must be born of Zoroastrian parents. Some traditionalists recognize the children of mixed marriages as Zoroastrians, though usually only if the father is a born Zoroastrian.[156] Not all Zoroastrians identify with either school. Notable examples gaining traction include Neo-Zoroastrians/Revivalists, which are usually reinterpretations of Zoroastrianism appealing towards Western concerns,[157] and centering the idea of Zoroastrianism as a living religion. These advocate the revival and maintenance of old rituals and prayers while supporting ethical and social progressive reforms. Both of these latter schools tend to center the Gathas without outright rejecting other texts except theVendidad.[citation needed]
From the 19th century onward, the Parsis gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of society. They played an instrumental role in the economic development of the region over many decades; several of the best-known business conglomerates of India are run by Parsi-Zoroastrians, including theTata,[158]Godrej,Wadia families, and others.[159]
For a variety of social and political factors, the Zoroastrians of the Indian subcontinent, namely the Parsis and Iranis, have not engaged in conversion since at least the 18th century. Zoroastrian high priests have historically opined there is no reason to not allow conversion, which is also supported by theRevayats and other scripture, though later priests have condemned these judgements.[160][27] Within Iran, many of the beleaguered Zoroastrians have been also historically opposed or not practically concerned with the matter of conversion. Currently though, The Council of Tehran Mobeds (the highest ecclesiastical authority within Iran) endorses conversion but conversion from Islam to Zoroastrianism is illegal under the laws of the Islamic Republic of Iran.[156][27]
Though the Armenians share a rich history affiliated with Zoroastrianism (that eventually declined with the advent of Christianity), reports indicate that there were Zoroastrians in Armenia until the 1920s.[161]
At the request of the government ofTajikistan,UNESCO declared 2003 a year to celebrate the "3000th anniversary of Zoroastrian culture", with special events throughout the world. In 2011, the Tehran Mobeds Anjuman announced that for the first time in the history of modern Iran and of the modern Zoroastrian communities worldwide, women had been ordained in Iran and North America as mobedyars, meaning women assistantmobeds (Zoroastrian clergy).[162][163][164] The women hold official certificates and can perform the lower-rung religious functions and can initiate people into the religion.[165][166]
The current Zoroastrian population is said be around 100,000 to 200,000 and reportedly declining.[167] However, further studies are needed to confirm this, as numbers have also been rising in some areas, such as Iran.[168][169][170]
ParsiNavjote ceremony (rites of admission into the Zoroastrian faith).
Iran's figures of Zoroastrians have ranged widely; the last census (1974) before therevolution of 1979 revealed 21,400 Zoroastrians.[171] Some 10,000 adherents remain in the Central Asian regions that were once considered the traditional stronghold of Zoroastrianism, i.e.,Bactria (see alsoBalkh), which is in Northern Afghanistan;Sogdiana;Margiana; and other areas close toZoroaster's homeland. In Iran, emigration, out-marriage and low birth rates are likewise leading to a decline in the Zoroastrian population. Zoroastrian groups in Iran say their number is approximately 60,000.[172] According to the Iranian census data from 2011 the number of Zoroastrians in Iran was 25,271.[173]
Communities exist inTehran, as well as inYazd,Kerman andKermanshah, where many still speak an Iranian language distinct from the usualPersian. They call their languageDari, not to be confused with theDari spoken in Afghanistan. Their language is also calledGavri orBehdini, literally "of the Good Religion". Sometimes their language is named for the cities in which it is spoken, such asYazdi orKermani. Iranian Zoroastrians were historically calledGabrs.[citation needed]
The number of Kurdish Zoroastrians, along with those of non-ethnic converts, has been estimated differently.[174] The Zoroastrian Representative of the Kurdistan Regional Government in Iraq has reported that as many as 100,000 people inIraqi Kurdistan have converted to Zoroastrianism recently, with some community leaders speculating that even more Zoroastrians in the region are practicing their faith secretly.[175][176][177] However, this has not been confirmed by independent sources.[178]
The surge in Kurdish Muslims converting to Zoroastrianism is largely attributed to disillusionment with Islam after experiencing violence and oppression perpetrated byISIS in the area.[179]
India is considered to be home to a large Zoroastrian population – the descendants of migrants from Iran and today known as theParsis. In India's 2001 census, the Parsi population numbered at 69,601, representing about 0.006% of the total population of India, with a concentration in and around the city ofMumbai. By 2008, the birth-to-death ratio was 1:5; 200 births per year to 1,000 deaths.[192] India's 2011 census recorded 57,264 Parsi Zoroastrians.[190]
North America is thought to be home to 18,000–25,000 Zoroastrians of both South Asian and Iranian backgrounds. As of 2012, the population of Zoroastrians in US was 15,000, making it the third-largest Zoroastrian population in the world after those of India and Iran.[198] According to the2021 Canadian census, the Zoroastrian Canadian population stood at 7,285, of which 3,630 were Parsis (ofSouth Asian descent) and a further 2,390 ofWest Asian origin.[199] A further 3,500 live inAustralia (mainly inSydney). Stewart, Hinze & Williams write that 3,000 Kurds have converted to Zoroastrianism in Sweden.[200] According to the2021 UK census, there were 4,105 Zoroastrians inEngland and Wales, of which 4,043 were in England. The majority (51%) of these (2,050) were inLondon, most notably the boroughs ofBarnet,Harrow andWestminster. The remaining 49% of English Zoroastrians were scattered relatively evenly throughout the country, with the second and third largest concentrations beingBirmingham (72) andManchester (47).[201] In 2020,Historic England publishedA Survey of Zoroastrianism Buildings in England with the aim of providing information about buildings that Zoroastrians use in England so that HE can work with communities to enhance and protect those buildings now and in the future. The scoping survey identified four buildings in England.[202]
Relation to other religions and cultures
Map of the Achaemenid Empire in the 5th century BCE
The religion of Zoroastrianism is closest tohistorical Vedic religion to varying degrees.[clarification needed] Some historians believe that Zoroastrianism, along with similar philosophical revolutions in South Asia were interconnected strings of reformation of a common Indo-Aryan thread. Many traits of Zoroastrianism can be traced to prehistoric Indo-Iranian culture and beliefs, that is, before the migrations that separated theIndo-Aryans andIranic peoples. Thus, Zoroastrianism shares elements with thehistorical Vedic religion that also originated in that era. Some examples include cognates between theAvestan wordAhura ("Ahura Mazda") and the VedicSanskrit wordAsura ('demon', 'evil demigod'); as well asdaeva ("demon") anddeva ("god") and they both descend from a commonProto-Indo-Iranian religion.[citation needed]
Zoroastrianism inherited ideas from other belief systems and, like other "practiced" religions, containssyncretism.[203] Specifically, Zoroastrianism inSogdia, theKushan Empire, Armenia, China, and other places incorporates local and foreign practices and deities.[204]
Zoroastrianism is sometimes credited with being the first monotheistic religion in history,[22] antedating the Israelites and leaving a lasting and profound imprint onSecond Temple Judaism and, through it, on later monotheistic religions such as early Christianity and Islam.[26][208]There are clear commonalities and similarities between Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Christianity, such as: monotheism, dualism (i.e., a robust notion of a Devil—but with a positive appraisal of material creation), symbolism of the divine, heaven(s) and hell(s), angels and demons, eschatology and final judgment, a messianic figure and the idea of a savior, a holy spirit, concern with ritual purity, an idealization of wisdom and righteousness, and other doctrines, symbols, practices, and religious features.[209]
According toMary Boyce,Zoroaster was thus the first to teach the doctrines of an individual judgement, Heaven and Hell, the future resurrection of the body, the general last judgement, and life everlasting for the reunited soul and body. These doctrines were to become familiar articles of faith to much of mankind, through borrowing by Judaism Christianity and Islam; yet it is in Zoroastrianism itself that they have their fullest logical coherence. Since Zoroaster insisted both on the goodness of material creation, and hence of the physical body, and on the unwavering impartiality of divine justice.[210]
The interactions between Judaism and Zoroastrianism resulted in transfer of religious ideas between the two religions and as a result, it is believed that Jews under Achaemenid rule were influenced by Zoroastrian angelology, demonology, eschatology, as well as Zoroastrian ideas about compensatory justice in life and after death.[211] It is also postulated that the Jewish high monotheistic concept of God developed during and after the period of the Babylonian captivity, when the Jews had a prolonged exposure to sophisticated Zoroastrian beliefs.[212]
In addition, Zoroastrian concepts seeded dualistic ideas in Jewish eschatology, such as the belief in a savior, the final battle between good and evil, the triumph of good and the resurrection of the dead. These ideas later passed on to Christianity via Zoroastrian-inspired texts of the Old Testament.[213]
According to some sources, such asThe Jewish Encyclopedia (1906),[214] there exist many similarities between Zoroastrianism and Judaism. This has led some to propose that key Zoroastrian concepts influenced Judaism. However, other scholars disagree, finding that the general social influence of Zoroastrianism was much more limited, and that no link can be found in Jewish or Christian texts.[215]
Proponents of a link cite similarities between the two: such as dualism (good and evil, divine twins Ahura Mazda "God" and Angra Mainyu "Satan"), image of the deity,eschatology, resurrection andfinal judgment,messianism,revelation of Zoroaster on a mountain withMoses onMount Sinai, three sons ofFereydun with threesons of Noah,heaven andhell, angelology and demonology, cosmology of six days or periods of creation, andfree will, among others. Other scholars diminish or reject such influences,[216][217][214][218][219][215] noting thatZoroastrianism has a unique theistic doctrine which combines dualism, polytheism and pantheism, rather than being a monotheistic religion.[215] Others saythere is little concrete evidence about the precise origin and development of Zoroastrianism,[220] and thatZoroastrianism does not compare with the Jewish belief in the sovereignty of God over the whole of creation.[221]
Others, such asLester L. Grabbe, have saidthere is general agreement that Persian religion and tradition had its influence on Judaism over the centuries and thequestion is where this influence was and which of the developments in Judaism can be ascribed to the Iranian side as opposed to the effect of the Greek or other cultures.[217] There exist distinctions but also similarities between Zoroastrian andJewish law regarding marriage and procreation.[222] While Mary Boyce claims, besides Abrahamic religions, Zoroastrian influence also extended toNorthern Buddhism.[223]
Manichaeism adopted many of theYazatas for its own pantheon.[citation needed] Gherardo Gnoli, inThe Encyclopaedia of Religion,[225] says thatwe can assert that Manichaeism has its roots in the Iranian religious tradition and that its relationship to Mazdaism, or Zoroastrianism, is more or less like that of Christianity to Judaism.[226]
The two religions have substantial differences.[227]
Present-day Iran
Many aspects of Zoroastrianism are present in the culture and mythologies of the peoples ofGreater Iran, not least because Zoroastrianism was a dominant influence on the people of the cultural continent for a thousand years. Even after the rise of Islam and the loss of direct influence, Zoroastrianism remained part of the cultural heritage of theIranian language-speaking world, in part as festivals and customs, but also becauseFerdowsi incorporated a number of the figures and stories from theAvesta in his epicShāhnāme, which is pivotal to Iranian identity. One notable example is the incorporation of the YazataSraosha as an angel venerated withinShia Islam in Iran.[228]
^abcBoyd, James W.; Crosby, Donald A. (1979). "Is Zoroastrianism Dualistic or Monotheistic?".Journal of the American Academy of Religion.47 (4):557–88.doi:10.1093/jaarel/XLVII.4.557.ISSN0002-7189.JSTOR1462275.In brief, the interpretation we favor is that Zoroastrianism combines cosmogonic dualism and eschatological monotheism in a manner unique to itself among the major religions of the world. This combination results in a religious outlook which cannot be categorized as either straightforward dualism or straightforward monotheism, meaning that the question in the title of this paper poses a false dichotomy. The dichotomy arises, we contend, from a failure to take seriously enough the central role played by time in Zoroastrian theology. Zoroastrianism proclaims a movement through time from dualism toward monotheism, i.e., a dualism which is being made false by the dynamics of time, and a monotheism which is being made true by those same dynamics of time. The meaning of theeschaton in Zoroastrianism is thus the triumph of monotheism, the good God Ahura Mazdä having at last won his way through to complete and final ascendancy. But in the meantime there is vital truth to dualism, the neglect of which can only lead to a distortion of the religion's essential teachings.
^abSkjærvø 2005, pp. 14–15: Ahura Mazdâ's companions include the six 'Life-giving Immortals' and great gods, such as Mithra, the sun god, and others [...]. The forces of evil comprise, notably, Angra Manyu, the Evil Spirit, the bad, old, gods (daêwas), and Wrath (aêshma), which probably embodies the dark night sky itself. Zoroastrianism is therefore a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos."
^Masani, Sir Rustom.Zoroastrianism: The Religion of the Good Life. New York: Macmillan, 1968.
^abSchmitt, Rüdiger (20 July 2002)."Zoroaster i. The Name".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved1 August 2019.
^"Mazdaism".Oxford Reference.Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved1 August 2019.
^Berkey, Jonathan P. The formation of Islam: Religion and society in the Near East, 600–1800. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 2003. p. 27
^Nagasawa, Yujin (10 December 2019), "Panpsychism Versus Pantheism, Polytheism, and Cosmopsychism",The Routledge Handbook of Panpsychism, Routledge, pp. 259–268,doi:10.4324/9781315717708-22,ISBN978-1-315-71770-8
^abc"AHURA".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Archived from the original on 2 September 2023. Retrieved13 July 2019.
^abBoyce, Mary (1983),"Ahura Mazdā",Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 684–687,archived from the original on 17 May 2020, retrieved13 July 2019
^Foltz, Richard; Saadi-Nejad, Manya (2008). "Is Zoroastrianism an Ecological Religion?".Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture.1 (4):413–430.doi:10.1558/jsrnc.v1i4.413.
^Foltz, Richard (2010). "Zoroastrian Attitudes toward Animals".Society & Animals.18 (4):367–78.doi:10.1163/156853010X524325.
^Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (4 January 2024)."Zoroastrianism".Encyclopedia Britannica.Archived from the original on 22 January 2012. Retrieved3 August 2013.
^ab"AHRIMAN".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Archived from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved13 July 2019.
^Burger, Michael (January 2013).The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Present. University of Toronto Press. p. 20.ISBN9781442601901.
^Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh (2016)."Ancient Iranian Motifs and Zoroastrian Iconography". In Alan Williams; Sarah Stewart; Almut Hintze (eds.).The ZoroastrianFlame. Exploring Religion, History and Tradition. I.B. Tauris.Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved30 January 2021.
^Malandra, William W. (2009)."Zoroaster ii. general survey".Encyclopædia Iranica. Iranica Foundation.Archived from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved6 May 2023.Controversy over Zaraθuštra's date has been an embarrassment of long standing to Zoroastrian studies. If anything approaching a consensus exists, it is that he lived ca. 1000 BCE give or take a century or so, though reputable scholars have proposed dates as widely apart as ca.1750 BCE and "258 years before Alexander.
^Boyce, Mary (1996).A History Of Zoroastrianism: The Early Period. Brill. p. 3.
^Daniel, Elton L. (2012).The History of Iran. Greenwood. p. 47.ISBN978-0313375095.Recent research, however, has cast considerable doubt on this dating and geographical setting. [...] The similarity of the language and metrical system of the Gathas to those of the Vedas, the simplicity of the society depicted throughout the Avesta, and the lack of awareness of great cities, historical rulers, or empires all suggest a different time frame. [...] All in all, it seems likely that Zoroaster and the Avestan people flourished in eastern Iran at a much earlier date (anywhere from 1500 to 900 B.C.) than once thought.
^Vogelsang, Willhelm (2000). "The sixteen lands of Videvdat – Airyanem Vaejah and the homeland of the Iranians".Persica.16: 9.doi:10.2143/PERS.16.0.511.The land of Airyanem Vaejah, which is described in the text as a land of extreme cold, has often been identified with ancient Choresmia.
^Witzel, Michael (2000). "The Home of the Aryans". In Hinze, A.; Tichy, E. (eds.).Festschrift für Johanna Narten zum 70. Geburtstag(PDF). J. H. Roell. pp. 283–338.doi:10.11588/xarep.00000114.Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved6 May 2023.Since the evidence of Young Avestan place names so clearly points to a more eastern location, the Avesta is again understood, nowadays, as an East Iranian text, whose area of composition comprised -- at least -- Sīstån/Arachosia, Herat, Merw and Bactria.
^Skjaervø, P. Oktor (1995). "The Avesta as source for the early history of the Iranians". In Erdosy, George (ed.).The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. De Gruyter. p. 166.ISBN9783110144475.The fact that the oldest Young Avestan texts apparently contain no reference to western Iran, including Media, would seem to indicate that they were composed in eastern Iran before the Median domination reached the area.
^Litvinskij, B. A.; Pichikian, I. R. (1994). "The Hellenistic Architecture and Art of the Temple of the Oxus".Bulletin of the Asia Institute.8.Asia Institute:47–66.ISSN0890-4464.JSTOR24048765.
^Wigram, W. A. (2004),An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church, or, The Church of the Sassanid Persian Empire, 100–640 A.D, Gorgias Press, p. 34,ISBN978-1593331030
^Stausberg, Michael (2007). "Para-Zoroastrianisms: Memetic transmissions and appropriations". In Hinnels, John; Williams, John (eds.).Parsis in India and their Diasporas. London: Routledge. pp. 236–54.
^United States Department of Commerce (1924).Trade and Economic Review for 1922 No.34 (Supplement to Commerce Reports ed.). Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. p. 46.Archived from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved8 May 2023.
^NIAC inSight, Washington insights for the Iranian-American community from the National Iranian American Council (16 December 2016)."An Old Faith in the New World – Zoroastrianism in the United States".NIAC inSight. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved26 August 2018.
^The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism. John Wiley & Sons. 2015. pp. 83–191.ISBN9781444331356.
^Š. Kulišić; P.Ž. Petrović; N. Pantelić. "Бели бог". Српски митолошки речник (in Serbian). Belgrade: Nolit. pp. 21–22.
^Juha Pentikäinen, Walter de Gruyter, Shamanism and Northern Ecology 11 July 2011
^Diószegi, Vilmos (1998) [1958]. A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben (in Hungarian) (1. reprint kiadás ed.). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.ISBN963-05-7542-6. The title means: "Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore".
^Gherardo Gnoli, "Manichaeism: An Overview", inEncyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mircea Eliade (NY: MacMillan Library Reference USA, 1987), 9: 165.
^Contrast with Henning's observations: Henning, W.B.,The Book of Giants, BSOAS, Vol. XI, Part 1, 1943, pp. 52–74:
It is noteworthy that Mani, who was brought up and spent most of his life in a province of the Persian empire, and whose mother belonged to a famous Parthian family, did not make any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There can no longer be any doubt that the Iranian names of Sām, Narīmān, etc., that appear in the Persian and Sogdian versions of the Book of the Giants, did not figure in the original edition, written by Mani in the Syriac language
Boyce, Mary (1979),Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge,ISBN978-0-415-23903-5 (note to catalogue searchers: the spine of this edition misprints the title "Zoroastrians" as "Zoroastians", and this may lead to catalogue errors; there is a second edition published in 2001 with the same ISBN)
Boyce, Mary (1982),The History of Zoroastrianism, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill,ISBN978-90-04-06506-2
Boyce, Mary (2001).Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge.ISBN978-0415239028.
Büchner, V. F. (1934),"Yazdān", in Houtsma, Martijn Theodor (ed.),Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. IV (1st ed.), Leyden: Brill.
Panaino, Antonio (2015). "The Classification of Astral Bodies in the framework of an Historical Survey of Iranian traditions". In Bläsing, U.; Arakelova, V. (eds.).Studies on Iran and The Caucasus in Honour of Garnik Asatrian. Brill. pp. 229–244.
Panaino, Antonio C.D. (2019).A Walk through the Iranian Heavens: Spherical and Non-Spherical Cosmographic Models in the Imagination of Ancient Iran and Its Neighbors. Brill.
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Zaehner, Robert Charles (1961),The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism, London: Phoenix Press,ISBN978-1-84212-165-8
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Malandra, William W. "ZOROASTRIANISM i. HISTORICAL REVIEW UP TO THE ARAB CONQUEST".Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived fromthe original on 5 December 2017. Retrieved17 September 2012.
Moulton, James Hope (1917).The Treasure of the Magi: A Study of Modern Zoroastrianism. London: Oxford University Press.ISBN1-564-59612-5.
Rose, J. (2000).The Image of Zoroaster: The Persian Mage Through European Eyes. Persian Studies Series. Bibliotheca Persica Press.ISBN978-0-933273-45-0.
Rose, J. (2011).Zoroastrianism: A Guide for the Perplexed. Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN978-1-4411-4950-3.
Zeini, A. (2020).Zoroastrian Scholasticism in Late Antiquity: The Pahlavi Version of the Yasna HaptaA Haiti. Edinburgh University Press.ISBN978-1-4744-4291-6.
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