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 European Economic Community |  Yugoslavia |
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From the establishment of theEuropean Economic Community (later expanded into theEuropean Union) in 1957 until thebreakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, thus during theCold War period, theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was the firstsocialist state to develop relations with the organisation. Notwithstanding occasional and informal proposals coming from both sides, Yugoslavia never became a full member state of the EEC.
The EEC, and later EU, would cite the breakup of Yugoslavia as a reason for existential guilt in not having averted the humanitarian crisis on adjacent territory, and this served as a springboard for the creation of theCommon Foreign and Security Policy.[1]
Mutual interactions between the two sides intensified in the late 1980s and early 1990s but all progress was cut off as of 25 November 1991 due to thewars in Slovenia andCroatia. Prior to the cut off, Yugoslavia was the EEC's second largest trade partner in theMediterranean area, just afterAlgeria, with 90% of industrial imports from Yugoslavia to the EEC not subject to anyduty.[2]
After the 1948Tito–Stalin Split, Yugoslavia realigned its foreign policy from the close alliance with theSoviet Union to de factowestern orientation, and thenneutrality, to ultimately aNon-aligned course. The1953 Balkan Pact signed byGreece,Turkey, and Yugoslavia allowed Yugoslavia to associate itself withNATO indirectly until 1956 and the end ofInformbiro period.[3] In 1950Yugoslav Radio Television became one of the founding members of theEuropean Broadcasting Union and it canceled its membership in theIBO that same year. In 1962 Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was the first East European nation for which the Council of the European Economic Community accepted the possibility of starting technical talks on cooperation.[3] TheMinistry of Foreign Affairs of Yugoslavia held topical meeting on Yugoslav relations withWestern European states on February 26, 1964 concluding that those relations are continually improving.[4] During the meeting special attention was given to the Yugoslav relations withWest Germany where Ministry commended results in mutual trade, tourist visits and scientific cooperation.[4] On the other hand, the Ministry have criticized German toleration of disruptive activities of post-World War II anti-Yugoslav emigration, campaigns againstKoča Popović and postponing of judicial proceeding against the organizers and perpetrators of terrorist attack on Yugoslav representation in Bad Godesberg on November 29, 1962.[4] The Ministry also criticized unwillingness to fulfillobligations and indemnities to the Yugoslav victims of World War II.[4]
Due to developed economic relations and the large expat community, relations with West Germany played a particularly important role in the set of Yugoslav bilateral relations with the EEC member states. Formal bilateral relations between Yugoslavia and West Germany were canceled in accordance to theHallstein Doctrine after the 1957 Yugoslav recognition ofEast Germany limiting relations almost exclusively to the economics field.[5] In 1965 expert negotiations with EEC began as well as talks on extent of future economic cooperation and potential trade exchange.[3] Relations were reestablished after the election ofWilly Brandt and his 1968 visit to Yugoslavia within hisOstpolitik efforts.[5] Tito and Brandt discussed war reparations leading to the creation of the so-called Brioni Formula focused on development aid and loans under highly generous conditions instead of formal reparations.[5] This formula enabled Yugoslavia to receive up to 1 billionDeutsche Mark and was subsequently used with Poland.[5] Belgrade expressed its dissatisfaction with the unequal treatment of numerous Yugoslav workers in Germany compared to Italian, Spanish and Turkish workers, and with the activities of nationalist emigration groups.[5] There was also dissatisfaction with some of the ceremonial aspect of Ostpolitik in which theSocialist Republic of Romania normalized its relations with West Germany before Yugoslavia and in which famous 1970Kniefall von Warschau inWarsaw was not followed by similar gesture to victims of theKragujevac massacre during his second visit to Yugoslavia in 1973.[5] Despite some inherent tensions, the focus of renewed bilateral relations was on international relations including the crises in the Middle East and Vietnam,Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe andDétente in Europe and activities of theNon-Aligned Movement.[5]
Already in 1967 the formalDeclaration on the relations between SFR Yugoslavia and the EEC was signed.[3] In 1969, after the 1968Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, the Permanent Mission of the SFRY to the EEC has been opened.[6] In 1977 the EEC granted access to theEuropean Investment Bank to Yugoslavia.[2] During the 1977-1978 Belgrade was the host city of the first follow-up meeting of theConference on Security and Co-operation in Europe.[7] By 1980 European Investment Bank granted two loans in total value of 50 million ofECUs to link the Yugoslav high-voltage electricity distribution network to the Greek and Italian grids and for the construction of part of the trans-Yugoslav road.[2]
In 1978, the European Community and Yugoslavia began negotiations on a Cooperation Agreement, which was signed in April 1980 and entered into force in April 1983.[2] Cooperation Agreement contained provisions concerningtrade,financial aid and cooperation in the areas ofindustry,science andtechnology,energy,agriculture,transport, theenvironment andtourism.[2] This agreement was the third one between the two sides and was enabled by Community's willingness to raise its tariff ceilings, which under the previous agreement were much lower for agricultural products.[8] Despite some reservations of some of its member states, the Community was willing to offer more advantageous trading conditions for Yugoslavia due to raising trade imbalance, and increased Yugoslavia's export toComecon market which became its largest export market in 1974 and its largest overall trading partner in 1978, fact which caused worry both in Brussels and Belgrade.[8] The new agreement included provisions on a wider co-operation in the fields of industry, agriculture, science and technology, energy, tourism and transportation.[8] Special attention was paid to regulating the status of temporary Yugoslav workers while Yugoslavia was recognized as a developing country which meant that trading obligations were no longer equal on both sides but puts a higher formal burden to the community.[8]
On 8 June 1988, Secretary of State for Foreign AffairsBudimir Lončar said to the members of collectivePresidency of Yugoslavia that there are significant integration processes going on in Europe andSingle Market is created which requires adaptation from Yugoslavia.[6] In late 1989, Yugoslavia initiated the signing of the association agreement as at that time close to 70% of Yugoslav foreign trade was done with the EEC countries.[6] French politicianClaude Cheysson who was a member of theDelors Commission responsible for Mediterranean policy and north–south relations was the strongest advocate of Yugoslav integration with ItalianGianni De Michelis and GermanHans Dietrich Genscher not being opposed to the idea.[6] Genscher was of opinion that Yugoslavia may additionally strengthen EEC credibility among the non-NATO member countries, yet official negotiations did not start at that time.[6]
In May 1991 EC PresidentJacques Delors andLuxembourg Prime MinisterJacques Santer offered to sign an association agreement and an agreement on 5.5 billion dollars support for structural reforms, yet at that time theYugoslav Wars already were in their initial phase.[6] The two biggest constituent republics, Croatia and Serbia, which were led by hardlinersFranjo Tuđman andSlobodan Milošević respectively, refused the proposal.[3] In June 1991 an EEC mission formed by the foreign ministers ofLuxembourg,Italy and theNetherlands visitedBelgrade, where they talked with Yugoslav Prime MinisterAnte Marković, as well asZagreb, where they talked with PresidentsMilan Kučan of Slovenia and Franjo Tuđman of Croatia.[9] The mission members stated that almost $1 billion in economic aid would be suspended if Yugoslav military offensive continued as well as that the EEC favors the preservation of Yugoslavia as a single entity.[9] The community's concern was the Yugoslav geographic position which just likeSwitzerland divided northern and southern parts of the Community into two.[10] Members of the EEC were divided over the importance they should give to the potentially contradictory principles ofself-determination andterritorial integrity.[9]German Chancellor Helmut Kohl strongly stressing the right to self-determination,French PresidentFrançois Mitterrand arguing against immediate cutoff of aid to Yugoslavia, whileSpain, Italy andUnited Kingdom insisted on the territorial integrity of Yugoslavia.[9] On 25 November 1991, due to the escalation of hostilities and violations of human rights, all agreements on co-operation between the EEC and SFR Yugoslavia were canceled.[3] Widely perceived EEC's failure in former Yugoslavia, which undermined community's credibility and forced it to ask forUnited Nations,United States andRussian support, have influenced future development of theCommon Foreign and Security Policy.[10] Entry into force of theMaastricht Treaty in November 1993 which established the EU and introduced Common Foreign and Security Policy was deeply symbolically marked by the failure to reach a common stance in Yugoslavia.[1]
After initial efforts to ensure the preservation of the Yugoslav federation the Community adopted two consequential policy changing documents known as the "Guidelines for the recognition of new states in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union" of 16 December 1991 and the "Common Position for the recognition of the Yugoslav Republics" of 17 December 1991.[11] While the first declaration underlined importance of commitment todemocracy andinternational law norms in general, the second one requested Yugoslav republics wishing to gain recognition of their independence to accept provisions of international law protectinghuman rights as well asnational minorities rights.[11] The requirement for guarantees for minority rights was the result of a concern that independence of Yugoslav republics may represent a threat to ethnic minorities in the region, particularly in the case ofSerbs of Croatia andSerbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and believe that credible guarantees may prevent incentives for further violent confrontations.[12] European Community therefore decided to use the question of conditional recognition of independence as a tool to deescalate situation with conditional recognition offer being limited exclusively to established Yugoslav federal units (republics) in their administrative borders and explicitly discouraged in case of new secessionist regions (Republic of Serbian Krajina,Republika Srpska,Republic of Kosova orCroatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia).[11][12]
The former Yugoslav constituent republics ofSlovenia (2004) andCroatia (2013) have joined theEuropean Union as independent states,North Macedonia,Serbia andMontenegro have been negotiating their accession since 2020, 2012 and 2010 respectively.Bosnia and Herzegovina applied in 2016, and was granted candidate status in 2022.[13]Partially recognisedKosovo is recognised as a potential candidate for membership and formally applied to join the EU in 2022.[14] Numerous politicians, academics, and public persons commented on the alleged missed opportunity of Yugoslav EEC membership, includingStjepan Mesić,[15]Kiro Gligorov,[16]Milorad Dodik,[17]Tvrtko Jakovina,[6]Claudio Gerardini,[18]Vuk Drašković,[19]Vladislav Jovanović,[20] andCornelius Adebahr.[21]
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