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Yōkai (妖怪, "strange apparition") are a class ofsupernatural entities and spirits inJapanese folklore. Thekanji representation of the wordyōkai comprises two characters that both mean "suspicious, doubtful",[1] and while the Japanese name is simply the Japanese transliteration or pronunciation of the Chinese termyaoguai (which designates similarly strange creatures), some Japanese commentators argue that the wordyōkai has taken on many different meanings in Japanese culture,[2] including referring to a large number of uniquely Japanese creatures.
Yōkai are also referred to asayakashi (あやかし),mononoke (物の怪) ormamono (魔物). However, most Japanese generally think of the two loose classes of spirits as highly different,[which?] although some academics andShinto practitioners acknowledge similarities within the seeming dichotomy between the natures of them and mostkami, which are generally regarded as relatively beneficent in comparison, and class the two as ultimately the same type of spirits of nature or of a mythological realm.[3]Their behavior can range from malevolent or mischievous to benevolent to humans.
Yōkai often have animal-like features (such as thekappa, depicted as appearing similar to a turtle, and thetengu, commonly depicted with wings), but may also appear humanoid in appearance, such as thekuchisake-onna (口裂け女). Someyōkai resemble inanimate objects (such as thetsukumogami), while others have no discernible shape.Yōkai are typically described as having spiritual or supernatural abilities, withshapeshifting being the most common trait associated with them.Yōkai that shapeshift are known asbakemono (化け物) orobake (お化け).
Japanesefolklorists and historians explainyōkai as personifications of "supernatural or unaccountable phenomena to their informants".[This quote needs a citation] In theEdo period (1603 to 1868), many artists, such asToriyama Sekien (1712-1788), invented newyōkai by taking inspiration from folk-tales or purely from their own imagination. Today, several suchyōkai (such as theamikiri) are mistakenly thought to originate in more traditional folklore.[4]
The concept ofyōkai, their causes and phenomena related to them varies greatly throughout Japanese culture and historical periods; typically, the older the time period, the higher the number of phenomena deemed to be supernatural and the result ofyōkai.[5] According to Japanese ideas ofanimism, spirit-like entities were believed to reside in all things, including natural phenomena and objects.[6] Such spirits possessed emotions and personalities: peaceful spirits were known asnigi-mitama, who brought good fortune; violent spirits, known asara-mitama, brought ill fortune, such as illness and natural disasters. Neither type of spirit was considered to beyōkai.
One's ancestors and particularly respected departed elders could also be deemed to benigi-mitama, accruing status as protective spirits who brought fortune to those who worshipped them. Animals, objects and natural features or phenomena were also venerated asnigi-mitama or propitiated asara-mitama depending on the area.
Despite the existence of harmful spirits, rituals for convertingara-mitama intonigi-mitama were performed, aiming to quell malevolent spirits, prevent misfortune and alleviate the fear arising from phenomena and events that otherwise had no explanation.[7][8] The ritual for convertingara-mitama intonigi-mitama was known as thechinkon (鎮魂,lit. 'the calming of the spirits' or 'requiem').[9]Chinkon rituals forara-mitama that failed to achieve deification as benevolent spirits, whether through a lack of sufficient veneration or through losing worshippers and thus their divinity, becameyōkai.[10][11]
Over time, phenomena and events thought to be supernatural became fewer and fewer, with the depictions ofyōkai inpicture scrolls and paintings beginning to standardize, evolving more into caricatures than fearsome spiritual entities. Elements of the tales and legends surroundingyōkai began to be depicted in public entertainment, beginning as early as the Middle Ages in Japan.[12] During and following theEdo period, the mythology and lore ofyōkai became more defined and formalized.[13]
![Gama Yōkai from the Saigama to Ukiyo Soushi Kenkyu Volume 2, special issue Kaii[14] Tamababaki](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aGamayoukai.JPG)
The folkloristTsutomu Ema studied the literature and paintings depictingyōkai andhenge (変化,lit. 'changed things/mutants'), dividing them into categories as presented in theNihon Yōkai Henge Shi and theObake no Rekishi:
In otherfolklorist categorizations,yōkai are classified, similarly to thenymphs of Greek mythology, by their location or the phenomena associated with their manifestation.Yōkai are indexed in the bookSogo Nihon Minzoku Goi (綜合日本民俗語彙,A Complete Dictionary of Japanese Folklore)[15][a] as follows:
The ancient times were a period abundant in literature and folktales mentioning and explainingyōkai. Literature such as theKojiki, theNihon Shoki, and variousFudoki expositioned on legends from the ancient past, and mentions ofoni,orochi, among other kinds of mysterious phenomena can already be seen in them.[16] In the Heian period, collections of stories aboutyōkai and other supernatural phenomena were published in multiple volumes, starting with publications such as theNihon Ryōiki and theKonjaku Monogatarishū, and in these publications, mentions of phenomena such asHyakki Yagyō can be seen.[17]
Theyōkai that appear in this literature were passed on to later generations.[18] Despite the literature mentioning and explaining theseyōkai, they were never given any visual depictions. In Buddhist paintings such as theHell Scroll (Nara National Museum), which came from the later Heian period, there are visual expressions of the idea ofoni, but actual visual depictions would only come later in the Middle Ages, from the Kamakura period and beyond.[19]
Yamata no Orochi was originally a local god but turned into ayōkai who was slain bySusanoo.[20] Yasaburo was originally a bandit whose vengeful spirit (onryō) turned into a poisonous snake upon death and plagued the water in a paddy, but eventually became deified as the "wisdom god of the well".[21]Kappa andinugami are sometimes treated as gods in one area andyōkai in other areas. From these examples, it can be seen that among Japanese gods, there are some beings that can go from god toyōkai and vice versa.[22][23]
Medieval Japan was a time period where publications such asemakimono,Otogi-zōshi, and other visual depictions ofyōkai started to appear. While there were religious publications such as theJisha Engi (寺社縁起), others, such as theOtogizōshi, were intended more for entertainment, starting the trend whereyōkai became more and more seen as subjects of entertainment. For examples, tales ofyōkai extermination could be said to be a result of emphasizing the superior status of human society overyōkai.[12] Publications included:
In this way,yōkai that were mentioned only in writing were given a visual appearance in the Middle Ages. In theOtogizōshi, familiar tales such asUrashima Tarō andIssun-bōshi also appeared.
The next major change inyōkai came after the period of warring states, in the Edo period.
It was in this era that the technology of the printing press and publication was first started to be widely used, that a publishing culture developed, and was frequently a subject ofkibyoshi and other publications.[b]
As a result,kashi-hon shops that handled such books spread and became widely used, making the general public's impression of eachyōkai fixed, spreading throughout Japan. For example, before the Edo period, there were plenty of interpretations about what theyōkai were that were classified askappa, but because of books and publishing, the notion ofkappa became anchored to what is now the modern notion ofkappa.[27]
Also, including other kinds of publications, other thanyōkai born from folk legend, there were also many inventedyōkai that were created through puns or word plays; theGazu Hyakki Yagyō byToriyama Sekien is one example. When theHyakumonogatari Kaidankai became popular in the Edo period, it is thought that one reason for the appearance of newyōkai was a demand for entertaining ghost stories aboutyōkai no one has ever heard of before, resulting in some that were simply made up for the purpose of telling an entertaining story. Thekasa-obake and thetōfu-kozō are known examples of these.[27]
They are also frequently depicted inukiyo-e, and there are artists that have drawn famousyōkai likeUtagawa Kuniyoshi,Yoshitoshi,Kawanabe Kyōsai, andHokusai, and there are alsoHyakki Yagyō books made by artists of theKanō school.
In this period, toys and games likekaruta andsugoroku, frequently usedyōkai as characters. Thus, with the development of a publishing culture,yōkai depictions that were treasured in temples and shrines were able to become something more familiar to people, and it is thought that this is the reason that even thoughyōkai were originally things to be feared, they have then become characters that people feel close to.[28]
With theMeiji Restoration, Western ideas and translated western publications began to make an impact, and western tales were particularly sought after. Things likebinbōgami,yakubyōgami [ja], andshinigami were talked about, andshinigami were even depicted in classicalrakugo. Although theshinigami were misunderstood as a kind of Japaneseyōkai orkami, they actually became well known among the populace through arakugo calledShinigami bySan'yūtei Enchō, which were adoptions of European tales such as the Grimm fairy tale "Godfather Death" and the Italian operaCrispino e la comare (1850). Also, in 1908,Kyōka Izumi andChikufū Tobari [ja] jointedly translatedGerhart Hauptmann's playThe Sunken Bell. Later works of Kyōka such asYasha ga Ike [ja] were influenced byThe Sunken Bell, and so it can be seen that folktales that come from the West became adapted into Japanese tales ofyōkai.
Sinceyōkai have been introduced in various kinds of media, they have become well known among people from all walks of life. Thekamishibai from before the war, themanga industry,kashi-hon shops that continued to exist until around the 1970s, and television all contributed to the public knowledge and familiarity withyōkai.Yōkai play a role in attracting tourism revitalizing local mecca regions such asTōno inIwate Prefecture (where stories inKunio Yanagita'sTono Monogatari were collected) orTottori Prefecture (Shigeru Mizuki's birthplace).
In this way,yōkai are spoken about in legends in various forms, but traditional oral storytelling by the elders and the older people is rare, and regionally unique situations and background in oral storytelling are not easily conveyed. For example, the classicalyōkai represented bytsukumogami can only be felt as something realistic by living close to nature, such as withtanuki (Japanese raccoon dogs),foxes andweasels. Furthermore, in the suburbs, and other regions, even when living in a primary-sector environment, there are tools that are no longer seen, such as theinkstone, thekama (a large cooking pot), or thetsurube (a bucket used for getting water from a well), and there existyōkai that are reminiscent of old lifestyles such as theazukiarai and thedorotabō [ja].
As a result, even for those born in the first decade of theShōwa period (1925–1935), except for some who were evacuated to the countryside, they would feel that those things that becomeyōkai are "not familiar" and "not very understandable". For example, in classicalrakugo, even though people understand the words and what they refer to, they are not able to imagine it as something that could be realistic. Thus, the modernization of society has had a negative effect on the place ofyōkai in classical Japanese culture.[opinion]
On the other hand, theyōkai introduced through mass media are not limited to only those that come from classical sources like folklore, and just as in the Edo period, new fictionalyōkai continue to be invented, such as scary school stories and otherurban legends likekuchisake-onna andHanako-san, giving birth to newyōkai. From 1975 onwards, starting with the popularity ofkuchisake-onna, these urban legends began to be referred to in mass media as "modernyōkai".[29] This terminology was also used in recent publications dealing with urban legends,[30] and the researcher onyōkai,Bintarō Yamaguchi [ja], used this especially frequently.[29]
During the 1970s, many books were published that introducedyōkai through encyclopedias, illustrated reference books, and dictionaries as a part of children's horror books, but along with theyōkai that come from classics like folklore,Kaidan, and essays, it has been pointed out by modern research that there are some mixed in that do not come from classics, but were newly created. Some well-known examples of these are thegashadokuro and thejubokko. For example, Arifumi Sato is known to be a creator of modernyōkai, andShigeru Mizuki, a manga artist ofyōkai, in writings concerning research aboutyōkai, pointed out that newly createdyōkai do exist,[31][32] and Mizuki himself, throughGeGeGe no Kitaro, created about 30 newyōkai.[33]
There has been much criticism that this mixing of classicalyōkai with newly createdyōkai is making light of tradition and legends.[31][32] However, since there have already been those from the Edo period like Sekien Toriyama who created many newyōkai, there is also the opinion that it is unreasonable to criticize modern creations without doing the same for classical creations too.[31] Furthermore, there is a favorable view that says that introducing variousyōkai characters through these books nurtured creativity and emotional development of young readers of the time.[32]
Both the Chineseyaoguai and Japanese yokai include strange, supernatural beings with shapeshifting tendencies. In the Chinese version of theyaoguai, the emphasis is often on the first character 妖 yao, which connotes bewilderment and enchantment and supernatural affliction - for example, their ability to take on human form in order to seduce and to enthrall human beings. In the yokai, the emphasis appears to be on the 怪 guai, or on their monstrous and aberrant nature and anatomy. Japanese yokai in popular culture often includes elements of the cute, comical, the goofy, and the bizarre.
Some creatures appear in both Chinese and Japanese folklore asyaoguai and yokai, such as the scaly watershuihu (水虎), wilderness demons denoted aschimeiwangliang (魑魅魍魉), and nine-tailed fox demons (九尾狐).
Some, such as the nekomata (cat yokai) and tanuki (raccoon yokai), resemble Chinese yaoguai, which encompasses any number of shapeshifting animals and plants who have learnt to cultivate human form and other supernatural arts. The cat yokai, for example resembles the Chinese 仙狸 or "leopard cat immortal".
Yet others are uniquely Japanese, such as the ambivalent and occasionally cute kappa,[34] the haradashi - a goofy yokai with its belly on its face,[35] and the mumashika, which are comical-looking yokai with horse heads and deer bodies.[36]
Yōkai are often referred to as Japanese spirits or East Asian ghosts, like theHanako-san legend or the story of the "Slit-mouthed girl", both of which hail from Japanese legend. The termyōkai can also be interpreted as something strange or unusual.
Lafcadio Hearn's collection of Japaneseghost stories entitledKwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things includes stories ofyūrei andyōkai such asYuki-onna, and is one of the first Western publications of its kind.
Yōkai remain prevalent in modern works of fiction.Shigeru Mizuki, the manga creator of such series asGeGeGe no Kitaro andKappa no Sanpei, keepsyōkai in the popular imagination. Other popular works focusing on yōkai include theNurarihyon no Mago series,Yu Yu Hakusho,Inuyasha: A Feudal Fairy Tale,Yo-kai Watch and the 1960sYokai Monsters film series, which was loosely remade in 2005 asTakashi Miike'sThe Great Yokai War and more recentlyYukinobu Tatsu 'sDandadan. They often play major roles in Japanese fiction.
Japanese supernatural beings
Japanese museums on the supernatural
Other supernatural beings from East Asian folklore
Lists of supernatural creatures from East Asian folklore
[...] although it is tempting to think in terms of a simple opposition - kami good and yōkai bad - the line between the two is blurry. Yanagita Kunio, the father of folkloristics in Japan, suggested that yōkai are kami that have 'degraded' over time, an idea that suggests an intimate relationship between the two. [...] Folklorist-anthropologist Komatsu Kazuhiko has suggested that yōkai are 'unworshipped' kami and kami are 'worshipped' yokai. [...] Both kami and yōkai reflect a way of thinking often called animistic, meaning that the things in the world around us - rocks, rivers, even musical instruments - can possess animating forces or spirits. Within such an animistic world, we can imagine a continuum. On one end, where yōkai cluster, we have everything that seems troublesome, undesirable, unworshipped. The other end contains helpful, desirable, and worshipped things - generally called kami. But these are extremes, and any individual entity can move along this continuum. If a 'bad' yōkai does something 'good,' we might consider it a kami, and vice versa.
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