Zimbabwean English
Signpost inChimanimani
Region	Zimbabwe
Ethnicity	Zimbabweans
Native speakers	485,000 (2019)[1] Second language: 5,100,000 (2019)[1]
Language family	Indo-European Germanic West Germanic Ingvaeonic Anglo-Frisian Anglic English British English &African English Zimbabwean English
Early forms	Old English Middle English Early Modern English 19th centuryBritish English
Writing system	Latin (English alphabet) Unified English Braille
Official status
Official language in	Zimbabwe
Language codes
ISO 639-3	–
IETF	en-ZW
This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

Zimbabwean English (ZimE;en-ZIM;en-ZW) is aregional variety of English found inZimbabwe. While the majority of Zimbabweans speakShona (75%) andNdebele (18%) as a first language,standard English is the primary language used in education, government, commerce and media in Zimbabwe, giving it an important role in society.^[2] About 90 percent of the population canspeak English fluently or at a high level, and it is the native language ofWhite Zimbabweans.^[3][4]

Casual observers tend to have difficulty in placing the Zimbabwean accent, as it differs from those that are clearly fromBritish,South African or otherAfrican Englishes; like other English dialects, the accent tends to vary between individuals based on education, class and ethnic background.^[5] To Americans, it sounds slightly British, while British speakers find the accent rather old-fashioned and either nasal or somewhat twangy or African-influenced depending on the background of the speaker.^[2]

The Zimbabwean education system uses English beginning in grade 3. Of the languages used in Zimbabwe, it is used nationally and, as the sole official language, has the highest status in the country.^[6]

Zimbabwean English has been called "one of the under researched varieties of English".^[7] It primarily shows a mixture of traits typical of British English and to a lesser extent, South African English, and is generally classified as a form ofSouthern Hemisphere English along withAustralian English,New Zealand English,South African English and the lesser knownFalkland Islands English, which all descend fromsouthern British English dialects.^[8] While Zimbabwean English shares many similarities with southern hemisphere Englishes (Australian, New Zealand, South African), it is distinct from its closest relative,South African English, despite occasional confusion by outsiders.Southern Rhodesia was heavily influenced by South Africa from 1890 until it voted forresponsible government in 1923. This along with waves of immigration from theCape Colony andOrange Free State influenced the early development of English in the country. As a result, most similarities between Zimbabwean English andSouth African English date from this early period, and were somewhat reinvigorated bypost war migration from South Africa.

However, after 1923, the Rhodesian and British Governments increasingly grouped Rhodesia with theCentral African colonies and firmly within the British sphere of influence. This led to a divergence between the two Englishes and from then on Zimbabwean English was predominately influenced byBritish English, with the minor influence of Afrikaans (in comparison with South Africa) and African languages, generally used to describe flora and fauna, with terms such askopje,dassie and bhundu (Shona for bush).^[2] Migration from Britain, especially afterWorld War II, introduced and reinforced many features of dialects from Southern England and to a lesser extent those from theEast Midlands andScotland, which had an impact on local speech.^[9] This dialect came to be known asRhodesian English, typified by speakers such asIan Smith andP.K. van der Byl.

After independence in 1980, this dialect fell sharply out of favour and came to be regarded as an archaic, non-productive dialect, only spoken by the oldest generation ofwhite Zimbabweans and out of touch, nostalgicRhodies andwhenwes. Zimbabwean English evolved with the changing social, economic and political conditions in which blacks and whites interacted in Zimbabwe; with the old conservative Rhodesian accent being effectively replaced by the more neutral and prestigious soundingcultivated private school accent, which ironically retains some of its features.^[10][9]

Another noticeable trend, was a steep decline in the influence of South African English andAfrikaans-derived terminology after 1980, with a notable preference for British English or African-derived alternatives, due to tensions between theMugabe andapartheid South African governments, though a handful of terms such asbraai andvoetsek remain (seeList of South African slang words). Similarly, bilingualAfrikaner institutions such as theDutch Reformed Church in South Africa andEaglesvale Senior School switched to an English-only or English-dominant format, in response to government scrutiny.^[11][12] Today, the main languages spoken in are English, Shona and Ndebele. Only 3.5%, mainly the white, Indian, Asian, coloured (mixed race) and foreign-born minorities, consider English their native language. The vast majority of English speakers are black Zimbabweans, who arebilingual or even trilingual with Bantu languages such asShona (75%), Ndebele (18%) and the other minority languages, and thus these speakers have an outsize role in influencing the direction of Zimbabwean English, despite traditional native speakers maintaining an important influence.^[13]

English in Zimbabwe is uniformlynon-rhotic.^[14] This is consistent with other varieties of English in the southern hemisphere.^[14] One major difference between the now archaic Rhodesian English and other Englishes of the southern hemisphere is a high pitched nasality or twang noted in speakers such asIan Smith. This influence remains to a lesser degree in cultivated forms of Zimbabwean English especially as spoken by olderAnglo African speakers.^[14]

Much likeAustralian andSouth African English, spoken English exists on a continuum frombroad,general tocultivated (seebroad and general accents), based on an individual's background, particularly with regards to education, class, income and historically, ethnicity.^[15] Affluent,upper middle class andhighly educated Zimbabweans speak in a cultivated accent, influenced by older forms ofsouthern British English, especiallyReceived Pronunciation and the now archaic Rhodesian English. The cultivated accent can be viewed as a localised approximation ofReceived Pronunciation, taught at private, fee-paying day and boarding schools such asPrince Edward School,Arundel School andPeterhouse Boys' School. Indeed,cultivated speakers (such as Peter Ndoro orTsitsi Dangarembga) can sometimes sound virtually indistinguishable from middle class, privately educated, BritishReceived Pronunciation speakers (though not the British upper class). As such, the accent is only spoken natively by a tiny fraction of the population and denotesprestige and authority, with many dialect speakers dominating spaces such as business, the performing arts, law, journalism,cricket and higher education as late as the late 1990s. Similar accents can be noted in other former British territories such ascultivated Australian andCanadian dainty.^[16] The cultivated accent is sometimes humorously mocked by other speakers for its nasality and alleged pretentiousness, with speakers derided as the so-callednose brigades.^[17]Robert Mugabe,Brendan Taylor,Pommie Mbangwa,Dave Houghton and journalists Peter Ndoro and Sophie Chamboko are notable speakers of a cultivated accent.^[18]

On the other hand, rural and urban working class speakers, are heavily influenced by their native languages (these groups are also mocked asSRBs whose accents betray theirstrong rural background). This "broad" variety is most associated with the working class, rural persons, low socioeconomic status, and limited education.^[10] These three sub-varieties have also been called "Cultivated ZimE", "General ZimE", and "Broad ZimE", respectively. Broad accents roughly approximates the English as a second-language varieties of English.^[19] This variety has been stigmatised by middle and upper middle class English speakers and is considered a vernacular or improper form of Zimbabwean English. A notable trend by broad speakers is a growing preference for English names that are direct translations from African languages. This is largely due to the prestige of English in society, their limited education and the aspiration of parents for their children to move into the middle classes or pursue opportunities abroad.^[20] Such names generally appear non-standard to native English speakers and are usually viewed humorously by middle class Zimbabweans andBritons, Irish people andAustralians, when they interact withbroad speakers abroad. Examples of such names includeInnocent,Fortunate,Blessing andLovemore.^[20] Notable speakers of the broad Zimbabwean accent areJonathan Moyo andWinky D.^[19]

Lower middle to middle class black Zimbabweans are by far the largest speakers of Zimbabwean English and are generally the most prominent in the mainstream media, especially since 2000.^[19] These speakers generally fall in a spectrum between the two accents with educated accents approximating cultivated accents but without quite the same level ofelocution, while lower middle class speakers tend to speak more plainly. As a result, the general accent shows greater variety than other dialects. Indeed, contrary to outside expectations, a number notable of white Zimbabweans, especially those under 45 exhibit features of a general accent, albeit with a hint of nasality. This is largely due to the growth of the internet,circular migration, as well as Zimbabweans of all races interacting with each other on equal terms. Despite this white speakers still form a disproportionate number ofcultivated accent speakers. A notable feature of general accents is a tendency to over pronounce certain consonants, than other dialects, such as thehard T, though this is not a feature among white speakers.^[21] Speakers of thegeneral dialect tend to have at least a high school education and speak English fluently and natively and are perfectlybilingual.^[2][19]

The aspirational nature of this group, has led to younger speakers becoming more susceptible to influences from other Englishes, particularly pop-culture references fromAmerican English (what's up, you guys, chill out, like) that are derided by cultivated speakers who overwhelmingly prefer British conventions and more traditionally minded Zimbabweans who dismiss individuals with such affectations as so calledsalads(stupid Africans who like (ie copy) American dressing (trends)).^[22] Lesser influences includeJamaican patois from the popularity ofreggae anddancehall with lower middle class youths andBritish slang andLondon English accents due to the growth ofZimbabweans in the United Kingdom.^[22] Speakers of thisgeneral Zimbabwean accent include:Evan Mawarire,Hamilton Masakadza, Marc Pozzo,Heath Streak,Morgan Tsvangirai andPetina Gappah.

A subset of the general accent is general Zimbabwean English as spoken by younger middle-class, white Zimbabweans, especially those who were born or came of age after 1980. This form of speech eschews the negative connotations of the obsoleteRhodesian dialect and speakers tend to avoid the elocution, nasality (and alleged elitism) of acultivated private school accent, as they either did not attend the elite institutions where the accent is taught or prefer to downplay it, to sound more relatable or 'cool'.^[22] A similar trend can be observed in British English with the development ofEstuary English. This concept ofcommunication accommodation, either upwards or downwards in idiolect, can be seen in many social interactions. A speaker aims to put someone at ease by speaking in a familiar tone or intonation, or one can intimidate or alienate someone by speaking more formally.^[22] A lot of crossover exists between this sub-variety and the wider general accent, thus it can be difficult to differentiate speakers by ethnicity especially if they have gone to the same schools.^[22] Unlike older generations, younger white Zimbabweans tend to have learnt Shona and Ndebele at school and have friends from different backgrounds and nationalities. Also, unlike young black Zimbabweans, a greater proportion of young whites now live abroad, which may lead to the sub-dialect eventually being absorbed by the larger general accent. Examples of speakers of the modern, sub-dialect includeKirsty Coventry,Kyle Jarvis (who retains somecultivated features),Tom Curran,Don Armand, andDave Ewers.^[23]

Today English is spoken by virtually all in the cities, but less so in rural areas.^[2] English, the official language, enjoys status dominance and is the language of instruction in education, commerce, the government and the majority of the media.

While black and white dialects of Zimbabwean English are well represented in the media, a less prominent and under researched sub-variety of Zimbabwean English is Coloured Zimbabwean English, originally and best associated withinner-city,mixed-raceColoured speakers.^[24]

Coloured Zimbabwean English is made up of a range of forms which developed differently in different parts of Zimbabwe, and are said to vary along a continuum, from forms close to general and cultivated Zimbabwean English to more heavy forms, that exhibit a disproportionate influence fromSouth African English andAfrikaans.^[24] There are distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use. This influence is due to the fact that the earliest Coloured communities were formed mainly by those who had emigrated as workers and servants ofwhite South African settlers from theCape Colony andOrange Free State. Coloured immigration from South Africa spiked following a depression after thesecond Boer War and continued in various waves, as Coloured people emigrated on their own accord in large numbers untilRhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence. Coloured communities were largely segregated from both whites and blacks and as a result formed their own communities where their unique English dialects developed separately. By the 1940s most local Coloureds had been born in Southern Rhodesia as offspring of British administrators and colonists and local women, solidifying the shift away from Afrikaans to English.^[24]

While a wave of immigration from South Africa in the eighties boosted the community's numbers, as Coloured South Africans sought refuge from the oppressiveapartheid regime. However, since independence, many Coloured Zimbabweans have complained of feeling increasingly disenfranchised, and neglected by the government. A Coloured lobby group, the National Association for the Advancement of Mixed Race Coloureds (NAAC), was formed in 2001 to protest against what they perceived as discrimination against their community by the state. As a result, Coloured English speakers are rarely featured in the media, with the few exceptions such as musician, Andy Brown, either adopting general accents or working in Shona language media.^[24] This situation is largely comparable to the status ofCape Flats English which also experiences neglect from the mainstream press and is derided as non-standard.^[25] Similarities, exist between the two dialects, however, they have diverged significantly as mostCape Coloureds are largely Afrikaans speaking, while Zimbabwean Coloureds have become universallyanglophone or less commonly bilingual withShona or Ndebele.^[24]

ZCE terms, or derivative terms, are sometimes used by the broader Zimbabwean community. Zimbabwean Coloured English is spoken among Coloured people generally, though not allmixed-race people identify as Coloured and not all Coloureds speak the dialect. It is especially evident in what are called "discrete communities", such as the historically Coloured suburbs of Braeside,Arcadia,Hillside,Cranborne and St. Martins inHarare. Black Zimbabweans who live in these communities or have ties to historically Coloured schools (such as Morgan High School and St. Johns High) and sports such as cricket, have partially adopted the dialect but also maintain features of general or cultivated accents based on their education or background. Because most Coloured Zimbabweans are concentrated in urban areas (83%), especially Harare and Bulawayo, coloured dialects are almost exclusively an urban phenomenon.^[25] Additionally, like other Zimbabweans, the country's economic crisis, has prompted many to leave the country, leading to a growing diaspora abroad, notably so in the UK (Milton Keynes,Luton,Reading),Cape Town, South Africa and Australia (Perth,Brisbane,Sydney), reducing the dialect almost exclusively toHarare andBulawayo. Notable speakers of a Coloured accent are comedianEdgar Langeveldt and sporting announcerEd Rainsford.

The following are terms used by Coloured English speakers that are either less common or absent in Zimbabwean and other Englishes

• Auntie- A respectful term for an older woman. Black Zimbabweans tend to use similar terms in African languages.Auntie is also used in other Englishes such asCaribbean English, southernAfrican American English and inMāori and Polynesian cultures.
• Barley- Many Coloured people use the wordbarley in a distinct way, to meanfather or a respected older man. Occasionally used by middle class black Zimbabweans, but not widely so.
• Blondie-A naïve, unruly or stupid young woman.
• China- A friend; as in the greeting 'How's it my china?' Likely fromCockney rhyming slang "China plate" (meaning "my mate"); from early British immigrants.
• Cheeky-"Cheeky" may be used to describe a mischievous person, particularly a child.
• Connection- a close friend, mate or a person who can do you a favour.
• Den- Many Coloured people refer to their house as their den, particularly inHarare and theMashonaland East. This word has also been adopted by young black Zimbabweans, particularly in Harare. The term probably entered youth culture in the late 1990s.
• Dead- Dead is used by manyColoured people to mean boring, or uninteresting, when referring to an event. This usage is not exclusive to Coloured people and can be heard in other forms of English, such asIrish English andManchester English.
• Dutchman/ Dutchie/(ma)Bhunu- A pejorative term for awhite South African especially anAfrikaner. Also used negatively to refer to Afrikaners by other South Africans, but complete absent from other forms of Zimbabwean English.
• Gammon-Victorian era English word forpretend. Still used by some people to mean joking generally as in gammoning. Though virtually unknown by other Zimbabweans it is surprisingly common in Australia, especially as used byAboriginal people.
• Goffal-A Coloured or mixed-race Zimbabwean or Zambian. Largely unknown by other Zimbabweans who prefer the termcoloured. Does not refer to and is largely unknown byCape Coloureds
• Humbug- Whereashumbug in broader English (seeCharles Dickens'sScrooge character) means nonsensical, or unimportant information, humbug in Coloured English means an annoying person who makes inane or repetitive requests. As in 'here comes that humbug again'.^[24]
• Kwacha-A worthless item, or an item rapidly losing value. From theZambian Kwacha. Once commonly used by black Zimbabweans but increasingly obsolete due to the troubles of Zimbabwe's own currency.
• Lighty- a younger person, especially a younger male such as a younger brother or son. From the Afrikaans term,laaitie. Common in South Africa, but largely absent in other Zimbabwean dialects.
• Late- Dead, a deceased person; An indirect or respectful way of referring to a person who has died, as 'his father is late'. In Coloured culture and black Zimbabwean culture more generally, a person is rarely referred to as deceased directly.^[24]
• Nyasas/ Nyasalanders- Malawian (and less commonly Zambian) immigrants and their descendants, may be considered pejorative. Also used by black Zimbabweans especially older speakers.
• Moscans-Mozambique or Portuguese-speaking immigrants (though not Portuguese people). More common in eastern Zimbabwe, especiallyHarare,Mashonaland East andManicaland.
• Oan/ Own- A friend; especially male, as in the phrase 'That's my oan'. Absent in other Zimbabwean dialects, though sometimes used by black and white Zimbabweans who interact with Coloured people. Its origin is unclear but maybe connected to the South African termoke, which carries the same meaning but is virtually unused in Zimbabwean English.
• Porkies- Lies, as in 'you're telling me porkies'. FromCockney rhyming slang, i.e. lies = pork pies, hence porkies.
• Scheme- To think, or to do (e.g. "I scheme we should go home now"; usage evolved from the hyperbole "What are you scheming?" asked of a person deep in thought.). Also used in South African English
• Yarn- English word for along story, often with incredible or unbelievable events. Originally a sailors' expression, "to spin a yarn", in reference to stories told while performing mundane tasks such as spinningyarn.^[26] Among Coloured people, it has become a verb, to ramble or tell tall tales. Often,Yarning.

Many of these relate to words used to refer to common items, often based on which major brands becomeeponyms.

• List of English words of Afrikaans origin
• South African English
• Australian English
• New Zealand English
• Commonwealth English
• British diaspora in Africa
• English in southern England
• Regional accents of English

• Dialects of English
• Languages of Zimbabwe

• Language articles citing Ethnologue 25
• Articles with short description
• Short description matches Wikidata
• Pages with plain IPA
• Use dmy dates from March 2022
• Language articles with IETF language tag
• Dialects of languages with ISO 639-3 code
• Language articles missing Glottolog code