AlthoughGenghis Khan's enthronement asKhagan in 1206 was described inChinese as theHan-style title ofEmperor[note 3][6] and theMongol Empire had ruled territories including modern-daynorthern China for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Han style,[14] and the conquest was not complete until 1279 when the Southern Song dynasty was defeated in theBattle of Yamen. His realm was, by this point, isolated from the other Mongol-led khanates and controlled most of modern-dayChina and its surrounding areas, including modern-dayMongolia.[15] It was the first dynasty founded by a non-Han ethnicity that ruled all ofChina proper.[16]: 312 [17] In 1368, following the defeat of the Yuan forces by the Ming dynasty, the Genghisid rulers retreated to theMongolian Plateau and continued to rule until 1635 when they surrendered to theLater Jin dynasty (which later evolved into theQing dynasty). Therump state is known inhistoriography as theNorthern Yuan.
After the division of the Mongol Empire, the Yuan dynasty was the khanate ruled by the successors ofMöngke. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore theMandate of Heaven. The dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty and accorded him thetemple name Taizu.[note 3] In the edict titledProclamation of the Dynastic Name issued in 1271,[8] Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from theThree Sovereigns and Five Emperors to theTang dynasty.[8] Some of the Yuan emperors mastered theChinese language, while others only used their nativeMongolian language, written with theʼPhags-pa script.[18]
Kublai, as aKhagan (Great Khan) of the Mongol Empire from 1260, had claimed supremacy over the other successor Mongol khanates: theChagatai, theGolden Horde, and theIlkhanate, before proclaiming as theEmperor of China in 1271. As such, the Yuan was also sometimes referred to as theEmpire of the Great Khan. However, even though the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was recognized by the western khans in 1304, their subservience was nominal and each continued its own separate development.[19][20][page needed]
In 1271,Kublai Khan imposed the nameGreat Yuan (Chinese:大元;pinyin:Dà Yuán), establishing the Yuan dynasty.[11] "Dà Yuán" (大元) is derived from a clause "大哉乾元" (dà zāi Qián Yuán; 'Great is Qián', 'the Primal') in theCommentaries on theI Ching section[21] regarding thefirst hexagram (乾).[8] TheMongolian-language counterpart wasDai Ön Ulus, also rendered asIkh Yuan Üls orYekhe Yuan Ulus. In Mongolian,Dai Ön a borrowing from Chinese, was often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus" (大蒙古國; 'Great Mongol State'), which resulted in the formᠳᠠᠢ ᠥᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ (大元大蒙古國;Dai Ön Yeqe Mongɣul Ulus, lit. "Great Yuan – Great Mongol State")[22] orᠳᠠᠢ ᠦᠨ ᠺᠡᠮᠡᠺᠦ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ (Dai Ön qemeqü Yeqe Mongɣol Ulus, lit. "Great Mongol State called Great Yuan").[23][24][25]
As per contemporary historiographical norm, "Yuan dynasty" typically refers to the realm with its main capital inDadu (modern-dayBeijing). However, theHan-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire Mongol Empire when the dynasty was proclaimed.[8][13] This usage is seen in the writings, including non-Chinese texts, produced during the time of the Yuan dynasty.[13] In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is not commonly used in the broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to thedivision of the Mongol Empire. Some scholars believe that 1260 was the year that the Yuan dynasty emerged with the proclamation of areign title following the collapse of the unified Mongol Empire.[26]
The Yuan dynasty is sometimes also called the "Mongol dynasty" by westerners,[27]: 269 akin to theQing dynasty sometimes being referred to as the "Manchu dynasty"[28] or "Manchu Dynasty of China".[29]: 365 Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan" or "Khanate of the Great Khan",[30]: 48 since Yuan emperors held the nominal title ofGreat Khan; these appeared on some Yuan maps. However, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271.
Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes of the steppes and becameGreat Khan in 1206.[31] He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son,Ögedei Khan, the Mongolsdestroyed the weakenedJin dynasty in 1234, conquering most ofnorthern China.[32] Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position inXingzhou,Hebei. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his motherSorghaghtani. He sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers.[33]Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei's son,Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251.[34] He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China.[35] Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issuedpaper money, revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth.[36] He adopted as his capital city Kaiping inInner Mongolia, later renamedShangdu.[37]
Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders,Shi Tianze,Liu Heima (劉黑馬, aka Liu Ni),[38] and the KhitanXiao Zhala (蕭札剌) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ögedei Khan.[39]: 129–130 Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols.[40]: 175 There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier (石抹孛迭兒), Tabuyir (塔不已兒), and Zhongxi, the son of Xiaozhaci (蕭札刺之子重喜) commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ögedei Khan.[41][42]
Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the ChineseSong dynasty in southern China.[43] The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256.[44] He died in 1259 without a successor at theSiege of Diaoyucheng.[45] Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother,Ariq Böke, was challenging his claim to the throne.[46] Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan.[47] A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war.[48] Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on the bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong.[49]Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264.[50] All of the three western khanates (Golden Horde,Chagatai Khanate andIlkhanate) became functionally autonomous, and only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan.[51][52] Civil strife hadpermanently divided the Mongol Empire.[53]
Instability troubled the early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandsonKaidu refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain.[4][54] The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south.[4] Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage princeWonjong as the ruler of theKingdom of Goryeo (Korea), making it a Mongol tributary state.[3][4] Kublai betrothed one of his daughters to the prince to solidify the relationship between the two houses.[55] Korean women were sent to the Yuan court as tribute and one concubine became theempress of the Yuan dynasty.[56] Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court.[57] He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to the Song.[58]
Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects.[59] He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining thetraditional monopolies on salt andiron.[60] He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left the local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged.[61] However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucianimperial examinations and divided Yuan society into three classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank until the conquest of theSong dynasty and its people, who made up the fourth class, the Southern Chinese. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in the government, sometimes more than high officials, but their official rank was nebulous.[60]
Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital fromKarakorum in Mongolia toKhanbaliq in 1264,[62] constructing a new city near the formerJurchen capitalZhongdu, now modernBeijing, in 1266.[63] In 1271, Kublai formally claimed theMandate of Heaven and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan (大元) in the style of a traditional Chinese dynasty.[64] The name of the dynasty is first attested in theI Ching and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force".[65] Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the Daidu (大都;Dàdū; 'Great Capital') of the dynasty.[66] The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history.[67] The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating the government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession.[68] Kublai evoked his public image as a sage emperor by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration,[69] while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes.[68]
Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of theSilk Road trade network by protecting theMongol postal system, constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paperjiaochao banknotes. During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuingcoins; however, underKülüg Khan coins were completely replaced by paper money. It was not until the reign ofToghon Temür that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation.[70] ThePax Mongolica, Mongol peace, enabled the spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West.[71] Kublai expanded theGrand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north.[72] Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan.[73] He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchantMarco Polo, who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China.[74] Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others likeChristopher Columbus to chart a passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth.[75]
Empire of the Great Khan ("Catayo" forCathay) according to theCatalan Atlas (1375, rotated 180°).Xinjiang with its caravan of traders appears in the bottom right corner, while the Pacific coast runs along the top-left corner.Kublai Khan is seen enthroned. A flag with three red crescent moons() appears on all the territory.[76]
After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south.[77] Kublai besiegedXiangyang (襄阳) between 1268 and 1273,[78] the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangtze River basin.[62] An unsuccessful naval expedition was undertakenagainst Japan in 1274.[79] The Duan family ruling theKingdom of Dali (大理) in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China.
The Duan family still ruled Dali relatively independently during the Yuan dynasty.[80]: 146 TheTusi chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling theChiefdom of Bozhou, which was recognized by both the Song and Tang dynasty, also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty, and later by theMing dynasty. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from theThree Kingdoms era king Huoji who legendarily helpedZhuge Liang againstMeng Huo.[81]: 260 They were also recognized by theMing dynasty.[82]: 143
In 1276 Kublai captured the Song capital ofHangzhou (杭州), the wealthiest city of China,[83] after the surrender of the Southern Song Han ChineseEmperor Gong of Song.[84] Emperor Gong was married off to a Mongol princess of the royalBorjigin family of the Yuan dynasty.[85]: 213 Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child asEmperor Bing of Song, who was Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces commanded by Han Chinese GeneralZhang Hongfan led a predominantly Han navy to defeat the Song loyalists at thebattle of Yamen in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty.[86] The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years.[87]
The Yuan dynasty created the "Han Army" (漢軍) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).[88]
Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained the Mongol treasury.[89] Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals.[90] Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems.[89] Kublai'ssecond invasion of Japan in 1281 failed because of aninauspicious typhoon.[79] Kublai botched his campaigns againstAnnam, Champa, andJava,[91] but won aPyrrhic victory againstBurma.[92] The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and a tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols.[91][79] TheTrần dynasty which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at theBattle of Bạch Đằng (1288). Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty.[93]
Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and the northeast.[94] His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294.[95]
Following the conquest ofDali in 1253, the former ruling Duan family were appointed as its leaders.[96] Local chieftains were appointed asTusi, recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan,Ming, andQing-era governments, principally in the province ofYunnan. Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son,Zhenjin, as the crown prince, but he died before Kublai in 1285.[97] Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his motherKökejin and the ministerBayan, succeeded the throne and ruled asTemür Khan, or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam,[98] which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during the reign of Temür Khan.
Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent.[16]: 323
The fourth Yuan emperor,Buyantu Khan (born Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstreamChinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite.[99] He had been mentored byLi Meng (李孟), aConfucian academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of theDepartment of State Affairs (尚書省), which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials.[99] Starting in 1313 the traditionalimperial examinations were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works.
EmperorGegeen Khan, Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform the government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grandchancellor Baiju. During his reign, theDa Yuan Tong Zhi (《大元通制》; ''Comprehensive Institutions of the Great Yuan''), a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in acoup involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placedYesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed toregicide.
Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items.[100]
When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328,Tugh Temür was recalled toKhanbaliq by theQipchaq commanderEl Temür. He was installed as emperor in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's sonRagibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu (商都) with the support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as theWar of the Two Capitals. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brotherKusala, who was backed by Chagatai KhanEljigidey, and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such asGolden Horde andIlkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world.[101] However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.
Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoringConfucianism and promotingChinese cultural values. His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature (奎章閣學士院), first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment" (儒教推崇). The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutionalcompendium namedJingshi Dadian (經世大典). Tugh Temür supportedZhu Xi'sNeo-Confucianism and also devoted himself inBuddhism.
After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death ofRinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong) the same year, the 13-year-oldToghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from exile inKoryo and succeeded to the throne. While the influental El Temür had been central to the exilment of Toghon Temür, after his return the also influentalBayan tried to use the new emperor to deepen his influence. After a coup of Bayan against El Timür and the latters death, Tugh Temür 1340 allied himself with Bayan's nephewToqto'a, who was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. This was also the time in which the now adult emperor began to take an active part in the government.[102]
Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalledofficial histories of theLiao,Jin, andSong dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with the approval of Toghon Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349.
A Yuan dynastyjade swanA Yuan dynasty blue-and-whiteporcelain dish with fish and flowing water design, mid-14th century,Freer Gallery of Art
The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.
From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, theRed Turban Rebellion led by Song loyalists started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Song loyalists established a renewed Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghon Temür's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north toShangdu from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of theMing dynasty (1368–1644), founded byZhu Yuanzhang in the south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former Duke and commander in the army of the Red Turban Song dynasty and assumed power as Emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song EmperorHan Lin'er, who had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed, and who died inYingchang (located in present-dayInner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some Yuan royal family members still live inHenan today.[103][relevant?]
ThePrince of Liang,Basalawarmi established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming inYunnan andGuizhou, but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces inManchuria underNaghachu had alsosurrendered to the Ming dynasty. The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan (大元) was formally carried on, and is known as theNorthern Yuan dynasty.
A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development ofdrama and thenovel and the increased use of thewritten vernacular. Arts and culture also greatly developed and flourished during the Yuan dynasty. There was a widespread introduction of blue and white painted porcelain, as well as a major change to Chinese painting.[104] The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in theMongol Empire also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate inPersia, theIlkhanate, encouraged this development.[105][106] Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-riteTantric Buddhism had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan dynasty introducedMiddle Easterncartography,astronomy, medicine, clothing, and cuisine in East Asia. Eastern crops such ascarrots,turnips, new varieties oflemons,eggplants, andmelons, high-quality granulatedsugar, andcotton were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty.[15]: 611
Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion toIslam, by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest.Nestorianism andRoman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration.Buddhism (especiallyTibetan Buddhism) flourished, althoughTaoism endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government.Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on theClassics, which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature,cartography,geography, and scientific education.
A plate made oflacquer, wood, and paper from the Yuan dynasty. The Chinese were able to perfect a method of making lacquer. Decorating this plate are parrots and peonies. The parrot was a symbol of fidelity; because of its ability to mimic human speech, it was believed to be a suitable companion to a woman whose husband was away from home. The bird would be able to inform each person of the other's activities. Thepeony was a symbol of female virtue. When shown in full bloom, it is a token of love, affection, and feminine beauty.[107]Birmingham Museum of Art.
Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purifiedsaltpetre, printing techniques,porcelain,playing cards, and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin glass andcloisonné became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system.[15]: 611
The Yuan dynasty arched bridges ofTaicang were built to show the prosperity the city enjoyed under the Yuan.[108]
Aside from theancient Roman embassies, thefirst recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was theVenetianMarco Polo, whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels,Il milione (or,The Million, known in English as theTravels of Marco Polo), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, chopsticks, tea houses – which would have been a prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture – as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo's account is largely accurate and unique.[109]
The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan's top engineers and scientists was the astronomerGuo Shoujing, who was tasked with many public works projects and helped the Yuan reform thelunisolar calendar to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year,[110] which was only 26 seconds off the modernGregorian calendar's measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines,granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of theGrand Canal of China, which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop,sorghum, along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.
The Yuan dynasty was the first dynasty founded by non-Han ethnicity that ruled all ofChina proper. In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious."[citation needed] In traditionalhistoriography of China, on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between theSong dynasty and theMing dynasty. Note, however, Yuan dynasty is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire beforeKublai Khan's formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai officially honoured prior rulers of the Mongol Empire as Yuan emperors by conferring themposthumous names andtemple names. Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew the Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people[who?] who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Han Chinese were treated assecond-class citizens,[citation needed] and that China stagnated economically and scientifically.
The dynasty chose white as its imperial color, which corresponds to the Metal element according to the theory of theFive Elements (wuxing). The Metal element does not follow from the Song's dynastic element Five in the creation sequence of the five elements. Instead, it follows from theJin dynasty's dynastic element Earth. Although the Yuan did not openly announce it, its choice of white as its imperial color suggests that it considered Jin, another conquest dynasty, rather than the Han-Chinese Song dynasty, as its rightful predecessor.[111]
The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by theIlkhanids, the ChineseHuangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.[112]: 46
The structure of the Yuan government took shape during the reign ofKublai Khan (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368.
The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of theHans,Khitans,Jurchens,Mongols, andTibetan Buddhists. While the official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the nativeTang,Song, as well as KhitanLiao and JurchenJin dynasties. Chinese advisers such asLiu Bingzhong andYao Shu gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and the central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartitedivision of authority amongcivil, military, andcensorial offices, including theCentral Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, thePrivy Council (樞密院;Shūmì Yuàn) to manage military affairs, and theCensorate to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed a major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-styleSix Ministries), was created in China. At various times another central government institution called theDepartment of State Affairs (尚書省;Shangshu Sheng) that mainly dealt with finance was established (such as during the reign ofKülüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards.
While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since theSui and Tang dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, theMinistry of Justice, did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols andSemu, who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by a mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of theMinistry of War compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council.
Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during the Yuan era. The mathematicianZhu Shijie (1249–1314) solvedsimultaneous equations with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modernmatrices.[113][114] Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown.[115] His method is described in theJade Mirror of the Four Unknowns, written in 1303. The opening pages contain a diagram ofPascal's triangle. The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book.[116]
Guo Shoujing applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry.[117] Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations.[118] His calendar, theShoushi Li (授時暦; ''Time Granting Calendar''), was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty.[119] The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work ofSong dynasty astronomerShen Kuo or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers.[117] There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars.[119] Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers broughtArabic numerals to China in the 13th century.[117]
The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures.[120] Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians calledotachi and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterizedotachi doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism.[120] Physicians received official support from the Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors.[121] Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues.[122][121]
The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools" that the Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine.[122] Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such asacupuncture,moxibustion,pulse diagnosis, and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to the Middle East and the rest of the empire.[123] Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physicianWei Yilin (1277–1347) invented a suspension method forreducing dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics.[124] The Mongol physicianHu Sihui described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.[124]
Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of the Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled ashuihui or Muslim medicine.[125] The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai.[126] Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court.[121] Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because itshumoral system contradicted theyin-yang and wuxing philosophy underlying traditional Chinese medicine.[122] No Chinese translation of Western medical works is known, but it is possible that the Chinese had access toAvicenna'sThe Canon of Medicine.[125]
Yuan dynastybanknote with its printing plate, 1287A revolving typecase with individualmovable type characters fromWang Zhen'sNong Shu, published in 1313
The Mongol rulers patronized the Yuan printing industry.[127][128] Chinese printing technology was transferred to the Mongols throughKingdom of Qocho and Tibetan intermediaries.[127] Some Yuan documents such asWang Zhen'sNong Shu were printed with earthenwaremovable type, a technology invented in the 12th century. However, most published works were still produced through traditionalblock printing techniques.[129] The publication of a Taoist text inscribed with the name ofTöregene Khatun, Ögedei's wife, is one of the first printed works sponsored by the Mongols. In 1273, the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, a government-sponsored printing office.[127] The Yuan government established centers for printing throughout China.[127] Local schools and government agencies were funded to support the publishing of books.[130]
Private printing businesses also flourished under the Yuan. They published a diverse range of works, and printed educational, literary, medical, religious, and historical texts. The volume of printed materials was vast.[131] In 1312, 1,000 copies of a Buddhist text commented by Cosgi Odsir were printed just within Beijing.[132] By 1328, annual sales of printed calendars and almanacs reached over three million in the Yuan dynasty.[133]
One of the more notable applications of printing technology was theJiaochao, the paper money of the Yuan. Jiaochao were made from the bark of mulberry trees.[132] The Yuan government used woodblocks to print paper money, but switched to bronze plates in 1275.[134] The Mongols experimented with establishing the Chinese-style paper monetary system in Mongol-controlled territories outside of China. The Yuan ministerBolad was sent to Iran, where he explained Yuan paper money to the Il-khanate court ofGaykhatu.[135] The Il-khanate government issued paper money in 1294, but public distrust of the exotic new currency doomed the experiment.[136]
Foreign observers took note of Yuan printing technology. Marco Polo documented the Yuan printing of paper money and almanac pamphlets calledtacuini.[132] The vizierRashid-al-Din recognized that printing was a valuable technological breakthrough, and expressed regret that the Mongol experiment with printing paper money had failed in the Muslim world. Rashid-al-Din's view was not shared by other chroniclers in the Middle East, who were critical of the experiment's disruptive impact on the Il-khanate.[133]
Blue-and-white Covered Jar with Fretwork Floral Design in Red and Blue Glaze, excavated in Baoding
InChinese ceramics the period was one of expansion, with the great innovation the development inJingdezhen ware ofunderglaze paintedblue and white pottery. This seems to have begun in the early decades of the 14th century, and by the end of the dynasty was mature and well-established. Other major types of wares continued without a sharp break in their development, but there was a general trend to some larger size pieces, and more decoration. This is often seen as a decline from Song refinement. Exports expanded considerably, especially to the Islamic world.
Painting of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280
Since its invention in 1269, the'Phags-pa script, a unified script for spellingMongolian,Tibetan, andChinese languages, was preserved in the court until the end of the dynasty. Most of the Emperors could not masterwritten Chinese, but they could generally converse well in the language. The Mongol custom of long standingquda marriage alliance with other Mongol clans – theOnggirat and the Ikeres – kept the imperial blood purely Mongol until the reign ofTugh Temur (Emperor Wenzong), whose mother was aTangut concubine. The Mongol Emperors had built large palaces and pavilions, but some still continued to live as nomads at times. Tugh Temür was an example of a Yuan emperor who actively sponsored cultural activities; including in his imperial capacity and in his personal activities such as writingpoetry, painting, readingChinese classical texts, and ordering the compilation of books.[137]
The average Mongol garrison family of the Yuan dynasty seems to have lived a life of decaying rural leisure, with income from the harvests of their Chinese tenants eaten up by costs of equipping and dispatching men for their tours of duty. The Mongols practiced debt slavery, and by 1290 in all parts of the Mongol Empire commoners were selling their children into slavery. Seeing this as damaging to the Mongol nation, Kublai in 1291 forbade the sale abroad of Mongols. Kublai wished to persuade the Chinese that he was becoming increasinglysinicized while maintaining his Mongolian credentials with his own people. He set up a civilian administration to rule, built a capital within China, supported Chinese religions and culture, and devised suitable economic and political institutions for the court. But at the same time he never abandoned his Mongolian heritage.[138]: 488–489
During the Yuan Dynasty, homosexuality had been both a common cultural practice and a highly suppressed behavior. TheGreat Yassa, one of the Yuan Dynasty law systems, prohibited homosexuality, but many cultural accounts recorded the ubiquity of homosexual practices across Mongolians’ daily lives.[139]
There were many religions practiced during the Yuan dynasty, such asBuddhism,Islam,Christianity andManichaeism. The establishment of the Yuan dynasty had dramatically increased the number ofMuslims in China. However, unlike the western khanates, the Yuan dynasty never converted to Islam. Instead, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, favored Buddhism, especially the Tibetan variants. As a result,Tibetan Buddhism became thede factostate religion. The top-level department and government agency known as theBureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Chinese:宣政院;pinyin:xuānzhèngyuàn) was set up inKhanbaliq (modern Beijing) to superviseBuddhist monks throughout the empire. Since Kublai Khan only esteemed theSakya sect of Tibetan Buddhism, other religions became less important. He and his successors kept a SakyaImperial Preceptor (Chinese:帝师;pinyin:Dìshī) at court. Before the end of the Yuan dynasty, 14 leaders of the Sakya sect had held the post of Imperial Preceptor, thereby enjoying special power.[140]: 59 Furthermore, Mongol patronage of Buddhism resulted in a number of monuments of Buddhist art. Mongolian Buddhist translations, almost all from Tibetan originals, began on a large scale after 1300. Many Mongols of the upper class such as theJalayir and the Oronar nobles as well as the emperors also patronizedConfucian scholars and institutions. A considerable number of Confucian and Chinese historical works were translated into theMongolian language.
At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.[141]
Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.[142]: 24 Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves" and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method.Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected and forbidden by the Mongols to eatKosher.[143]
Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say "we do not eat Mongol food". [Cinggis Qa’an replied:] "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?" He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime." He issued a regulation to that effect ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: "if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat". Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.[144]
The Muslims in the semu class revolted against the Yuan dynasty in theIspah Rebellion, but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese meaning "barracks" and also meaning "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them.[145]
During theMing conquest of Yunnan, Muslim generalsMu Ying andLan Yu led Muslim troops loyal to the Ming dynasty against Mongol and Muslim troops loyal to the Yuan dynasty.[146][142]: 34
Box with pavilion and figures, Yuan dynasty.Covered box with lunar palace, 14th century. Yuan dynasty.
The Mongols had employed foreigners long before the reign of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. But during Kublai's reign a hierarchy of reliability was introduced in China. The population was divided into the following classes:[148]
Mongols. The Mongols were called "Gao-chen"[Chinese script needed] (the citizens of the ruling empire) by the conquered Southern Song population.[149]
Nan (Southerners), or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty, including ethnic Han Chinese and minority native ethnic groups insouthern China, as well as the people of theDali Kingdom. They were sometimes called "Manzi" during the Yuan dynasty. They were on the "bottom of the privilege ladder" in Yuan society.[148]
The ordering of the classes and the placement of people in them came down to how loyal and trustworthy to the Mongols they were. This was defined by the date they surrendered to the Mongols and had little to do with their ethnicity. Ethnic Han Chinese could be classified as eitherHan ren orNan ren while Khitans and Jurchens fromQara Khitai were not consideredHan butSemu.[150] The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, while the more they held out, the lower they were ranked. As a result, the Northern Chinese were ranked higher than the Southern Chinese, because the Song dynasty in southern China fought longer and surrendered later.[152]: 264–265 [153]: 426 Similarly, the Uighur and Karluk monarchs were ranked higher than the Korean monarch at court because they surrendered earlier while the Koreans surrendered later. The Uighurs in particular were noted to not have fought at all.[151]: 247 [150]
The Mongols employed people from different regions to oversee different parts of their empire. Central Asian Muslims served as administrators in China while Han people and Khitans from China served as administrators over the Muslim population inBukhara in Central Asia. Foreigners were used to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.[141] Han people were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq,Almaliq, andSamarqand by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers.[154]Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called"Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the formerKingdom of Qocho and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Gongzhi.[151]: 255 After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators of gardens and fields in Samarqand while co-management with Chinese and Khitans was required since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them.[155][156] The Yuan-appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Khitan by the name of Ahai. He was from theQara Khitai, held the title Taishi, and was familiar with Chinese culture.[155] Han officials and colonists weresent by the Yuan dynasty to areas ofLingbei province includingHenning Circuit,Yilan Prefecture, andQian Prefecture.[157]
Politically, the system of government created by Kublai Khan was the product of a compromise between Mongolian patrimonialfeudalism and the traditional Chineseautocratic-bureaucratic system. Nevertheless, socially the educated Chineseelite were in general not given the degree of esteem that they had been accorded previously under native Chinese dynasties. Although the traditional Chinese elite were not given their share of power, the Mongols and theSemu people (various allied groups fromCentral Asia and the western end of the empire) largely remained strangers to the mainstreamChinese culture, and this dichotomy gave the Yuan regime a somewhat strong "colonial" coloration.[158] The unequal treatment is possibly due to the fear of transferring power to the ethnic Chinese under their rule. The Mongols andSemu were given certain advantages in the dynasty, and this would last even after the restoration of theimperial examination in the early 14th century. In general there were very few North Chinese or Southerners reaching the highest-post in the government compared with the possibility that Persians did so in theIlkhanate.[159] Later theYongle Emperor of theMing dynasty also mentioned the discrimination that existed during the Yuan dynasty. In response to an objection against the use of "barbarians" in his government, the Yongle Emperor answered: "Discrimination was used by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty, who employed only "Mongols and Tartars" and discarded northern and southern Chinese and this was precisely the cause that brought disaster upon them."[160] However, ordinary Mongol families fell into extreme poverty in both Mongolia and China proper, and elite positions were increasingly penetrated by ethnic Han.[161][162]: 467
Despite the high position given to Muslims, some policies of the Yuan emperors severely discriminated against them, restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like circumcision, as well asKosher butchering for Jews, forcing them to eat food the Mongol way.[144] Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joinedHan in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founderZhu Yuanzhang had Muslim generals likeLan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had a Chinese surname Yíng (營) which means, amongst other definitions, both "barracks" and "thanks". Many Hui Muslims claim that because they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols, this surname was given in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them.[145][relevant?] During the war fighting the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng.[163] The Muslims in theSemu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in theIspah Rebellion but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.
The Muslim merchants in Quanzhou who engaged in maritime trade enriched their families which encompassed their political and trade activities as families. Historians see the violent Chinese backlash that happened at the end of the Yuan dynasty against the wealth of the Muslim andSemu as something inevitable, however anti-Muslim and anti-Semu laws had already been passed by the Yuan dynasty. In 1340 all marriages were forced to follow Confucian principles in marriage regulations, in 1329 all foreign holy men including Muslims had tax exemptions revoked, in 1328 the position of Muslim Qadi was abolished after its powers were limited in 1311. This resulted in anti-Mongol sentiment among Muslims so some anti-Yuan rebels in the mid 14th century were joined by Muslims. In 1357–1367 the Yisibaxi Muslim Persian garrison started a revolt against the Yuan dynasty in Quanzhou and southern Fujian. Persian merchants Amin ud-Din (Amiliding) and Saif ud-Din Saifuding led the revolt. Persian official Yawuna assassinated both Amin ud-Din and Saif ud-Din in 1362 and took control of the Muslim rebel forces. For five years the Muslim rebels tried to strike north and took over some parts of Xinghua but were defeated at Fuzhou two times and failed to take it. Yuan provincial loyalist forces from Fuzhou defeated the Muslim rebels in 1367 after A Muslim rebel officer named Jin Ji defected from Yawuna.[164]: 121 [165]
The historianFrederick W. Mote wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four-class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally, so a person's standing within the classes was not a guarantee of their standing, since there were rich and well socially standing Chinese while there were less rich Mongol andSemu than there were Mongol andSemu who lived in poverty and were ill-treated.[166]
Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four-class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of theSemu as a class.[167]
Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty.Mongol Empire'sAyimaq [ja] in North China
The territory of the Yuan dynasty was divided into the Central Region (腹裏) governed by theCentral Secretariat and places under control of various provinces (行省) or Branch Secretariats (行中書省), as well as the region under theBureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.
The Central Region, consisting of present-dayHebei,Shandong,Shanxi, the south-eastern part of present-dayInner Mongolia and theHenan areas to the north of theYellow River, was considered the most important region of the dynasty and directly governed by the Central Secretariat (or Zhongshu Sheng,中書省) atKhanbaliq (modernBeijing); similarly, another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Chinese:宣政院;pinyin:Xuānzhèng Yuàn)held administrative rule over the whole of modern-dayTibet and a part ofSichuan,Qinghai andKashmir.
Branch Secretariats or simplyprovinces, were provincial-level administrative organizations or institutions, though they were not exactly provinces in modern sense. There were eleven "regular" provinces in Yuan dynasty,[168] and their administrations were subordinated to the Central Secretariat.
Below the level of provinces, the largest political division was thecircuit (道), followed bylù (路),fǔ (府), andzhōu (州). These are three kinds of prefecture-like divisions. The lowest political division was thecounty (縣).
Basically,lù were higher thanfǔ, which were higher thanzhōu. However, the actual relationship between them could be very complicated. All oflù,fǔ, andzhōu could administer counties. Somefǔ andzhōu were directly administered by the province, while some existed inside alù. Alù usually administered several counties, along with severalfǔ andzhōu, and thefǔ orzhōu themselves could also administer their own counties. As a result, it is impossible to delineate exactly how many tiers of divisions there were under a province.
This government structure at the provincial level was later inherited and modified by theMing andQing dynasties.
^abThe precise status ofGoryeo under Mongol rule is unclear. While Goryeo was a vassal of the Yuan dynasty, many scholars, such asTan Qixiang, regard it as an autonomous state outside the Yuan territory;[2][3][4] others regard it as an integral part of the Yuan territory.
^abAs per modern historiographical norm, the "Yuan dynasty" in this article refers exclusively to the realm based inDadu (present-dayBeijing). However, theHan-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" (大元) as proclaimed by Kublai in 1271, as well as the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant to be applied to the entireMongol Empire.[8][13] In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to thedisintegrated nature of the Mongol Empire.
^abcdSince the enthronement ofGenghis Khan (成吉思皇帝;Chéngjísī huángdì) in Spring 1206.[6] Decades beforeKublai Khan announced the dynastic name "Great Yuan" in 1271, the Great Mongol State (Yeke Mongγol Ulus) already used theHan-style title ofEmperor (皇帝;Huángdì) to translate the Mongolian titleKhagan (合罕;Héhàn,Great Khan).[7] Although Kublai Khan announced that he inherited the Mongol throne, theToluid Civil War broke out due to opposition from other Mongols.
^ModernMongolian form commonly used by Chinese and Mongolian academics:Middle Mongolian:ᠳᠠᠢ ᠦᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ,Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus orИх Юань улс in ModernMongolian Cyrillic,Ikh Yuan Üls / Yekhe Yuan Ulus.[12]
^abSong, Lian (1976) [1370]. "太祖本紀 [Chronicle ofTaizu]".元史 [History of Yuan] (in Literary Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju.元年丙寅，帝大會諸王群臣，建九游白纛，即皇帝位於斡難河之源。諸王群臣共上尊號曰成吉思皇帝。 [In [1206], on thebingyin day, the emperor greatly assembled the many princes and numerous vassals, and erected his nine-tailed whitetuğ banner, assuming the position ofEmperor of China at the source of theOnon river. And the many princes and numerous vassals together bestowed upon him the reverent titleGenghis Huangdi.]
^Yang Fuxue (杨富学) (1997).回鹘文献所见蒙古"合罕"称号之使用范围 [The scope of use of Mongolian "Khagan" title found in Old Uyghur literature].内蒙古社会科学 [Inner Mongolia Social Sciences] (5). Gansu Dunhuang Research Institute.S2CID224535800.
^abcdefKublai Emperor (18 December 1271),《建國號詔》 [Edict to Establish the Name of the State], 《元典章》[Statutes of Yuan] (in Literary Chinese)
^Zhao, Wenlin; Xie, Shujun (1988).中国人口史 [Chinese Population History] (in Chinese).People's Press (Beijing). p. 320. The peak population of the Yuan according to the authors. It tries to account for underreporting of statistics like household size (and native groups in some provinces were not counted at all)
^Volker Rybatzki; Alessandra Pozzi; Peter W. Geier; John R. Krueger, eds. (2009).The Early Mongols Language, Culture and History. Studies in Honor of Igor de Rachewiltz on the Occasion of his 80th Birthday. Indiana University Press. p. 116.ISBN9780933070578.
^Hodong Kim (2015). "Was 'da Yuan' a Chinese Dynasty?".Journal of Song-Yuan Studies.45: 288.
^Francis Woodman Cleaves (1949). "The Sino-Mongolian Inscription of 1362 in Memory of Prince Hindu".Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies.12: 8.
^Hodong Kim (2015). "Was 'da Yuan' a Chinese Dynasty?".Journal of Song-Yuan Studies.45:279–280.doi:10.1353/sys.2015.0007.
^William Honeychurch; Chunag Amartuvshin (2006). "States on Horseback: The Rise of Inner Asian Confederations and Empires". In Miriam T. Stark (ed.).Archaeology of Asia. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 255–278.doi:10.1002/9780470774670.ch12.ISBN9780470774670.
^Piero Corradini (1962). "Civil Administration at the Beginning of the Manchu Dynasty: A note on the establishment of the Six Ministries (Liu-pu)".Oriens Extremus.9 (2). Harrassowitz Verlag:133–138.JSTOR43382329.
^Elizabeth E. Bacon (September 1971). "Reviewed Work:Central Asia. Gavin Hambly".American Journal of Sociology (book review).77 (2). University of Chicago Press:364–366.doi:10.1086/225131.JSTOR2776897.
^Ronald Findlay; Mats Lundahl (2006). "The First Globalization Episode: The Creation of the Mongol Empire, or the Economics of Chinggis Khan". In Göran Therborn; Habibul Khondker (eds.).Asia and Europe in Globalization. Brill. pp. 13–54.doi:10.1163/9789047410812_005.ISBN9789047410812.
^Wen Haiqing (溫海清) (2012)."萬戶路"、"千戶州" ——蒙古千戶百戶制度與華北路府州郡體制 ["Ten thousand perlu", "one thousand perzhou"— the Mongol decimal household administrative system and thelu–fu–zhou–jun structure in northern China].Fudan Academic Journal. No. 4. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved27 May 2016.
^Ruth Dunnell (1989). "The Fall of the Xia Empire: Sino-Steppe Relations in the Late 12th – Early 13th Centuries". In Seaman, Gary; Marks, Daniel (eds.).Rulers from the Steppe: State Formation on the Eurasian periphery. Ethnographics Monograph Series No. 2. University of Southern California Press. pp. 158–185.ISBN1-878986-01-5. Proceedings of the Soviet-American Academic Symposia "Nomads: Masters of the Eurasian Steppe".
^Hu Xiaopeng (胡小鹏) (2001).窝阔台汗己丑年汉军万户萧札剌考辨——兼论金元之际的汉地七万户 [A Study of Xiao Zhala the Han Army commander of 10,000 families in thejichou Year of 1229 during the Period of Ögedei Khan – with a discursus on the Han territory of 70,000 families at the Northern Jin–Yuan boundary].Journal of Northwest Normal University (Social Sciences) (in Simplified Chinese) (6):36–42.doi:10.3969/j.issn.1001-9162.2001.06.008.
^John Masson Smith Jr. (1998). "Nomads on Ponies vs. Slaves on Horses. Reviewed Work:Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260–1281 by Reuven Amitai-Preiss".Journal of the American Oriental Society.118 (1):54–62.JSTOR606298.
^Lorge, Peter (2010). "Review of David M. Robinson,Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia under the Mongols. Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series".China Review International.17 (3):377–379.ISSN1069-5834.JSTOR23733178.
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