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Zajal (Arabic:زجل) is a traditional form of oralstrophic poetry declaimed in a colloquial dialect. The earliest recorded zajal poet wasIbn Quzman ofal-Andalus who lived from 1078 to 1160.[1] Most scholars see theAndalusi Arabiczajal, thestress-syllable versification of which differs significantly from thequantitative meter of classicalArabic poetry, as a form of expression adapted fromRomance languages' popular poetry traditions into Arabic—first at the folkloric level and then by lettered poets such as Ibn Quzman.[2]
It is generally conceded that the early ancestors of Levantine dialectical poetry were the Andalusianzajal andmuwashshaḥah, brought to Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean byMoors fleeing Spain in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.[3] An early master of Egyptian zajal was the fourteenth centuryzajjāl Abu ʿAbd Allāh al-Ghubārī.[4] Zajal's origins may be ancient but it can be traced back to at least the 12th century. Today, it is most alive in theLevant—especially inLebanon(see below),Palestine,Syria, and inJordan where professional zajal practitioners can attain high levels of recognition and popularity—as well as theMaghreb, particularlyMorocco andAlgeria. Zajal is semi-improvised and semi-sung and is often performed in the format of a debate betweenzajjalin (poets who improvise the zajal). It is usually accompanied by percussive musical instruments (with the occasional wind instrument, e.g. theney) and a chorus of men (and more recently, women) who sing parts of the verse.
Egyptian poets known for their literary use of the popular zajal form areYaqub Sanu, 'Abd Allah al-Nadim,Bayram al-Tunisi, andAhmed Fouad Negm.[5] Well-known Lebanesezajjaali includeZein Sh'eib, Talih Hamdan, Zaghloul alDamour, Moussa Zgheib, Asaad Said, and Khalil Rukoz.
According toLane's Lexicon, the root verbzajila means variously to make a sound, to utter a cry, to evince emotion, to play or sport.[6]Adnan Haydar, a scholar specializing in Arabic language and literature,[7] citesIbn Manzur's 14th century lexicon Lisan al-Arab in attributing the meaning of "to raise the voice in singing" to the root verbzajala.[8]: 191 Focusing on one of the meanings given byLane, another scholar maintains that the etymology ofzajal is related to play and musical entertainment.[9]
Zajal poetry is in thecolloquial Arabic of al-Andalus rather than StandardArabic.Zajal differs from classical Arabic poetry in that the former hasstrophic form and the latter ismonorhymed.[2] Zajal'sstress-syllable versification, or qualitative meter, also differs significantly from thequantitative meter of classicalArabic poetry.[2]
Most scholars see theAndalusi Arabiczajal as a form of expression adapted fromRomance languages' popular poetry traditions into Arabic—first at the folkloric level and then by lettered poets such asIbn Quzman.[2] The versification patterns of Andalusizajal resemble those of Galiciancantigas, Castilianvillancicos, Italian dansas andballatas, and Frenchrondeau andvirelai.[2]
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Lebanese zajal is a semi-improvised, semi-sung or declaimed form of poetry in theLebanese variety ofLevantine Arabic. Its roots may be as ancient asPre-Islamic Arabic poetry, but various similar manifestations of zajal can be traced to 10th- to 12th-century Moorish Spain (Al-Andalus), and specifically to the colloquial poetIbn Quzman (Cordoba, 1078–1160). Zajal has close ties in prosody, delivery, form and spirit with various semi-sung colloquial poetry traditions, including such seemingly disparate traditions asnabati andtroubadour poetry.[citation needed] Many Near Eastern, Arabian and Mediterranean cultures (including Greece, Algeria, Morocco, Spain and southern France) had, or still have, rich semi-improvised, semi-sung colloquial poetry traditions, which share some traits with Lebanese zajal, such as the verbal duel (e.g. thejeu parti of the troubadours), the use of tambourines or other minimalist percussion instruments, and a chanting chorus of men (Reddadi, in Lebanese) who repeat key verses or refrains recited by the poets.
The statement that none of the extant oral poetry traditions can rival Lebanese zajal in its sophistication, metric variety, extended lineage, and continued evolution may be arguable, but it is hard to contest the fact that none of them enjoys its ardent popularity. Today, many professional zajal poets tour the Lebanese countryside and expatriate communities around the world performing for thousands of aficionados.
The earliest practitioner of zajal in what is present-day Lebanon is thought[10] to be the BishopGabriel ibn al-Qilai Al-Hafadi (1440–1516), although some scholarship[11] traces Lebanese zajal back almost two centuries earlier to a poet by the name of Souleiman Al-Ashlouhi (1270–1335) and a few of his contemporaries, and in particular to a single poem in 1289, the year of the destruction ofTripoli (in present north Lebanon) by theMamluks.[8]
Zajal had its great ascendency as a popular art form in the 19th century when numerous poets contributed to its refinement in content and form. The format of the modern Lebanese zajal evening was set in the 1930s mostly by the master poet Assad Al-Khuri Al-Fghali (1894–1937), known as Shahrur Al-Wadi (Merle of the Valley), who is also credited with introducing many innovations in form and genre. The most common format for a modern evening of Lebanese zajal is a debate (or verbal duel) between two or more poets followed by a recitation of love poetry (ghazal). The format typically consists of recitation in theqasida form (ode), followed by debates in them3anna andqerradi forms (a popular sub-form of the latter is sometimes calledmoukhammas mardoud [answered quintain]), leading toghazal recitations in various forms such as themuwaššah, which, in its Lebanese zajal incarnation, is a joyous and flirtatious genre. The whole is accompanied by a chorus with tambourines and other percussion instruments. The meeting often concludes with a love lament, typically in theShruqi form.
There seems to be a consensus[8] among the few scholars who have seriously studied the metrics of zajal that it follows two distinct metrical systems. One metrical system is quantitative and is clearly based on some of the strict so-called Khalili meters of classical Arabic poetry (for instance them3anna and related forms scan according to the classicalsari3,rajaz andwafir meters) and the other is stress-syllabic (for instance many sub-forms of the qerradi are clearly based onSyriac metrics, such as the syllabic metric of the Afframiyyat homilies attributed to the 4th-centurySt. Ephraem.) Both kinds of metrics in zajal are subject to fluid alteration by musical accentuation and syncopation[8] which is possible due to the colloquial's malleability and its inherent allowance (likeSyriac) to erode inflections and internal voweling.
The regional variation in the appreciation of zajal in Lebanon mirrors to a remarkable extent the ethnic and sectarian fragmentation, which remains despite six decades of national co-habitation. Traditionally cosmopolitan communities (e.g. theSunnis,Greek Orthodox andArmenians of the littoral cities) have had relatively little affinity for zajal and have produced, with some notable exceptions, few importantzajjali. On the other hand, theMaronites,Druze andShiites who inhabit, or have their roots, in the Lebanese mountains and rural areas, have disproportionately populated the ranks ofzajjali over zajal's centuries-long evolution. This regional bias is also reflected in the imagery of zajal, which mirrors more the bucolic and sensual sensibilities of the rural countryside than the cerebral and formal concerns of urban intellectuals. However, many colloquial poets were able to transcend these fluid boundaries and have composed verse that expressively tackles virtually the whole spectrum of humanistic concerns.
Thediglossic nature of the Arabic language inLebanon—marked by the coexistence of formal and colloquial forms—carries significant ethnic and socio-political implications. This linguistic duality has sparked debates within Lebanon's multi-ethnic and multi-sectarian society regarding whether the colloquial language can serve as an acceptable literary medium, leading to divisive opinions on the matter.
To the ear of a non-Arabic speaker (and sometimes even to that of a native), a phrase spoken inModern Standard Arabic (fus-ha) and repeated inLebanese Arabic often sounds substantially different[12] — considerably more so than in the case of, say, classical vs. (spoken) modern Greek. This difference is due, at least partly, to the colloquial having a clearsubstratum made up of (extinct or semi-extinct) non-Arabic dialects of LevantineSemitic languages, such asAramaic,Syriac andCanaanite, as well as having later infusions of Persian (e.g. culinary matters),Turkish (e.g. military matters),French and most recentlyEnglish vocabulary.[12] Starting with theIslamic conquests in the 7th century, which broughtclassical Arabic to theLevant, the local dialects were naturally, progressively and, eventually, greatly but never completely, replaced by Arabic, but with the influence of other languages still apparent. The ease with which this Arabization occurred is due to the fundamental kinship between Arabic and the local dialects — all being Semitic and thus based on derivations fromtriconsonantal (triliteral) roots.
The relegation of the colloquial literature, including zajal, to a sub-literary class was further solidified by the rise ofpan-Arabism in the 1950s and 60s at a time when the Lebanese schooling system witnessed its widest expansion and standardization. A consequence of this sociopolitically conditioned diglossia is that the rich canon of colloquial poetry, of which zajal is the foremost embodiment, remains mostly unwritten and practically never part of curricula at schools and universities (although a few post-graduate theses have treated some aspects of the zajal tradition). Today, the majority of the educated Lebanese do not know am3anna from aqerradi (the two most common metrical forms of zajal) and are likely to be more familiar with a few forms of French prosody (e.g. thesonnet and theode) taught in many private and even public schools.
Although many audio and video recordings of zajal events have been made, especially on Lebanese TV during the 1960s, 70s and 80s, there has been little effort to properly transcribe or archive these recordings at national or university libraries for serious scholarly research. The elevation of this canon to scholarly attention was not helped by the fact that the cause of colloquial Lebanese was espoused only by ultra-nationalists (especially during the divisiveLebanese Civil War, 1975–1990), who sought to claim aLebanese culture distinct fromthat of the Arabs.
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