Yunnan[a] is an inlandprovince inSouthwestern China, spanning approximately 394,000 km2 (152,000 sq mi) and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province isKunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ofGuizhou,Sichuan,autonomous regions ofGuangxi andTibet, as well as Southeast Asian countriesMyanmar (Burma),Vietnam, andLaos. Yunnan is China's fourth least developed province based on disposable income per capita in 2014.[7]
Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with high elevations in the Northwest and low elevations in the Southeast. Most of the population lives in the eastern part of the province. In the west, the altitude can vary from the mountain peaks to river valleys as much as 3,000 m (9,800 ft). Yunnan is rich in natural resources and has the largest diversity of plant life in China. Of the approximately 30,000 species ofhigher plants in China, Yunnan has perhaps 17,000 or more.[8] Yunnan's reserves ofaluminium,lead,zinc andtin are the largest in China, and there are also major reserves ofcopper andnickel. Historically, the southwestern Silk Road toBhitargarh inBangladesh passed through modern Yunnan.
Parts of Yunnan formed theDian Kingdom during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. TheHan dynastyconquered the Dian Kingdom in the late 2nd century BC, establishing the Yizhou Commandery in its place. During the chaos of theThree Kingdoms period, imperial Chinese authority in Yunnan weakened, and much of the region came under the control of theCuanman. The area was later ruled by theSino-Tibetan-speaking kingdom ofNanzhao from (738–937), followed by theBai-ruledDali Kingdom (937–1253). After theMongol conquest of the region in the 13th century, Yunnan wasconquered andruled by theMing dynasty.
From theYuan dynasty onward, the area was part of a central government-sponsored population movement towards the southwestern frontier, with two major waves of migrants arriving fromHan-majority areas in northern and southeast China.[9] As with other parts of China's southwest,Japanese occupation in the north duringWorld War II forced another migration ofHan people into the region. These two waves of migration contributed to Yunnan being one of the most ethnically diverse provinces of China, with ethnic minorities accounting for about 34 percent of its total population.[10] Major ethnic groups includeYi,Bai,Hani,Zhuang,Dai, andMiao.[11] Yunnan has also been identified as the birthplace oftea,[12] and as the region of origin of the plant genusCannabis.[13]
The name "Yunnan" first referred to a place when theHan dynasty created Yunnan County near modernXiangyun.[14] During theTang dynasty,Emperor Xuanzong gavePiluoge, the chief ofNanzhao, the title of "King of Yunnan",[15] because Nanzhao originated from Yunnan county.[16] Gradually the king of Yunnan controlled more and more territory, and "Yunnan" became the common name of this area.[17] Therefore, theYuan dynasty created Yunnan Province after it occupied theDali Kingdom.[15]
Han dynasty literature did not record the etymology of "Yunnan", and there are many theories about its origin. One common theory states that the name means "south of colorful clouds" (彩云之南;cǎiyún zhī nán). Some annals in theMing dynasty, for exampleDian Lüe (滇略) andYunnan General Annals (云南通志), support this.[16] However, modern historianTan Qixiang states that this theory is a superficial explanation of the literal meaning.[17] Another common theory is that the name means "south ofYun Range" (云岭之南) However, this has been disproven because the name "Yunling Mountains" first appeared in Tang dynasty (618–907) literature, but the name "Yunnan" first appeared during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD).[16] Modern research gives more conjectures. You Zhong said "Yunnan" means "south of the mountain (referring to theCang Mountain) with clouds".[15] Wu Guangfan said "Yunnan" might be aLoloish orBai name.[16]
TheYuanmou Man, aHomo erectus fossil unearthed by railway engineers in the 1960s, has been determined to be the oldest-known hominid fossil in China. By theNeolithic period, there were human settlements in the area ofLake Dian. These people used stone tools and constructed simple wooden structures.
Bronze sculpture of theDian Kingdom, 3rd century BC
Around the 3rd century BC, the central area of Yunnan around present dayKunming was known asDian. TheChu generalZhuang Qiao [zh] (庄蹻) entered the region from the upperYangtze River[18] and set himself up as "King of Dian".[19] He and his followers brought into Yunnan an influx of Chinese influence,[20] the start of a long history of migration and cultural expansion.
In 221 BC,Qin Shi Huang unified China and extended his authority south. Commanderies and counties were established in Yunnan. An existing road inSichuan – the "Five Foot Way" – was extended south to around present dayQujing, in eastern Yunnan. In 109 BC, theHan dynastyconquered Dian during itssouthern expeditions. Under orders fromEmperor Wu, GeneralGuo Chang [zh] (郭昌) was sent south to Yunnan, eventually establishing theYizhou commandery.[21] By this time, agricultural technology in Yunnan had improved markedly. The local people used bronze tools, plows and kept a variety of livestock, including cattle, horses, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs. Anthropologists have determined that these people were related to the people now known as theTai. They lived in tribal congregations, sometimes led by exiled Chinese.[citation needed]
During theThree Kingdoms, the territory of present-day Yunnan, westernGuizhou and southern Sichuan was collectively calledNanzhong. The dissolution of Chinese central authority led to increased autonomy for Yunnan and more power for the local tribal structures. In AD 225, the famed statesmanZhuge Liang led three columns into Yunnan to pacify the tribes. His seven captures ofMeng Huo, a local magnate, is mythologized in theRomance of the Three Kingdoms.[22]
In the 4th century, northern China was largely overrun by nomadic tribes from the north. In the 320s, the Cuan (爨) clan migrated into Yunnan.Cuan Chen (爨琛) named himself king and held authority fromLake Dian, then known asKunchuan. Henceforth the Cuan clan ruled eastern Yunnan for over four hundred years.
International trade flowed through Yunnan.[23] An ancient overland pre-Tang trade route from Yunnan Province passed throughIrrawaddy in Burma to reachBengal. Yunnan was inhabited by so-called barbarians not fully under the control of the Tang government and the route, though ancient, was not used much in pre-Tang times, and Chinese attempts to control the route were disrupted by the rise ofNanzhao.[24]
Yunnan was settled by several local tribes, clans, and cultures before the 8th century. AroundLake Erhai, namely, theDali area, there emerged sixzhao: Mengzi (蒙巂), Yuexi (越析), Langqiong (浪穹), Dengdan (邆赕), Shilling (施浪), and Mengshe (蒙舍).Zhao (诏) was an indigenous non-Chinese language term meaning "king" or "kingdom." Among the six regimes Mengshe was located south of the other five; therefore given the new, larger context, it was called Nanzhao (Southern Kingdom).[25]
By the 730s Nanzhao had succeeded in bringing the Erhai Lake–area under its authority. In 738, the western Yunnan was united byPiluoge, the fourth king of Nanzhao, who was confirmed by the imperial court of theTang dynasty asking of Yunnan.[26] Ruling fromDali, the thirteen kings of Nanzhao ruled over more than two centuries and played a vital role in the dynamic relationship between the Tang dynasty and theTibetan Empire as abuffer state.[27]
By the 750s, Nanzhao had conquered Yunnan and became a potential rival to Tang China. The following period saw several conflicts between Tang China and Nanzhao. In 750, Nanzhao attacked and captured Yaozhou, the largest Tang settlement in Yunnan. In 751, Xianyu Zhongtong (鮮于仲通), the regional commander of Jiannan (present-daySichuan), led a Tang campaign against Nanzhao. The king of Nanzhao, Geluofeng, regarded the previous incident as a personal affair and wrote to Xianyu to seek peace. However, Xianyu Zhongtong detained the Nanzhao envoys and turned down the appeal. Confronted with Tang armies, Nanzhao immediately turned its allegiance to theTibetan Empire.[28] The Tubo and Nanzhao agreed to be "fraternal states"; Geluofeng was given the titles zanpuzhong ("younger brother"). The Nanzhao-Tubo alliance ensured a disastrous defeat for Xianyu's expedition, with the Tang general's army of 80,000 men being reduced to a quarter of its original size.[29]
Tang China did not give up after one failure. In 753, another expedition was prepared, but this was also defeated by Nanzhao. In 754, the Tang organized an army of more than 100,000 troops that advanced to the Dali plain, resulting in only another slaughter. By the end of the eighth century, Tang was no longer a major threat to Nanzhao.
Nanzhao's expansion lasted for several decades. In 829, Nanzhao suddenly plunderedSichuan and enteredChengdu. When it retreated, hundreds of Sichuan people, including skilled artisans, were taken to Yunnan. In 832, the Nanzhao army captured the capital of thePyu kingdom in modern upperBurma. Nanzhao also attacked theKhmer peoples ofZhenla. Generally speaking, Nanzhao was then the most powerful kingdom in mainland Southeast Asia, and played an extremely active role in multistate interactions.In 859, Nanzhao capturedBozhou, and this event exacerbated the Nanzhao-Tang clashes. When the Tang governor ofAnnam took Bozhou back in the following year, Nanzhao, with the help of native peoples, occupied Hanoi as the Tang army moved to Bozhou. When the Tang forces returned, Nanzhao troops retreated fromHanoi but attacked and plunderedYongzhou. In the winter of 862, Nanzhao, allying with local groups, led an army of over 50,000 men to invade Annam again. It is reported that the Tang forces lost over 150,000 soldiers (either killed or captured byNanzhao) in the two Annam battles. The autumn of 866 saw Tang victory in Hanoi and soon all of the Nanzhao forces were driven away. But Tang China had lost its ability to attack Nanzhao.
While Nanzhao was being defeated in Annam, it still occasionally attacked Sichuan. In 869, Shilong (世隆), the eighth king and the first empire of Nanzhao, invaded Sichuan. In 874, Nanzhao attacked Sichuan again.
In 902, Zheng Maisi, theQingpingguan (清平官,"Prime Minister") of Nanzhao, murdered the infant king of Nanzhao, and established a new kingdom calledDachanghe. Nanzhao, a once-powerful empire, disappeared. In 928, Yang Ganzhen (楊干貞) usurped the Dachanghe king and established Zhao Shanzheng, aqingpingguan as emperor of Datianxing (大天興). In 929, Yang Qianzhen abolished Zhao Shanzheng and established himself as Emperor of Dayining (大義寧).
In 937,Duan Siping overthrew the Dayining Kingdom and established theDali Kingdom. The kingdom was conquered by theMongol Empire in 1253 after Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols. The Duans were incorporated into the Mongol administration asMaharajas of the new province. The Mongolian prince sent to administer the region with them was killed. In 1273,Kublai Khan reformed the province and appointed thesemuAjall Shams al-Din Omar as its governor.[31] Yunnan Province during theYuan dynasty included significant portions ofUpper Burma after theFirst Mongol invasion of Burma in the 1270s and 1280s. The withdrawal of garrison troops from Burma in 1303 gave local leaders the freedom to expand their own power bases, eventually leading to the rapid rise and rebellion ofMöng Mao in the 1340s.[32] With the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Ming dynasty destroyed the Yuan loyalists led byBasalawarmi and the remnants of the House of Duan in theMing conquest of Yunnan by the early 1380s.[33][34]
The Ming installedMu Ying and his family as hereditary aristocrats in Yunnan.
A scene of the Qing campaign against theMiao people in 1795.
During theMing andQing dynasties, large areas of Yunnan were administered under thenative chieftain system. Under the Qing dynasty awar with Burma also occurred in the 1760s due to the attempted consolidation of borderlands under local chiefs by both China and Burma.[citation needed]
Yunnan was a destination for Han Chinese during Yuan rule.[35] Migrants moved into the area during Ming and Qing rule.[36] During the Ming dynasty, 3 million Han Chinese mostly fromNanjing (the original Nanjing population was later largely replaced by Wu-speakers), and some from Shanxi and Hebei, settled in Yunnan.
Although largely forgotten, the bloodyPanthay Rebellion of theMuslimHui people and other local minorities against theManchu rulers of theQing dynasty caused the deaths of up to a million people in Yunnan.[37] The Manchu official Shuxing'a started an anti-Muslim massacre, which led to the rebellion. Shuxing'a developed a deep hatred of Muslims after an incident in which he was stripped naked and nearly lynched by a mob of Muslims. He ordered several Muslim rebels to beslowly sliced to death.[38][39]Tariq Ali wrote about the real incident in one of his novels and claimed the Muslims who had nearly lynched Shuxing'a were not Hui but belonged to another ethnicity. Nevertheless, the Manchu official blamed all Muslims for the incident.[40] A British officer testified that the Muslims did not rebel for religious reasons and that the Chinese were tolerant of different religions and were unlikely to have caused the revolt by interfering with the practice of Islam.[41] Loyalist Muslim forces helped Qing forces crush the rebel Muslims. The Qing armies massacred only Muslims who had rebelled or supported the rebels and spared Muslims who took no part in the uprising.[42]
Yunnan was transformed by the events of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, which caused many east coast refugees and industrial establishments to relocate to the province. It assumed strategic significance, particularly as theBurma Road fromLashio, inBurma toKunming was a fought over supply line of vital importance to China's war effort.[44]
University faculty and students in the east had originally decamped toChangsha, capital ofHunan. But as Japanese forces were gaining more territory they eventually bombed Changsha in February 1938. The 800 faculty and students who were left had to flee and made the 1,000 mile journey toKunming, capital of Yunnan in China's mountainous southwest. It was here that theNational Southwest Associated University (commonly known as Lianda University) was established. For eight years, staff, professors and students had to survive and operate in makeshift quarters that were subject to sporadic bombing campaigns by the Japanese.[45] There were dire shortages of food, equipment, books, clothing and other essential needs, but they managed to conduct the running of a modernuniversity. Over those eight years of war (1937–1945), Lianda became famous nationwide for having and producing many, if not most, of China's most prominent academics, scholars, scientists and intellectuals. Both of China's onlyNobel laureates in physicsYang Chen-Ning andTsung-Dao Lee studied at Lianda in Kunming.
Yunnan is at the far eastern edge of theHimalayan uplift, and was pushed up in thePleistocene, primarily in theMiddle Pleistocene, although the uplift continues into the present. The eastern part of the province is alimestoneplateau withkarst topography and unnavigable rivers flowing through deep mountain gorges. The main surface formations of the plateau are theLower Permian Maokou Formation, characterized by thick limestone deposits, the Lower Permian Qixia Formation, characterised by dolomitic limestones anddolomites, theUpper Permianbasalts of the Ermeishan Formation (formerly Omeishan plateau basalts), and the redsandstones,mudstones,siltstones, andconglomerates of theMesozoic–Paleogene, including the Lufeng Formation and the Lunan Group (Lumeiyi, Xiaotun, and Caijiacong formations). In this area is the notedStone Forest or Shilin, eroded vertical pinnacles of limestone (Maokou Formation). In the eastern part the rivers generally run eastwards. The western half is characterized by mountain ranges and rivers running north and south.[46]
Yunnan has a generally mild climate with pleasant and fair weather because of the province's location on south-facing mountain slopes, receiving the influence of both the Pacific and Indian oceans, and although the growing period is long, the rugged terrain provides littlearable land. SeeAgriculture in Yunnan. Under theKöppen climate classification, much of the province lies within thesubtropical highland (KöppenCwb) orhumid subtropical zone (Cwa), with cool to warm winters, and temperate summers, except in the truly tropical south, where temperatures regularly exceed 30 °C (86 °F) in the warmer half of the year.[47]In general, January average temperatures range from 8 to 17 °C (46 to 63 °F); July averages vary from 21 to 27 °C (70 to 81 °F). Average annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 2,300 mm (24 to 91 in), with over half the rain occurring between June and August. Theplateau region has moderate temperatures. The western canyon region is hot at the valley bottoms, but there are freezing winds at the mountaintops.[48]
The terrain is largely mountainous, especially in the north and west. A series of high mountain chains spreads across the province. There is a distinctcanyon region to the west and aplateau region to the east. Yunnan's major rivers flow through the deep valleys between the mountains.
The average elevation is 1,980 m (6,500 ft). The mountains are highest in the north where they reach more than 5,000 m (16,000 ft); in the south they rise no higher than 3,000 m (9,800 ft). The highest point in the north is theKawagebo Peak inDeqin County on theDiqing Plateau, which is about 6,740 m (22,110 ft); and the lowest is in theRed River Valley inHekou County, near the Vietnamese border, with an elevation of 76.4 m (251 ft).
The eastern half of the province is a limestone plateau with karst scenery and unnavigable rivers flowing through deep mountain gorges; the western half is characterised by mountain ranges and rivers running north and south. These include the Nu Jiang (Salween), the Lancang (Mekong), and the Jinsha (Yangtze), which flow in close proximity in theThree Parallel Rivers protected area. The rugged, vertical terrain produces a wide range of flora and fauna, and the province has been called a natural zoological and botanical garden.
Yunnan is the source of two rivers, theXi River (there known as theNanpan andHongshui) and theYuan River. The Hongshui is a principal source stream of the Xi River. Rising as the Nanpan in eastern Yunnan province, it flows south and east to form part of the boundary betweenGuizhou province andGuangxi autonomous region. Flowing for 345 km (214 mi), it unites with theYu River atGuiping to form what eventually becomes theXi River.
The province is drained by six major river systems:
theYangtze River, here known as theJinsha Jiang (River of Golden Sands), drains the province's north.
thePearl River, with its source nearQujing, collects the waters from the east.
theIrrawaddy, which arises from the confluence of two rivers inKachin State inBurma, has a few small tributaries in Yunnan's far west, such as theDulongjiang andTaping River, and rivers in the prefecture of Dehong.
Yunnan is China's most diverse province, biologically as well as culturally.[49] The province contains snow-capped mountains and true tropical environments, thus supporting an unusually full spectrum of species and vegetation types. The Yunnan camellia (Camellia reticulata) is the provincial emblem.[50]
During summer, theGreat Plateau of Tibet acts as a barrier to monsoon winds, trapping moisture in the province. This gives thealpine flora in particular what one source has called a "lushness found nowhere else".
This topographic range combined with atropical moisture sustains extremely highbiodiversity and high degrees ofendemism, probably the richest botanically in the world's temperate regions.[49] Perhaps 17,000species of higher plants, of which an estimated 2,500 are endemic, can be found in the province. The province is said to have "as much flowering plant diversity as the rest of the Northern Hemisphere put together".[8][full citation needed]
Yunnan has less than 4% of the land of China, yet the province harbors around 42.6% of all protected plant species and 72.5% of all protected wild animals in the country, of which 15% are strictly endemic to Yunnan.[51] Yunnan is home to, most notably, the southeast Asiangaur, a giant forest-dwellingbovine, theIndochinese tiger and theAsian elephant.[52] Other extremely rare species are theYunnan box turtle[53] and theYunnan snub-nosed monkey.[54] It is feared that theYunnan lar gibbon, another moribund species, has already gone extinct.[55] Yunnan province has 11 national and regional nature reserves. In total, the covered protected area in China is about 510,000 hectares.[56]
The freshwater fish fauna is highly diverse with about 620 species, including more than 580 natives (the remaining areintroduced).[57] This equals almost 40% of the freshwater fish species in China. Of the Yunnan natives, more than 250 are endemic to the province and many of these are threatened.[57] Several species that are restricted to single lakes (notablyDian,Erhai,Fuxian andYilong) are likely already are extinct.[58] By far, the most diverse order in Yunnan areCypriniformes, both in total species number and number of endemics.[57]
The uniqueSinopyrophorus bioluminescent beetles were described from Yunnan in 2019.[59]
Yunnan is therefore known as the "Kingdom of Animals," the "Kingdom of Plants," and the "Kingdom of Nonferrous Metals."[60]
A main source of wealth lies in its vastmineral resources; indeed, mining is the leading industry in Yunnan. Yunnan has proven deposits of 86 kinds of minerals in 2,700 places. Some 13% of the proved deposits of minerals are the largest of their kind in China, and two-thirds of the deposits are among the largest of their kind in the Yangtze River valley and in south China. Yunnan ranks first in the country in deposits ofzinc,lead,tin,cadmium,indium,thallium andcrocidolite. Other deposits includeiron,coal,copper,gold,mercury,silver,antimony andsulfur. More than 150 kinds of minerals have been discovered in the province. The potential value of the proven deposits in Yunnan is 3 trillionyuan, 40% of which come from fuel minerals, 7.3% from metallic minerals and 52.7% from nonmetallic minerals.
Yunnan has sufficient rainfall and many rivers and lakes. The annual water flow originating in the province is 200 cubic kilometres, three times that of theYellow River. The rivers flowing into the province from outside add 160 cubic kilometres, which means there are more than ten thousand cubic metres of water for each person in the province. This is four times the average in the country. The rich water resources offer abundant hydro-energy. China is constructing a series of dams on the Mekong to develop it as a waterway and source of power; the first was completed atManwan in 1993.
^New district established after 2010 census:Jiangchuan (Jiangchuan County). The new district not included in the urban area count of the pre-expanded city.
^Mengzi County is currently known as Mengzi CLC after 2010 census.
^Wenshan County is currently known as Wenshan CLC after 2010 census.
^Mile County is currently known as Mile CLC after 2010 census.
^Tengchong County is currently known as Tengchong CLC after 2010 census.
^Mangshi CLC formerly known as Luxi CLC until 20 July 2010.
^Lushui County is currently known as Lushui CLC after 2010 census.
^Chengjiang County is currently known as Chengjiang CLC after 2010 census.
^Shangri-La County is currently known as Shangri-La CLC after 2010 census.
^Shuifu County is currently known as Shuifu CLC after 2010 census.
Major autonomous areas within Yunnan (excludingHui)
Yunnan is noted for a very high level of ethnic diversity.[81] It has the highest number of ethnic groups among the provinces and autonomous regions in China. Among the country's56 recognised ethnic groups, twenty-five are found in Yunnan. Some 38% of the province population are members of ethnic minorities, including theYi,Bai,Hani,Tai,Dai,Miao,Lisu,Hui,Lahu,Wa,Nakhi,Yao,Tibetans,Jingpo,Blang,Pumi,Nu,Achang,Jinuo,Mongols,Derung,Manchus,Sui, andBuyei. Several other groups are represented, but they live neither in compact settlements nor do they reach the required threshold of five thousand to be awarded the official status of being present in the province. Some groups, such as theMosuo, who are officially recognised as part of theNaxi, have in the past claimed official status as a national minority, and are now recognised with the status of Mosuo people.
Ethnic groups are widely distributed in the province. Some twenty-five minorities live in compact communities, each of which has a population of more than five thousand. Ten ethnic minorities living in border areas and river valleys include theHui,Manchus,Bai,Naxi,Mongols,Zhuang,Dai,Achang,Buyei andShui, with a combined population of 4.5 million; those in low mountainous areas are theHani,Yao,Lahu,Va,Jingpo,Blang andJino, with a combined population of 5 million; and those in high mountainous areas areMiao,Lisu,Tibetan,Pumi andDrung, with a total population of four million.
CIA map showing the territory of the settlement ofethnolinguistic groups in Yunnan (1971).
Mostdialects of theChinese language spoken in Yunnan belong to thesouthwestern subdivision of theMandarin group, and are therefore very similar to the dialects of neighboringSichuan andGuizhou provinces. Notable features found in many Yunnan dialects include the partial or complete loss of distinction between finals/n/ and/ŋ/, as well as the lack of/y/. In addition to the local dialects, most people also speak Standard Chinese (Putonghua, commonly called "Mandarin"), which is used in the media, by the government, and as the language of instruction in education.
In Yunnan, most of all cities have their own dialect. For example, in Kunming, the provincial capital city of Yunnan, people speak Kunming dialect, while people whose living in Dali, speak Dali vernacular. Even in Kunming, different districts have developed their own variations of Kunming dialect. For example, residents of Guandu district of Kunming speak the Guandu dialect, which have differences between pronunciation and intonation with Kunming dialect.
TheNaxi, in particular, use theDongba script, which is the only pictographic writing system in use in the world today. The Dongba script was mainly used to provide the Dongba priests with instructions on how to carry out their rituals: today the Dongba script features more as a tourist attraction. Perhaps the best known Western Dongba scholar wasJoseph Rock.
By the end of 1998, among the province's population, 419,800 had received college education or above, 2.11 million senior middle school education, 8.3 million junior middle school education, 18.25 million primary school education, and 8.25 million aged 15 or above were illiterate or semi-literate.
According to a demographic analysis of religious people in Yunnan, almost 90% of followers of government-sanctioned organised religions belonged to ethnic minorities.[82] As of 2005 the province had around 4 million believers of thefive government-sanctioned organised religious doctrines of China. Of these:
2.6 million or about 6% of the total population areBuddhists;
According to surveys conducted in 2004 and 2007, in those years approximately 32.22% of the province's population was involved inworship of ancestors and 2.75% declared a Christian identity.[83]
The region maintains a strong agricultural focus. Agriculture is restricted to the few upland plains, open valleys, and terraced hillsides. Level land for agriculture is extremely scarce and only about 5 percent of the province is under cultivation.Rice is the main crop;corn,barley,wheat,rapeseed,sweet potatoes,soybeans (as a food crop),tea,sugarcane,tobacco, andcotton are also grown. On the steep slopes in the westlivestock is raised andtimber, a valuable resource, is cut (teak in the southwest).
Yunnan produces most ofcoffee grown in China (although there are also much smaller plantations inFujian andHainan). Large-scalecoffee cultivation started in Yunnan in 1988. The most commonly grownvariety in the province is catimor.[84]
Yunnan province is famous for its quality teas. Most notably Yunnan tea. Yunnan black tea, also known as ‘Dianhong’ (‘Dian’ is the short name for Yunnan province, ‘hong’ meaning red after the deep, red liquor of the brewed tea) is a fully oxidised tea grown high in the mountainous regions between approximately 1000 metres to 2000 metres above sea level. Its unique earthy flavour makes it a highly sought after tea.[85][86]
Tobacco is the main (export) product and makes up a big part of the provincial GDP.[87] Furthermore, Yunnan has a strong competitive potential in the fruit and vegetable industries, especially in low value-added commodities such as fresh and dried vegetables and fresh apples.
Yunnan is one of the regions in the world with the most abundant resources of wild ediblemushrooms. In China, there are 938 kinds of edible mushrooms, and over 800 varieties can be found in Yunnan. In 2004, around 7,744 tons of wild edible mushrooms were exported, making up for 70% of the total export of this product in China. The so-called'pine mushroom' is the main product in Yunnan and is exported toJapan in large quantities.
Due to China's growing consumption of dairy products, Yunnan's dairy industry is also developing very rapidly and is also aiming to export to itsASEAN neighbors.
The flower industry in Yunnan province started to develop towards the end of the 1980s. Yunnan province accounts for 50% of China's total cut flower production. The size of the planting area for cut flowers in Yunnan province amounts to 4000 hectares. In 2003, the output totaled 2.3 billion stems. In 2002 the flower industry in Yunnan had a total output of RMB 3.4 billion. Export amounted to US$18 million. Apart from sales on the domestic market, Yunnan also exports to a number of foreign countries and regions such as Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Thailand and Singapore.The Dounan Flower Market, located in Kunming, Yunnan Province, China, is the largest fresh-cut flower trading market in Asia. It serves as the core of China's fresh-cut flower industry and is renowned globally as a significant flower trading center, therefore Kunming is called China's Flower Capital.[citation needed]
As of the mid-19th century, Yunnan exported birds, brass, tin, gemstones, musk, nuts, andpeacock feathers mainly to stores inGuangzhou. They imported silk, wool, and cotton cloth, tobacco and books.[88]
It was a major recipient of China's investment in industrial capacity during theThird Front campaign.[89]: 298
Local traders inLijiang CityAerial view of Downtown KunmingView of Downtown Kunming
Yunnan is one of China's relativelyundeveloped provinces with morepoverty-strickencounties than the other provinces. In 1994, about 7 million people lived below the poverty line of less than an annual averageincome of 300yuanper capita. They were distributed in the province's 73 counties mainly and financially supported by thecentral government. With an input of 3.15 billion yuan in 2002, the absolutely poor rural population in the province has been reduced from 4.05 million in 2000 to 2.86 million. Thepoverty alleviation plan includes five large projects aimed at improving infrastructure facilities. They involve planned attempts atsoil improvement,water conservation,electric power, roads, and "green belt" building. Upon the completion of the projects, the province hopes this will alleviate the shortages ofgrain, water, electric power and roads.
Yunnan's four pillar industries includetobacco,agriculture/biology,mining, andtourism. The mainmanufacturing industries are iron and steel production and copper-smelting, commercial vehicles, chemicals, fertilizers, textiles, and optical instruments.[87] Yunnan has trade contacts with more than seventy countries and regions in the world. Yunnan established theMuse border trade zone (located inRuili) along its border with Burma.[90] Yunnan mainly exportstobacco,machinery and electrical equipment, chemical and agricultural products, and non-ferrous metals. In 2008, its total two-way trade (imports and exports) reached US$9.6 billion. The province signedforeign direct investment contracts involving US$1.69 billion, of which US$777 million were actually utilized during the year.
Yunnan's employment rate remain stable. The total number of newly entered-employee were 49.35 thousand people. Theunemployment rate at the end of 2020 was 3.92%. Yunnan's nominal GDP in 2020 was 24521.9 billion Yuan( US$3850.92 billion), an annual growth rate of 4.0%. Its per capita GDP was 50,299 Yuan ( US$7,898.96). The share of GDP of Yunnan'sprimary,secondary andtertiary industries were 3598.91 billion Yuan, 8287.54 billion Yuan, and 12635.45 billion Yuan respectively.[91]
Yunnan is one of the major production bases of copper, lead, zinc, tin and aluminum in China.Gejiu is well known as "the Kingdom of Zinc" with the reserves ranked first in the country. The Yunxi brand refined tin is one of the main products in Gejiu, which is registered on theLondon Metal Exchange (LME). Besides, reserves of germanium, indium, zirconium, platinum, rock salt, sylvite, nickel, phosphate, mirabilite, arsenic and blue asbestos are also high. Significant copper deposits are found atDongchuan, iron ore atWuding, and coal atXuanwei andKaiyuan.Economic policy to locate new industry in interior areas with substantial mineral wealth, led to major industrial development in Yunnan, especially in theKunming area.
The electricity industry is another important economic pillar of Yunnan, which plays a key role in the "West-East Electricity Transmission Project". The electricity produced in Yunnan is mainly transported toGuangdong.
First established in 1992, Kunming Economic & Technology Development Zone is a national-level zone approved by the State Council. Kunming is located in east-central Yunnan province with preferential location. After several years' development, the zone has formed its pillar industries, which include tobacco processing, machinery manufacturing, electronic information, and biotechnology.[92]
The Kunming High-tech Industrial Development Zone (KMHNZ), is a state-level high-tech industrial zone established in 1992 in Northwest Kunming. It is administratively under Kunming Prefecture. It has covers an area of 9 km2 (3.5 sq mi). KMHNZ is located in the northwest part of Kunming city, 4 kilometers from Kunming Railway Station, 5 kilometers from Kunming International Airport.[93]
Ruili Border Economic Cooperation Zone (RLBECZ) is a Chinese State Council-approved Industrial Park based in Ruili, Dehong Prefecture, founded in 1992 and was established to promote trade between China and Burma. The area's import and export trade include the processing industry, local agriculture and biological resources are very promising. Sino-Burmese business is growing fast. Burma is now one of Yunnan's biggest foreign trade partners. In 1999, Sino-Burmese trade accounted for 77.4% of Yunnan's foreign trade. In the same year, exports for electromechanical equipments came up to US$55.28 million. Main exports here include fiber cloth, cotton yarn,ceresin wax, mechanical equipments, fruits, rice seeds, fiber yarn and tobacco.[94]
Wanding Border Economic Cooperation Zone (WTBECZ) is a Chinese State Council-approved Industrial Park based in Wanding Town, Ruili, Dehong, founded in 1992 and was established to promote trade between China and Burma. The zone spans 6 km2 (2.3 sq mi) and is focused on developing trading, processing, agriculture resources and tourism.[95]
Qujing Economic and Technological Development Zone
Qujing Economic and Technological Development Zone (QETDZ) is a provincial development zone approved by Yunnan Provincial Government in August 1992. It is located in the east of urban Qujing, the second largest city in Yunnan in terms of economic strengths. The location of the development zone is the economic, political and cultural center of Qujing. As an agency under Qujing municipal Party committee and municipal government, the administrative commission of QETDZ functions as an economy supervising body at the prefecture level and an administration body at the county level. It has 106 km2 (41 sq mi) under its jurisdiction. It shoulders the task of building a new 40-square-kilometer city area and providing service for a population of 400,000 in the upcoming 10 years.[96]
Chuxiong Economic and Technological Development Zone
Chuxiong Economic Development Zone is an important zone in Yunnan. Now the zone has attracted a number of investment projects. It is an important industry for the development of new-type industry platform. The zone covers an area of 12 km2 (4.6 sq mi), composed of four parks.[97]
Songming Yanglin Experimental Zone for County & Township Industries
First established in 1992, Hekou Border Economic Cooperation Zone is a border zone approved by State Council to promote Sino-Vietnamese trade. It has a planned area of 4.02 km2 (1.55 sq mi). The zone implemented several policies to serve its clients in China from various industries and sectors including investment, trade, finance, taxation, immigration, etc.[98]
Since the 1960s, improvements have been achieved in the overall educational level, which can be seen in the increase in average years of regular education received. The development of part-timeschools have broughtadult,distance andcontinuing education to farms, factories, offices, and other places. Evening, time off work / study leave classes allow people to receive education without leaving their jobs. Policies to upgrade adult education have begun to complement the campaign againstilliteracy. A basic Chinese vocabulary insimplifiedstrokes is taught to millions of illiterate people in short, intensive courses. Despite progress made, Yunnan'silliteracy rate remains one of the highest in China mainly due to insufficient education among minority peoples.[99][100]
Yunnan is the area most affected byHIV/AIDS in China. In 1989 first infections appeared among needle sharing drug users near theBurmese border. Up until 1993, the disease had remained a problem in the border areas before mobile people (truck drivers, construction and migrant workers and travelers) brought the virus further into the country. In 1995, the provinces ofSichuan andXinjiang reported their first HIV cases, and by 1998, the virus had spread all over China.
The first railway in Yunnan was thenarrow gaugeYunnan–Vietnam Railway built by France from 1904 to 1910 to connectKunming withVietnam, then a French colony. In Yunnan, the Chinese section of this railway is known as the Yunnan-Hekou Railway and the line gave Yunnan access to the seaport atHaiphong. During the Second World War, Britain and the United States began building arailway from Yunnan to Burma but abandoned the effort due to Japanese advance.
Due in part to difficult terrain both locally and in surrounding provinces and the shortage of capital for rail construction, Yunnan remained outside of China's domestic rail network until 1966 when theGuiyang–Kunming Railway was completed. The line would not enter into operation until 1970, the same year that theChengdu-Kunming was completed. TheNanning–Kunming Railway toGuangxi was completed in 1997, followed by theNeijiang–Kunming Railway in 2001. ThePanxi Railway, originally built in 1975 to draw coal from neighboring Guizhou, was electrified in 2001 and adds to eastern Yunnan's outbound rail transport capacity.
The province is extending the railway network to neighboring countries in Southeast Asia. FromYuxi, theYuxi–Mengzi Railway, built from 2005 to 2013, and theMengzi–Hekou Railway, under construction since 2008, will form astandard gauge railway connection withVietnam. TheDali–Ruili Railway, under construction since May 2011, will bring rail service to the border withMyanmar. Also under planning is a rail line from Yuxi to Mohan, in Xishuangbana Prefecture, on the border with Laos. This line could be extended further south toThailand,Malaysia andSingapore.
TheBurma Road was a highway extending about 1,100 km (680 mi) through mountainous terrain fromLashio, northeast Burma northeastward to Kunming, China. Undertaken by the Chinese after the start of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and completed in 1938, it was a vital transportation route for wartime supplies to the Chinese government from Rangoon and shipped by railroad to Lashio from 1938 to 1946. An extension runs east through China from Kunming, then north to Chongqing. This traffic increased in importance to China after the Japanese took effective control of the Chinese coast and of Indochina. It was seized by the Japanese in 1942 and reopened when it was connected to theStilwell Road from India. TheLedo Road (later called the Stilwell Road) fromLedo, India, into Burma was begun in December 1942. In 1944 the Ledo Road reachedMyitkyina and was joined to the Burma Road. Both roads have lost their former importance and are in a state of disrepair. The Burma Road's importance diminished after World War II, but it has remained a link in a 3,400-km road system fromYangon,Burma, toChongqing.
Road construction in Yunnan continues unabated: over the last years the province has added more new roads than any other province.[citation needed] Today expressways link Kunming through Dali to Baoshan, Kunming to Mojiang (on the way to Jinghong), Kunming to Qujing, Kunming to Shilin (Stone Forest). The official plan is to connect all major towns and neighbouring capitals with expressways by 2010, and to complete a high-speed road network by 2020.
All county towns are now accessible by paved, all-weather roads from Kunming, all townships have a road connection (the last to be connected was Yangla, in the far north, but Dulongjiang remains cut off for about six months every year), and about half of all villages have road access.
Second-level national highways stretch 958 km (595 mi), third-level highways, 7,571 km (4,704 mi) and fourth-level highways, 52,248 km (32,465 mi). The province has formed a network of communication lines radiating from Kunming to Sichuan and Guizhou provinces and Guangxi and Tibet autonomous regions, and further on to Burma, Laos, Vietnam and Thailand.
After the opening of the Suolongsi to Pingyuanjie section, Luofu expressway, the first between Yunnan andGuangxi Province, opened in October 2007. It has made material and passenger transportation between the two provinces much more convenient. Moreover, Luofu Expressway has also become the main road from Yunnan to Guangxi and the coastal ports. Luofu Expressway begins from the crossroads of Luo Village between Yunnan and Guangxi Provinces and ends atFuning County ofWenshan State. The total length of the expressway is 79.3 kilometers which has shortened thecommute between Yunnan and Guangxi from the previous 3 and half hours to just 50 minutes.
Generally, rivers are obstacles to transport in Yunnan. Only very small parts of Yunnan's river systems are navigable. However, China is constructing a series of dams on theMekong to develop it as a waterway and source of power; the first was completed atManwan in 1993.
In 1995, the province put an investment of 171 million yuan to add another 807 km (501 mi) of navigation lines. It built two wharfs with an annual handling capacity of 300,000 to 400,000 tons each and four wharfs with an annual handling capacity of 100,000 tons each. The annual volume of goods transported was two million tons and that of passengers transported, two million.
Bridge-building in Yunnan date back at least 1,300 years when theTibetan Empire built an iron chain bridge over theYangtze to the neighboringNanzhao Kingdom at what is todayWeixi Lisu Autonomous County during theTang dynasty. Iron chain bridges are still found across high river valleys of Yunnan. The Jinlong Bridge on theJinsha River in Lijiang remains the oldest bridge over the Yangtze. With the expansion of the highway and railway network in Yunnan, numerous large-scale bridges have been built across the region's myriad of rivers, including theYangtze which has dozens of crossings in Yunnan.
Kunming is the only city in Yunnan that has a metro system. As of August 2021, it has 5 lines in operation.
As of November 2022, Kunming Metro has six operational lines, with a total length of 165.85 kilometers and 103 stations, including 10 interchange stations. The metro system has transported a cumulative 1.31 billion passengers.
Hand-painted Chinese New Year's poetry pasted on the sides of doors leading to people's homes, Old Town,Lijiang.
Yunnan's cultural life is one of remarkable diversity. Archaeological findings have unearthed sacred burial structures holding elegant bronzes inJinning, south ofKunming. In northeastern Yunnan, frescoes of theJin dynasty (266–420) have been discovered in the city ofZhatong. Many Chinese cultural relics have been discovered in later periods. The lineage of tribal way of life of the indigenous peoples persisted uninfluenced by modernity until the mid-20th century. Tribal traditions, such asYislaveholding andWaheadhunting, have since been abolished. After theCultural Revolution (1966–76), in which several minority cultural and religious practices were suppressed, Yunnan has come to celebrate its cultural diversity and subsequently many local customs and festivals have flourished.[106]
Yunnan has several different tea growing regions.[107] One of Yunnan's best known products isPu-erh tea (or Puer), named after the old tea trading town ofPu-erh (Puer). The province is also known for itsYunnan Gold and otherDianhong teas, developed in the 20th century.
Yunnan Huadeng is a traditional folk dance and singing art from Yunnan Province, also known as "Tiao Huadeng" or "Wai Huadeng." It originated in the Ming Dynasty or earlier from Shehuo folk celebrations. With diverse performances categorized into Huadeng dance, Huadeng opera, and Huadeng plays, it reflects rich rural traditions. As a **national intangible cultural heritage, Yunnan Huadeng holds great artistic and cultural significance.[108]
Yunnan Province, due to its landscapes, mild climate and cultural diversity, is one of China's major tourist destinations. Most visitors are Chinese tourists, although trips to Yunnan are organized by an increasing number of foreign travel agencies as well. Mainland tourists travel by the masses; 2.75 million Chinese visited Yunnan last October during National Holiday. Also a different trend is slowly developing; small scale and environmentally friendlyecotourism. At the moment projects in this field are often being set up with help of NGO's.
In 2004, tourism revenues amounted to 37 billion RMB, and thus accounting for 12.6% of the provincial GDP. Another fact indicating the importance of tourism in Yunnan Province is capital Kunming hosting the China International Travel Mart every two years. This tourism trade fair is the largest of its kind in Asia and serves as an important platform for professionals in the sector. More than 80 countries and regions were present during the 2005 edition.
Tourism is expected to grow further. In 2010, the province welcomed over 2.3 million overseas tourists and the Yunnan Provincial Tourism Bureau aims to draw 4.3 million overseas arrivals under the 12th Five-Year Tourism Development Plan. Kunming city is expected to add 11 new mid- to high-end hotels with an inventory of under 4,000 rooms between 2012 and 2016.[110]
The Nature Conservancy and the Chinese government came together to form a partnership and explore the possibility of bringingadventure tourism onto the rivers of Southwest China. Atwo-month white-water expedition explored from the Mekong River's Moon Gorge to Yangze River's Great Bend. The expedition provided valuable information to the partnership, encouraging them to take into account the safety, culture, economics, and conservation of the Yunnan Province. Creating an adventure tourism sector would bring valuable economic resources to the economically struggling population, who had once relied on logging as income prior to it being banned due to deforestation.
Xamgyi'nyilha County (also known as Shangri-La and formerly Zhongdian), an ethnicTibetan township and county set high in Yunnan's northwestern mountains.
^"Yunnan".Illuminating China's Provinces, Municipalities and Autonomous Regions. PRC Central Government Official Website.Archived from the original on 18 June 2014. Retrieved17 May 2014.
^Jin Li; Mark Seielstad; Xiao Chunjie (2001).Genetic, linguistic and archaeological perspectives on human diversity in Southeast Asia. World Scientific. p. 57.ISBN9789810247843.OCLC897003738.
^Gui Mingchao (2001).Yunnanese and Kunming Chinese : a study of the language communities, the phonological systems, and the phonological developments. Munich: Lincom Europa.OCLC702443006.
^Kong Zhiguo (2016-10-25).The Making of a Maritime Power : China's Challenges and Policy Responses. Springer.ISBN9789811017865.OCLC965039831.
^Schafer, Edward H. (1963).The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tang Exotics. University of California Press. p. 14.ISBN978-0-520-05462-2.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Fan Chengda (2010).Treatises of the supervisor and guardian of the Cinnamon Sea (Guihai yuheng zhi). University of Washington Press. p. 224.ISBN9780295990798.OCLC812405203.
^Kaziewicz, Julia (2016-01-11).Study and teaching guide for the history of the medieval world. National Geographic Books.ISBN9781933339788.OCLC907173612.
^West, Barbara A. (2009).Encyclopedia of the peoples of Asia and Oceania. Facts On File. p. 79.ISBN9781438119137.OCLC370717954.
^Adamek, Wendi L. (2011).The Teachings of Master Wuzhu : Zen and religion of no-religion. Columbia University Press.ISBN9780231150224.OCLC756338604.
^Israel, John (1998).Lianda: a Chinese university in war and revolution. Stanford University Press.ISBN0804729298.OCLC39108542.
^Yunnan Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources (1990).Regional Geology of Yunnan Province. Geological Memoirs of the Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources of the People's Republic of China: Regional Geology, no.21 (in Simplified Chinese). Beijing: Geological Publishing House. p. 10.ISBN978-7-116-00567-9.
^中央气象台>> 全国 >> 云南省 >> 景洪天气预报 (in Simplified Chinese). National Meteorological Centre of the China Meteorological Administration.Archived from the original on 2017-02-14. Retrieved2012-06-26.
^Kuo, Ping-chia; Suettinger, Robert Lee (27 January 2025)."Yunnan".Britannica. Retrieved8 February 2025.In the western canyon region the high mountains and deep valleys create vertical climatic zones. Sultry heat with high humidity dominates the bottom of the valleys, a temperate zone prevails at 6,000 to 11,000 feet (1,830 to 3,350 metres), and freezing winds envelop the tops of the mountains.
^Smith, A. T.; and Xie, Y. (2008).A Guide to the Mammals of China. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-09984-2.
^Blanck, Zhou, and McCord (2006). "The Yunnan box turtle,Cuora yunnanensis (Boulenger 1906); historical background and an update on the morphology, distribution and vulnerabilities of the only known living specimens".Sacalia 13(4): 14–35.
^abcChen, X. Y. (2013). "Checklist of fishes of Yunnan".Dong Wu Xue Yan Jiu.34 (4):281–343.PMID23913883.
^Wang, Sihai; Wang, Juan; Li, Maobiao; Du, Fan; Yang, Yuming; Lassoie, James P.; Hassan, Mohd Z. (2013). "Six decades of changes in vascular hydrophyte and fish species in three plateau lakes in Yunnan, China".Biodiversity and Conservation.22 (13–14):3197–3221.Bibcode:2013BiCon..22.3197W.doi:10.1007/s10531-013-0579-0.S2CID18819902.
^Census Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China; Population and Employment Statistics Division of the National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China (2012).中国2010人口普查分乡、镇、街道资料 (1 ed.). Beijing:China Statistics Print.ISBN978-7-5037-6660-2.
^Wednesday, November 20, 2013 – 09:00."Ruili Border Economic Cooperation Zone". RightSite.asia.Archived from the original on 2014-01-09. Retrieved2013-11-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Wednesday, November 20, 2013 – 09:00."Chuxiong Economic Development Zone". RightSite.asia.Archived from the original on 2014-01-09. Retrieved2013-11-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Wednesday, November 20, 2013 – 09:00."Hekou Border Economic Cooperation Zone". RightSite.asia.Archived from the original on 2018-09-21. Retrieved2013-11-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^L. Tian, J. Li, K. Zhang, P. Guest. "Women's status, institutional barriers and reproductive health care: A case study in Yunnan, China".Health Policy, Volume 84, Issue 2, Pages 284–297
^Zhang Z, Hai R, Song Z, Xia L, Liang Y, Cai H, Liang Y, Shen X, Zhang E, Xu J, Yu D, Yu XJ. (2009) Spatial variation ofYersinia pestis from Yunnan Province of China. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 81(4):714–717
^Settle E. AIDS in China: an annotated chronology: 1985–2003. Montreal: China AIDS Survey, 2003
^Ma Y, Li ZZ, Zhang KX. Identifi cation of HIV infection among drug users in China. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 1990; 11:184–85 (in Chinese).
Ann Helen Unger and Walter Unger. (2007)Yunnan: China's Most Beautiful Province. (Orchid Press)ISBN3-7774-8390-7.
Damien Harper (2007).China's Southwest. (Lonely Planet Country & Regional Guides)ISBN1-74104-185-6.
Patrick R. Booz (1998).Yunnan. (Odyssey Passport: McGraw-Hill Contemporary)ISBN0-8442-9664-3.
Susan K. McCarthy (2009).Communist Multiculturalism: Ethnic Revival in Southwest China (University of Washington Press)ISBN0-295-98909-2.
Tim Summers (2013), "Yunnan – A Chinese Bridgehead to Asia: A case study of China's political and economic relations with its neighbours" (Chandos)ISBN978-0-85709-444-5.
.jpg)
.svg)
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg)
