TheZagros Mountains[a] are amountain range inIran, northernIraq, and southeasternTurkey. The mountain range has a total length of 1,600 km (990 miles). The Zagros range begins in northwestern Iran and roughly follows Iran's western border while covering much of southeastern Turkey and northeastern Iraq. From this border region, the range continues southeast to the waters of thePersian Gulf. It spans the southern parts of theArmenian highlands, and the whole length of the western and southwesternIranian plateau, ending at theStrait of Hormuz. The highest point is MountDena, at 4,409 metres (14,465 ft).
The process of collision continues to the present, and as the Arabian Plate is being pushed against the Eurasian Plate, the Zagros Mountains and theIranian plateau are getting higher and higher. RecentGPS measurements inIran[6] have shown that this collision is still active and the resulting deformation is distributed non-uniformly in the country, mainly taken up in the major mountain belts likeAlborz and Zagros. A relatively dense GPS network which covered the Iranian Zagros[7] also proves a high rate of deformation within the Zagros. The GPS results show that the current rate of shortening in the southeast Zagros is ~10 mm/a (0.39 in/year), dropping to ~5 mm/a (0.20 in/year) in the northwest Zagros. The north–southKazerunstrike-slip fault divides the Zagros into two distinct zones of deformation. The GPS results also show different shortening directions along the belt, normal shortening in the southeast, and oblique shortening in the northwest Zagros. The Zagros mountains were created around the time of the second ice age,[8] which caused the tectonic collision, leading to its uniqueness.
The sedimentary cover in the SE Zagros is deforming above a layer of rock salt (acting as aductiledecollement with a low basalfriction), whereas in the NW Zagros the salt layer is missing or is very thin.[9] This different basal friction is partly responsible for the different topographies on either side of the Kazerun fault. Higher topography and narrower zone of deformation in the NW Zagros is observed whereas in the SE, deformation was spread more and a wider zone of deformation with lower topography was formed.[10] Stresses induced in the Earth's crust by the collision caused extensive folding of the preexisting layeredsedimentary rocks. Subsequent erosion removed softer rocks, such asmudstone (rock formed by consolidated mud) andsiltstone (a slightly coarser-grained mudstone) while leaving harder rocks, such aslimestone (calcium-rich rock consisting of the remains of marine organisms) anddolomite (rocks similar to limestone containingcalcium andmagnesium). This differentialerosion formed the linear ridges of the Zagros Mountains.
Thedepositional environment and tectonic history of the rocks were conducive to the formation and trapping of petroleum, and the Zagros region is an important area for oil production.Salt domes andsalt glaciers are a common feature of the Zagros Mountains. Salt domes are an important target forpetroleum exploration, as the impermeable salt frequently traps petroleum beneath other rock layers. There is also much water-solublegypsum in the region.[11]
The mountains are completely of sedimentary origin and are made primarily oflimestone. In the Elevated Zagros or the Higher Zagros, thePaleozoic rocks can be found mainly in the upper and higher sections of the peaks of the Zagros Mountains, along the Zagros main fault. On both sides of this fault, there areMesozoic rocks, a combination ofTriassic (252–201 mya) andJurassic (201–145 mya) rocks that are surrounded byCretaceous rocks on both sides. The Folded Zagros (the mountains south of the Elevated Zagros and almost parallel to the main Zagros fault) is formed mainly ofTertiary rocks, with thePaleogene (66–23 mya) rocks south of the Cretaceous rocks and then theNeogene (23–2.6 mya) rocks south of the Paleogene rocks. The mountains are divided into many parallel sub-ranges (up to 10 or 250 km (6.2 or 155.3 miles) wide), andorogenically have the same age as theAlps.[12]
Iran's mainoilfields lie in the western central foothills of the Zagros mountain range. The southern ranges of theFars province have somewhat lower summits, reaching 4,000 metres (13,000 feet). They contain some limestone rocks showing abundant marine fossils.[10]
The Zagros Mountains have significant ancient history. They were occupied by early humans since theLower Paleolithic Period. The earliest human fossils discovered in Zagros belongs toNeanderthals and come fromShanidar Cave,Bisitun Cave, andWezmeh Cave. The remains of tenNeanderthals, dating from around 65,000–35,000 years ago, have been found in the Shanidar Cave.[13] The cave also contains two later "proto-Neolithic" cemeteries, one of which dates back about 10,600 years and contains 35 individuals.[14] Iran'sMiddle Paleolithic sites are mostly located in the Zagros.Mousterian stone tools can be found at these cave sites.[15] Evidence from laterUpper Paleolithic andEpipaleolithic occupations come from Yafteh Cave, Kaldar Cave nearKhoramabad, andWarwasi,Malaverd nearKermanshah, Kenacheh Cave in Kurdistan, Boof Cave in Fars and a number of other caves and rock shelters.[16] The Upper Paleolithic is characterized byBaradostian andZarzian stone tools. Compared to the Mousterian the Baradostian shows an increase in the number of tool types as well as a greater emphasis on tool making techniques.[17]
Signs of early agriculture date back as far as 9000 BC in the foothills of the mountains.[18] Some settlements later grew into cities, eventually namedAnshan andSusa;Jarmo is one archaeological site in this area. Some of the earliest evidence of wine production has been discovered in the mountains; both the settlements ofHajji Firuz Tepe andGodin Tepe have given evidence of wine storage dating between 3500 and 5400 BC.[19]
A humanmetatarsal bone fragment fromWezmeh Cave has been analyzed and dated to theNeolithic period. The DNA from this bone fragment shows that it is from a distinct genetic group, which was not known to scientists before. He belongs to the Y-DNA haplogroup G2b,[20] specifically its branchG-Y37100,[21] and mitochondrial haplogroup J1d6. He had brown eyes, relatively dark skin, and black hair, although Neolithic pre Indo-European Iranians carried reduced pigmentation-associated alleles in several genes and derived alleles at 7 of the 12 loci, showing the strongest signatures of selection in ancient Eurasians. He did not contribute to the genetic makeup ofearly European farmers or modernEuropeans. Instead, he was the most genetically similar to modernIranian Zoroastrians, followed byFars,Balochi,Brahui,Kalash andGeorgians.[22] Gallego-Llorente et al. (2016) believes that the Zagros Mountain was a plausible source of Eurasian ancestry in Central and South Asia, along withKotias, which was inhabited by Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers. He cites archaeological evidence of eastward Neolithic expansions from the Near East.[23]
The Zagros mountains have been inhabited by different groups of pastoralists and farmers for thousands of years. Current Pastoralist groups such asLurs,Bakhtiari Lurs,Kurds orQashqais move from their herds from the east slopes in summer (Yeylāgh) to the west slopes in winter (Gheshlāgh). Some major cities are located on the foothills of the Zagros mountains, includingSulaymaniyah,Kermanshah,Khorramabad, andShiraz.
TheBakhtiaris are aLur tribe fromIran, primarily inhabiting the Central and South Zagros. Major cities inhabited by Bakhtiaris includeMasjed Soleyman,Izeh andShahr-e Kord. A significant number of Bakhtiari still practice nomadic pastoralism.
A Kurdish girl in the eastern Zagros village ofPalangan celebratingNewroz
Kurds[26] the indigenous inhabitants of the northwestern and the eastern ZagrosTaurus mountain ranges, which spans southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northern Syria. The highaltitude of the Zagros mountains produces a series ofchoke points andvalleys perfect for agriculture and human development.[27] It has also long defended the Kurds in times of war by acting as anatural barrier.[28]
Qashqai people are a tribal confederation in Iran mostly ofTurkic origin. Significant populations can be found in Central and South Zagros, especially around the city ofShiraz in theFars province.
The mountains contain severalecosystems. Prominent among them are the forest andforest steppe areas with asemi-arid climate. As defined by theWorld Wildlife Fund and used in their Wildfinder, the particular terrestrialecoregion of the mid to high mountain area isZagros Mountains forest steppe (PA0446). The annualprecipitation ranges from 400–800 mm (16–31 in) and falls mostly in winter and spring. Winters are severe, with low temperatures often below −25 °C (−13 °F). The region exemplifies the continental variation of theMediterranean climate pattern, with a snowy winter and mild, rainy spring, followed by a dry summer and autumn.[29]
The mountains of the East-Zagros, the Kuh-i-Jupar (4,135 m (13,566 ft)), Kuh-i-Lalezar (4,374 m (14,350 ft)) and Kuh-i-Hezar (4,469 m (14,662 ft)) do not currently have glaciers. Only atZard Kuh andDena some glaciers still survive. However, before the Last Glacial Period they had been glaciated to a depth in excess of 1,900 metres (1.2 miles), and during the Last Glacial Period to a depth in excess of 2,160 metres (7,090 feet). Evidence exists of a 20 km (12 miles) wide glacier fed along a 17 km (11 miles) long valley dropping approximately 1,600 m (5,200 ft) along its length on the north side of Kuh-i-Jupar with a thickness of 350–550 m (1,150–1,800 ft). Under conditions of precipitation comparable to current climatic record-keeping, this size of glacier could be expected to form where the annual average temperature was between 10.5 and 11.2 °C (50.9 and 52.2 °F), but since conditions are expected to have been dryer during the period in which this glacier was formed, the temperature must have been lower.[31][32][33][34]
Although currently degraded throughovergrazing anddeforestation, the Zagros region is home to a rich and complex flora. Remnants of the originally widespreadoak-dominated woodland can still be found, as can the park-likepistachio/almond steppelands. The ancestors of many familiar foods, including wheat,barley,lentil, almond,walnut, pistachio,apricot,plum,pomegranate and grape can be found growing wild throughout the mountains.[36]Quercus brantii (covering more than 50% of the Zagros forest area) is the most important tree species of the Zagros in Iran.[37]
Other floralendemics found within the mountain range include:Allium iranicum,Astragalus crenophila,Bellevalia kurdistanica,Cousinia carduchorum,Cousinia odontolepis,Echinops rectangularis,Erysimum boissieri,Iris barnumiae,Ornithogalum iraqense,Scrophularia atroglandulosa,Scorzonera kurdistanica,Tragopogon rechingeri, andTulipa kurdica.[38]
The Zagros are home to manythreatened andendangered species, including theZagros Mountains mouse-like hamster (Calomyscus bailwardi), theBasra reed-warbler (Acrocephalus griseldis) and thestriped hyena (Hyena hyena). ThePersian fallow deer (Dama dama mesopotamica), an ancientdomesticate once thought extinct, was rediscovered in the late 20th century inKhuzestan Province, in the southern Zagros. Also,wild goats can be found almost all over the Zagros mountain range.In the late 19th century, theAsiatic lion (Panthera leo persica)[39] inhabited the southwestern part of the mountains. It is now extinct in this region.[40]
The entrance to theancient Mesopotamian underworld was believed to be located in the Zagros Mountains in the far east.[42] A staircase led down to the gates of the underworld.[42] The underworld itself is usually located even deeper below ground than theAbzu, the body of freshwater which the ancient Mesopotamians believed lay deep beneath the earth.[42]The region was influenced byMesopotamian andHurrian religion in the Bronze and Iron Ages, and later byZoroastrianism andSyriac Christianity. Today the vast majority of the population are Iranic and TurkicMuslims, with small numbers ofChristians, mainlyAssyrians andArmenians also extant.
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^Hessami K., Nilforoushan F., Talbot CJ., 2006, "Active deformation within the Zagros Mountains deduced from GPS measurements".Journal of the Geological Society, London, 163, 143–148.
^abNilforoushan F, Koyi HA., Swantesson J.O.H., Talbot CJ., 2008, "Effect of basal friction on the surface and volumetric strain in models of convergent settings measured by laser scanner",Journal of Structural Geology, 30, 366–379.
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^Frey, W.; W. Probst (1986). Kurschner, Harald (ed.). "A synopsis of the vegetation in Iran".Contributions to the Vegetation of Southwest Asia. Wiesbaden, Germany: L. Reichert:9–43.ISBN3-88226-297-4.
^Kuhle, M. (1974):Vorläufige Ausführungen morphologischer Feldarbeitsergebnisse aus den SE-Iranischen Hochgebirgen am Beispiel des Kuh-i-Jupar. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie N.F., 18, (4), pp. 472–483.
^Kuhle, M. (1976):Beiträge zur Quartärgeomorphologie SE-Iranischer Hochgebirge. Die quartäre Vergletscherung des Kuh-i-Jupar. Göttinger Geographische Abhandlungen, 67, Vol. I, pp. 1–209; Vol. II, pp. 1–105.
^Kuhle, M. (2007):The Pleistocene Glaciation (LGP and pre-LGP, pre-LGM) of SE-Iranian Mountains exemplified by the Kuh-i-Jupar, Kuh-i-Lalezar and Kuh-i-Hezar Massifs in the Zagros. Polarforschung, 77, (2–3), pp. 71–88. (Erratum/ Clarification concerning Figure 15, Vol. 78, (1–2), 2008, p. 83.
^Sevruguin, A. (1880)."Men with live lion". National Museum of Ethnology in Leiden, The Netherlands; Stephen Arpee Collection. Retrieved26 March 2018.
^Miller, Naomi F. (2006)."The Origins of Plant Cultivation in the Near East". In Cowan, C. Wesley; Watson, Patty Jo; Benco, Nancy L. (eds.).The origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective ([New ed.]. ed.). Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press. p. 41.ISBN0-8173-5349-6. Retrieved5 May 2012.
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