Zooarchaeology orarchaeozoology merges the disciplines ofzoology andarchaeology, focusing on the analysis of animal remains within archaeological sites. This field, managed by specialists known as zooarchaeologists or faunal analysts, examines remnants such as bones, shells, hair,chitin, scales, hides, andproteins, such asDNA, to derive insights into historical human-animal interactions and environmental conditions.[1] While bones and shells tend to be relatively more preserved in archaeological contexts, the survival of faunal remains is generally infrequent.[2] The degradation or fragmentation of faunal remains presents challenges in the accurate analysis and interpretation of data.[2]
Characterized by its interdisciplinary nature, zooarchaeology bridges the studies of ancient human societies and the animal kingdom.[3] Practitioners, from various scientific backgrounds includinganthropology,paleontology, andecology, aim primarily to identify and understand human interactions with animals and their environments.[4] Through the analysis of faunal remains, zooarchaeologists can gain insight into past diets,domestication practices, tool usage, and ritualistic behaviors, thus contributing to a comprehensive view of human-environment interactions and the sub-field ofenvironmental archaeology.
The development of zooarchaeology in eastern North America can be broken up into three different periods.[5] The first being theFormative period starting around the 1860s, the second being the Systematization period beginning in the early 1950s, and lastly the Integration period which began about 1969.[5] Full-time zooarchaeologists came to be during the Systematization period.[5] Prior to the Systemization period, it was just a technique that was applied but not specifically studied.
Zooarchaeological specialists started to come about partly because of a new approach to archaeology known asprocessual archaeology.[6] This approach puts more emphasis on explaining why things happened, not just what happened.[6]Archaeologists began to specialize in zooarchaeology, and their numbers increased.[6]
One important aspect of zooarchaeology is using morphological and genetic evidence to answer questions zooarchaeologists have about the relationship between animals and humans.[7]: 172 These questions include:
Another important aspect of zooarchaeology is its application to the migration patterns of humans. In areas where people are either closely tied to animal as companions or regularly follow the migrations of herds, the data collected from these animals can help give context to human movement as well.[9]: 103 Studying animal remains can also give context to other remains and artifacts found in association with them.[10]: 1
Faunal remains are parts of animals that have been left in the material record, which archaeologists study. These remains are important to the record because they can show cultural practices, such as what food they were eating, based on the remains left behind.[11] Zooarcheologists can find out information like the species the animal is, the age the animal was when it died, and what its sex was.[11]
Some common faunal remains found at sites include, as stated above, bones, shells, hair, chitin, scales, hides, proteins and DNA. These are often found in piles of waste left behind. This means zooarchaeology is part of the general study of waste orgarbology. Archaeologists may have to sort through and identify the species and body region of faunal remains.[12] The types of fauna that leave behind these remains will depend on where the archaeological site is located. These animals can be domesticated or wild, and sometimes they find both types of remains at sites.[12]
In addition to helping us understand the past, zooarchaeology can also help us to improve the present and the future.[13] Studying how people dealt with animals, and their effects can help avoid many potential ecological problems.[13] This specifically includes problems involving wildlife management.[13] For example, one of the questions that wildlife preservationists ask is whether they should keep animals facing extinction in several smaller areas, or in one larger area.[13] Based on zooarchaeological evidence, they found that animals that are split up into several smaller areas are more likely to go extinct.[13]
One of the issues to which zooarchaeologists pay close attention istaphonomy.[5] Techniques used in the study of taphonomy include researching how items are buried and deposited at an archaeological site, what the conditions are that aid in the preservation of these items, and how these items get destroyed, all a part of what is referred to by archaeologistMichael Brian Schiffer asbehavioral archaeology.[5] One important aspect of taphonomy is assessing how a specimen became damaged; understanding the taphonomy of afaunal assemblage can explain how and why bones were damaged.[10] One source of damage to animal bones is humans.[10]: 169 Cut marks on animal bones provide evidence forbutchering.[10]: 169 Fractures, such as by percussion impact andspiral fracture on a bone can suggest that it was processed by humans for its marrow, minerals, and nutrients.[10]: 170 Other human processes that affect bones include burning[10]: 171 and damage from archaeological excavations.[10]: 178 Non-human damage to bones includes interspecies damage,[10]: 173 damage fromraptors andscavengers,[10]: 173 damage fromrodents,[10]: 175 damage fromfungi,[10]: 176 environmentalweathering,[10]: 176 andpolishing.[10]: 176 Distinguishing different types of damage to animal bones is a tedious and complex process that requires background in multiple scientific fields.[10]: 169 Some of the physical damage on bones can be seen with the naked eye, but a lens with 10x magnification and good lighting is necessary for seeing most damage.[10]: 169
Identification is integral to the archaeological analysis of animal remains.[10]: 1 Identification of animal remains requires a combination ofanatomy,taxonomy, and studies of archaeological context.[10]: 1 The ability to identify a piece of bone requires knowing what element (bone in the body) it is, and to what animal the bone belongs.[10]: 1 The latter is referred to astaxonomy, which is used to sort animals into different groups.[10]: 1 Zooarchaeology usesLinnean nomenclature, which includes varying degrees of specificity in regards to the species.[10]: 2 Linnaean nomenclature (Linnaean taxonomy) is used because it allows archaeologists to identify and show the genetic and morphological relationships between species.[10]: 2 These relationships are based onspeciesevolution, which can often be subject to interpretation.[10]: 4 While more specific identification is preferable, it is better to be less specific in the identification rather than identify a specimen incorrectly.[10]: 2 When examining animal remains, it is common that there are bones that are too small or too damaged to be able to accurately identify it.[10]: 3 Archaeological context can be used to help with assumptions about species identification.[10]: 3 Skeletal classification is the other half of properly identifying animal remains.[10]: 1 Zoological osteology is useful to zooarchaeology because certain morphological aspects of a bone are associated with particular periods of growth, which can help narrow down the age the specimen was at death.[10]: 9 The analysis of teeth require a slightly different approach than bone, but retain the same level of importance when it comes to analysis.[10]: 9 The wear pattern and toothmorphology provides information about a species diet and age; the enamel also has biochemical remains of what the animal ate.[10]: 9 While animal remains can include more than just bones and teeth, the nature of things like hair and muscle cause it to deteriorate quickly after death, leaving the skeleton behind; this is why most of zooarchaeology revolves around skeletal morphology.[10]: 6 Laboratory analysis can include comparing the skeletons found on site with previously identified lab specimens.[5] This not only helps to identify what the animal is, but also whether the animal was domesticated or not.[5]
Genetic analysis usingancient DNA is an important tool used by zooarchaeologists. Genetic history of an animal can give information on population movement over time and environmental adaptations necessary to live in an area.[9]: 103 It can also give context to how animals may or may not have been domesticated over time by a group of people.[9]: 104 Ancient DNA is critical to the genetic analysis of animals remains. Whereas modern DNA has very long fragments in samples, ancient DNA has very short fragments, making it very easily contaminated.[9]: 94 The extraction and sampling of ancient DNA requires highly specialized training, as well as intensive protocol to prevent it from being contaminated by modern DNA.[14]: 5 The paper :Ancient DNA Analysis of the Oldest Canid Species from the Siberian Arctic and Genetic Contribution to the Domestic Dog" by Lee et al. gives a description of claws and teeth were sampled for ancient DNA. In a facility specially designed for ancient DNA extraction, with the use of personal protective equipment and regular bleaching of surfaces and tools, the claws and teeth were wiped with bleach to destroy all modern DNA on the surface, and were then drilled into a powder. The DNA fragments were extracted from the bone powder using an ancient DNA extraction protocol. After using several processes to replicate the DNA fragments and verify the results (PCR andgel electrophoresis), the ancient DNA from the bone powder was sequenced and then analyzed.[14]: 5
WithZooMS analysis (Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry), the animal species behind a bone fragment or bone artifact can be determined even when no morphological traits survive. The method makes use of interspecies differences in the structure ofcollagen.[citation needed]
Yet another technique zooarchaeologists use isquantification.[5] They make interpretations based on the number and size of the faunal remains.[5] These interpretations include how important different animals might have been to the diet.[5]
Human-animal relationships and interactions were diverse duringprehistory from being a food source to playing a more intimate role in society.[15] Animals have been used in non-economical ways such as being part of a human burial. However, the majority of zooarchaeology has focused on who was eating what by looking at various remains such as bones, teeth, and fish scales.[15] In the twenty-first century researchers have begun to interpret animals in prehistory in wider cultural and social patterns, focusing on how the animals have affected humans and possible animal agency.[15] There is evidence of animals such as themountain lion or thejaguar being used for ritualistic purposes, but not being eaten as a food source.[15]
Analyses of faunal remains are important to show how prehistoric andhunter-gatherer civilizations interacted with the animals in their environment.[11] This information can be used to help reconstructPaleolithic environments. Faunal remains with cut marks, teeth marks, burns, or butchering can signify human interaction which can be important to archaeological data.[16] Sometimes these analyses can be difficult due to decomposition and weathering, which can cause damage to the remains. Not only do faunal remains help reconstruct environments from the past they can show other cultural practices as well. These remains are not always from food, but can be found in jewelry, tools, spiritual practices, and more.[16] This information can show thefauna located in the area of analyses, as well as cultural significance.[citation needed]
Animal burials date back to prehistory with examples emerging from theMesolithic period. InSweden at the site ofSkateholm I, dogs were found buried with children under eight years old or were found buried by themselves. Some of the dogs who were buried alone have grave goods similar to their human contemporaries such as flint weapons and deer antlers.[15] Meanwhile, during the same time period Skateholm II emerged and was very different from Skateholm I, as dogs were buried along on the North and West boundaries of the grave area.[15] Another burial site in Siberia nearLake Baikal known as the "Lokomotiv" cemetery had a wolf burial among human graves.[15][17] Buried together with, but slightly beneath the wolf was a male human skull.[17] The wolf breed was not native to this area as it was warm and other research for the area shows no other wolf habitation.[17] Bazaliiskiy and Savelyev suggests that the presence and significance of the wolf could possibly reflect human interaction.[17] Another example occurred in 300 B.C. inPazyryk known as thePazyryk burials where ten horses were buried alongside a human male, the horses were fully adorned with saddles, pendants, among other valuables.[15] The oldest horse as also the horse with the grandest attachments. Erica Hill, a professor in archaeology, suggests that the burials of prehistory animals can shed light on human-animal relationships.[15]
Zooarchaeology overlaps significantly with other areas of study. These include:
Such analyses provide the basis by which further interpretations can be made. Topics that have been addressed by zooarchaeologists include:
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