Ayeshiva (/jəˈʃiːvə/;Hebrew:ישיבה,lit. 'sitting'; pl.ישיבות,yeshivot oryeshivos) is a traditionalJewisheducational institution focused on the study ofRabbinic literature, primarily theTalmud andhalacha (Jewish law), whileTorah andJewish philosophy are studied in parallel. The studying is usually done through dailyshiurim (lectures or classes) as well as in study pairs calledchavrusas (Aramaic for 'friendship' or 'companionship').[1]Chavrusa-style learning is one of the unique features of the yeshiva.
In theUnited States andIsrael, different levels of yeshiva education have different names. In the U.S., elementary-school students enroll in acheder, post-bar mitzvah-age students learn in amesivta, and undergraduate-level students learn in abeit midrash oryeshiva gedola (Hebrew:ישיבה גדולה,lit. 'large yeshiva' or 'great yeshiva'). In Israel, elementary-school students enroll in aTalmud Torah orcheder, post-bar mitzvah-age students learn in ayeshiva ketana (Hebrew:ישיבה קטנה,lit. 'small yeshiva' or 'minor yeshiva'), and high-school-age students learn in ayeshiva gedola.[2][3] Akollel is a yeshiva for married men, in which it is common to pay a token stipend to its students. Students ofLithuanian andHasidicyeshivot gedolot (plural ofyeshiva gedola) usually learn in yeshiva until they get married.
Historically, yeshivas were for men only. Today, all non-Orthodox yeshivas are open to women. Although there are separate schools for Orthodox women and girls,[4] known asmidrasha or"seminary", these do not follow the same structure or curriculum as the traditional yeshiva for boys and men.
Alternate spellings and names includeyeshivah;metivta andmesivta (Imperial Aramaic:מתיבתאmethivta);beth midrash; Talmudical academy, rabbinical academy and rabbinical school. The wordyeshiva is applied to the activity of learning in class, and hence to a learning "session."[5]
The transference in meaning of the term from the learning session to the institution itself appears to have occurred by the time of theTalmudic Academies in Babylonia,Sura andPumbedita, which were known asshte ha-yeshivot (the two colleges).
TheMishnah tractateMegillah contains the law that a town can only be called acity if it supports ten men (batlanim) to make up the requiredquorum for communal prayers. Similarly, everybeth din ('house of judgement') was attended by a number of pupils up to three times the size of the court (Mishnah, tractateSanhedrin). According to theTalmud,[6] adults generally took two months off every year to study, these beingElul andAdar, the months preceding thepilgrimage festivals ofSukkot andPesach (calledYarḥei Kalla,Aramaic for 'Months of Kallah'). The rest of the year, they worked.
The Geonic period takes its name fromGaon, the title given to the heads of the three yeshivas which existed from the third to the thirteenth century. The Geonim acted as the principals of their individual yeshivot, and as spiritual leaders and high judges for the wider communities tied to them. The yeshiva conducted all official business in the name of its Gaon, and all correspondence to or from the yeshiva was addressed directly to the Gaon.
Throughout the Geonic Period there were three yeshivot, each named for the cities in which they were located:Jerusalem,Sura, andPumbedita; the yeshiva of Jerusalem would later relocate toCairo, and the yeshivot of Sura and Pumbedita toBaghdad, but retain their original names. Each Jewish community would associate itself with one of the three yeshivot; Jews living around theMediterranean typically followed the yeshiva in Jerusalem, while those living in theArabian Peninsula and modern-dayIraq andIran typically followed one of the two yeshivot in Baghdad. There was no requirement for this, and each community could choose to associate with any of the yeshivot.
The yeshiva served as the highest educational institution for theRabbis of this period. In addition to this, the yeshiva wielded great power as the principal body for interpretingJewish law. The community regarded the Gaon of a yeshiva as the highest judge on all matters of Jewish law. Each yeshiva ruled differently on matters of ritual and law; the other yeshivot accepted these divisions, and all three ranked as equally orthodox. The yeshiva also served as an administrative authority, in conjunction with local communities, by appointing members to serve as the head of local congregations. These heads of a congregation served as a link between the congregation and the larger yeshiva it was attached to. These leaders would also submit questions to the yeshiva to obtain final rulings on issues of dogma, ritual, or law. Each congregation was expected to follow only one yeshiva to prevent conflict with different rulings issued by different yeshivot.
The yeshivot were financially supported by a number of means, including fixed voluntary, annual contributions; these contributions being collected and handled by local leaders appointed by the yeshiva. Private gifts and donations from individuals were also common, especially during holidays, consisting of money or goods.
The yeshiva of Jerusalem was finally forced into exile in Cairo in 1127, and eventually dispersed entirely. Likewise, the yeshivot of Sura and Pumbedita were dispersed following theMongol invasions of the 13th century. After this education in Jewish religious studies became the responsibility of individualsynagogues. No organization ever came to replace the three great yeshivot of Jerusalem, Sura and Pumbedita.[7]
After the Geonic Period Jews established more Yeshiva academies in Europe and in Northern Africa, including theKairuan yeshiva in Tunisia (Hebrew: ישיבת קאירואן) that was established by Chushiel Ben Elchanan (Hebrew: חושיאל בן אלחנן) in 974.[8]
Traditionally, every townrabbi had the right to maintain a number of full or part-time pupils in the town'sbeth midrash (study hall), which was usually adjacent to the synagogue. Their cost of living was covered by community taxation. After a number of years, the students who receivedsemikha (rabbinical ordination) would either take up a vacant rabbinical position elsewhere or join the workforce.
OrganisedTorah study was revolutionised byChaim Volozhin, an influential 18th-century Lithuanian leader of Judaism and disciple of theVilna Gaon. In his view, the traditional arrangement did not cater to those looking for more intensive study.
With the support of his teacher, Volozhin gathered interested students and started a yeshiva in the town ofValozhyn, located in modern-dayBelarus. TheVolozhin yeshiva was closed some 60 years later in 1892 following the Russian government's demands for the introduction of certain secular studies.[9] Thereafter, a number of yeshivot opened in other towns and cities, most notablySlabodka,Panevėžys,Mir,Brisk, andTelz. Many prominent contemporaryyeshivot in the United States andIsrael are continuations of these institutions, and often bear the same name.
In the 19th century,Israel Salanter initiated theMussar movement in non-Hasidic Lithuanian Jewry, which sought to encourage yeshiva students and the wider community to spend regular times devoted to the study of Jewish ethical works. Concerned by the new social and religious changes of theHaskalah (the JewishEnlightenment), and other emerging political ideologies (such asZionism) that often opposed traditional Judaism, the masters of Mussar saw a need to augmentTalmudic study with more personal works. These comprised earlier classic Jewish ethical texts (mussar literature), as well as a new literature for the movement.[10] After early opposition, the Lithuanian yeshiva world saw the need for this new component in their curriculum, and set aside times for individual mussar study and mussar talks ("mussar shmues"). Amashgiach ruchani (spiritual mentor) encouraged the personal development of each student. To some degree, this Lithuanian movement arose in response, and as an alternative, to the separate mystical study of theHasidic Judaism world. Hasidism began in the previous century within traditional Jewish life in Ukraine, and spread to Hungary, Poland and Russia. As the 19th century brought upheavals and threats to traditional Judaism, the Mussar teachers saw the benefit of the new spiritual focus in Hasidism, and developed their alternative ethical approach to spirituality.
Some variety developed within Lithuanian yeshivas to methods of studying Talmud andmussar, for example whether the emphasis would be placed onbeki'ut (breadth) oriyyun (depth).Pilpul, a type of in-depth analytical and casuistic argumentation popular from the 16th to 18th centuries that was traditionally reserved for investigative Talmudic study, was not always given a place. The new analytical approach of theBrisker method, developed byChaim Soloveitchik, has become widely popular. Other approaches include those ofMir,Chofetz Chaim, andTelz. Inmussar, different schools developed, such as Slabodka andNovhardok, though today, a decline in devoted spiritual self-development from its earlier intensity has to some extent levelled out the differences.
With the success of the yeshiva institution in Lithuanian Jewry, theHasidic world developed their own yeshivas, in their areas of Eastern Europe. These comprised the traditional Jewish focus on Talmudic literature that is central toRabbinic Judaism, augmented by study ofHasidic philosophy (Hasidism). Examples of these Hasidic yeshivas are theChabad Lubavitch yeshiva system ofTomchei Temimim, founded bySholom Dovber Schneersohn in Russia in 1897, and theChachmei Lublin Yeshiva established in Poland in 1930 byMeir Shapiro, who is renowned in both Hasidic and Lithuanian Jewish circles for initiating theDaf Yomi daily cycle of Talmud study.(For contemporaryyeshivas, see, for example, underSatmar,Belz,Bobov,Breslov andPupa.)
In many Hasidicyeshivas, study of Hasidic texts is a secondary activity, similar to the additional mussar curriculum in Lithuanian yeshivas. These paths see Hasidism as a means to the end of inspiring emotionaldevekut (spiritual attachment to God) and mystical enthusiasm. In this context, the personal pilgrimage of a Hasid to hisRebbe is a central feature of spiritual life, in order to awaken spiritual fervour. Often, such paths will reserve theShabbat in the yeshiva for the sweeter teachings of the classic texts of Hasidism.
In contrast, Chabad andBreslov, in their different ways, place daily study of their dynasties' Hasidic texts in central focus; seebelow. Illustrative of this is Sholom Dovber Schneersohn's wish in establishing the Chabad yeshiva system, that the students should spend a part of the daily curriculum learning Chabad Hasidic texts "withpilpul". The idea to learn Hasidic mystical texts with similar logical profundity, derives from the unique approach in the works of the Rebbes of Chabad, initiated by its founderSchneur Zalman of Liadi, to systematically investigate and articulate the "Torah of theBaal Shem Tov" in intellectual forms. Further illustrative of this is the differentiation in Chabad thought (such as the "Tract on Ecstasy" byDovber Schneuri) between general Hasidism's emphasis on emotional enthusiasm and the Chabad ideal of intellectually reserved ecstasy. In the Breslov movement, in contrast, the daily study of works from the imaginative, creative radicalism ofNachman of Breslov awakens the necessary soulfulness with which to approach other Jewish study and observance.
Although the yeshiva as an institution is in some ways a continuation of theTalmudic Academies in Babylonia, large scale educational institutions of this kind were not characteristic of the North African and Middle EasternSephardi Jewish world in pre-modern times: education typically took place in a more informal setting in the synagogue or in the entourage of a famous rabbi. In medieval Spain, and immediately following the expulsion in 1492, there were some schools which combined Jewish studies with sciences such as logic and astronomy, similar to the contemporary Islamicmadrasas. In 19th century Jerusalem, a college was typically an endowment for supporting ten adult scholars rather than an educational institution in the modern sense; towards the end of the century a school for orphans was founded providing for some rabbinic studies.[11] Early educational institutions on the European model wereMidrash Bet Zilkha founded in 1870s Iraq andPorat Yosef Yeshiva founded in Jerusalem in 1914. Also notable is theBet El yeshiva founded in 1737 in Jerusalem for advanced Kabbalistic studies. Later Sephardic yeshivot are usually on the model either of Porat Yosef or of the Ashkenazi institutions.
The Sephardic world has traditionally placed the study ofKabbalah (esoteric Jewish mysticism) in a more mainstream position than in the EuropeanAshkenazi world. This difference of emphasis arose as a result of theSabbatean heresy in the 17th century, that suppressed widespread study of Kabbalah in Europe in favour of Rabbinic Talmudic study. In Eastern European Lithuanian life, Kabbalah was reserved for an intellectual elite, while the mystical revival of Hasidism articulated Kabbalistic theology through Hasidic thought. These factors did not affect the Sephardi Jewish world, which retained a wider connection to Kabbalah in its traditionally observant communities. With the establishment of Sephardi yeshivas in Israel after theimmigration of the Arabic Jewish communities there, some Sephardi yeshivas incorporated study of more accessible Kabbalistic texts into their curriculum. The European prescriptions to restrict advanced Kabbalistic study to mature and elite students also influence the choice of texts in such yeshivas.
In 1854, theJewish Theological Seminary of Breslau was founded. It was headed byZecharias Frankel, and was viewed as the first educational institution associated with "positive-historical Judaism", the predecessor ofConservative Judaism. In subsequent years, Conservative Judaism established a number of other institutions of higher learning (such as theJewish Theological Seminary of America in New York City) that emulate the style of traditional yeshivas in significant ways. Many do not officially refer to themselves as "yeshivas" (one exception is theConservative Yeshiva in Jerusalem), and all are open to both women and men, who study in the same classrooms and follow the same curriculum. Students may study part-time, as in a kollel, or full-time, and they may studylishmah (for the sake of studying itself) or towards earning rabbinic ordination.
Non-denominational yeshivas and kollels with connections to Conservative Judaism includeYeshivat Hadar in New York, whose leaders includeRabbinical Assembly membersElie Kaunfer andShai Held. The rabbinical school of theAcademy for Jewish Religion in California is led by Conservative rabbi Mel Gottlieb. The faculty of theAcademy for Jewish Religion in New York and of the Rabbinical School ofHebrew College inNewton Centre, Massachusetts also includes many Conservative rabbis.See alsoInstitute of Traditional Judaism.
More recently, several non-traditional, and nondenominational (also called "transdenominational" or "postdenominational") seminaries have been established.[12][13][14] These grant semikha in a shorter time, and with a modified curriculum, generally focusing on leadership and pastoral roles. These areJSLI,RSI,PRS andAteret Tzvi. TheWolkowisk Mesifta is aimed at community professionals with significant knowledge and experience, and provides a tailored program to each candidate.
Hebrew Union College (HUC), affiliated withReform Judaism, was founded in 1875 under the leadership ofIsaac Mayer Wise in Cincinnati, Ohio. HUC later opened additional locations in New York, Los Angeles, and Jerusalem. It is a rabbinical seminary or college mostly geared for the training of rabbis and clergy specifically. Similarly, theReconstructionist Rabbinical College ofReconstructionist Judaism, founded in Pennsylvania in 1968, functions to train its future clergy. Some Reform and Reconstructionist teachers also teach at the non-denominational seminaries mentioned above. In Europe, Reform Judaism trains rabbis atLeo Baeck College in London, UK andAbraham Geiger Kolleg in Potsdam, Germany. None of these institutions describes itself as a "yeshiva".
World War II and theHolocaust brought the yeshivot of Eastern and Central Europe to an end; although many scholars and rabbinic students whosurvived the war established yeshivot in Israel as well a number of Western countries.[15] TheYeshiva of Nitra was the last surviving in occupied Europe. Many students and faculty of the Mir Yeshiva were able to escape to Siberia, with the Yeshiva ultimatelycontinuing to operate in Shanghai; seeYeshivas in World War II.
From the mid-20th century[15]the greatest number of yeshivot, and the most important were centered in Israel and in the U.S.;they were also found in many other Western countries, prominent examples beingGateshead Yeshiva in England (one of thedescendants of Novardok) and theYeshiva of Aix-les-Bains, France.TheChabad movement was particularly active in this direction,[15] establishing yeshivot also in France, North Africa, Australia, and South Africa; this "network of institutions" is known asTomchei Temimim.Many prominent contemporary yeshivot in the U.S. and Israel are continuations of European institutions, and often bear the same name.
Yeshivot in Israel have operated since Talmudic times,[16]as above;seeTalmudic academies in Eretz Yisrael.More recent examples include theGreat Academy of Paris (c. 1280); theAri Ashkenazi Synagogue (since the mid-1500s); theBet El yeshiva (operating since 1737); andEtz Chaim Yeshiva (since 1841). Various yeshivot were established in Israel in the early 20th century:Shaar Hashamayim in 1906, Chabad'sToras Emes in 1911,Hebron Yeshiva in 1924,Sfas Emes in 1925,Lomza in 1926. After (and during) World War II, numerous other Haredi and Hasidic Yeshivot were re-established there by survivors. The Mir Yeshiva in Jerusalem – today the largest Yeshiva in the world – was established in 1944, by RabbiEliezer Yehuda Finkel who had traveled to Palestine to obtain visas for his students; Ponevezh similarly by RabbiYosef Shlomo Kahaneman; andKnesses Chizkiyahu in 1949.The leading Sephardi Yeshiva, Porat Yosef, was founded in 1914; its predecessor, Yeshivat Ohel Moed was founded in 1904. From the 1940s and onward, especially following immigration of the Arabic Jewish communities, Sephardi leaders, such asOvadia Yosef andBen-Zion Meir Hai Uziel, established various yeshivot to facilitate Torah education for Sephardi andMizrahi Jews (and alternative to Lithuanian yeshivot).
TheHaredi community has grown with time – In 2018, 12% of Israel's population was Haredi,[17] includingSephardic Haredim – supportingnumerous yeshivot correspondingly. Boys and girls here attend separate schools, and proceed to higher Torah study, in a yeshiva or seminary, respectively, starting anywhere between the ages of 13 and 18; seeChinuch Atzmai andBais Yaakov. A significant proportion of young men then remain in yeshiva until their marriage; thereafter many continue their Torah studies in a kollel. (In 2018, there were 133,000 in full-time learning .[17]) Kollel studies usually focus on deep analysis of Talmud, and those Tractates not usually covered in the standard "undergraduate" program; see§ Talmud study below. Some Kollels similarly focus on halacha in total, others specifically on those topics required forSemikha (Rabbinic ordination) orDayanut (qualification as a Rabbinic Judge). The certification in question is often conferred by the Rosh Yeshiva.
Mercaz Harav, the foundational and leadingReligious-Zionist yeshiva was established in 1924 by AshkenaziChief RabbiAbraham Isaac Kook. Many in theReligious Zionist community today attend aHesder yeshiva (discussedbelow) duringtheir national service; these offer a kollel for Rabbinical students. (Students generally prepare for theSemikha test of theChief Rabbinate of Israel; until his recent passing (2020) commonly for that of theposek R.Zalman Nechemia Goldberg.)Training as aDayan in this community is usually throughMachon Ariel (Machon Harry Fischel), also founded by Rav Kook, orKollel Eretz Hemda. Women in this community, as above, study in aMidrasha. High school students study atMamlachti dati schools, often associated withBnei Akiva.Bar Ilan University allows students to combine Yeshiva studies with university study;Jerusalem College of Technology similarly, which also offers a Haredi track; there areseveral colleges of education associated withHesder and theMidrashot (these often offer specializations inTanakh andMachshavah – discussedbelow). SeeReligious Zionism § Educational institutions.
The first Orthodox yeshiva in the U.S. wasEtz Chaim ofNew York (1886), modeled after Volozhin. It developed into theRabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary (1896; "RIETS") and eventuallyYeshiva University in 1945. It was established in the wake ofthe immigration of Central and Eastern European Jews (1880s – 1924).Mesivtha Tifereth Jerusalem, founded in 1907, was led by RabbiMoshe Feinstein from the 1940s through 1986;Yeshiva Rabbi Chaim Berlin, est 1904, was headed by RabbiYitzchok Hutner from 1943 to 1980.Many Hasidic dynasties have their main Yeshivot in America, typically established in the 1940s;the Central Lubavitcher Yeshiva has over 1000 students.
The postwar establishment of Ashkenazi yeshivot andkollelim parallels that in Israel; as does the educational pattern inthe American Haredi community, although more obtain a secular educationat the college level.Beth Medrash Govoha inLakewood,New Jersey with 3,000 students in the early 2000s was founded in 1943 by R.Aaron Kotler on the "rigid Lithuanian model" that demanded full-time study;[15] it now offers aBachelor of Talmudic Law degree which allows students to go on tograduate school.[20][15] The best known of the numerous Haredi yeshivas are, additional to "Lakewood", Telz,"Rabbinical Seminary of America",Ner Yisroel, Chaim Berlin, andHebrew Theological College;Yeshivish (i.e. satellite) communities often maintain acommunity kollel.Many Hasidic sects have their own yeshivas, such asSatmar andBobov, while Chabad operates itsTomchei Temimim nationwide.The first Sephardic yeshiva in the Americas was Yeshivat Mikdash Melech, established in 1972[21] by Rabbi Haim Benoliel. (In 1988, the yeshiva opened a branch in Israel, Mikdash Melech Jerusalem,[22] to serve English-speaking Sephardic students.) There are over today 600 junior and high schools, typically aMesivta orBais Yaakov;seeTorah Umesorah.
Modern Orthodox typically spend a year, often two, post-high school in a yeshiva (sometimesHesder) orMidrasha in Israel. Many thereafter, or instead, attendYeshiva University, undertaking a dual curriculum, combining academic education with Torah study;[23] seeTorah Umadda, andS. Daniel Abraham Israel Program. (A percentage stay in Israel, "makingAliyah"; many also go on to higher education in other American colleges.) Semikha is usually through RIETS, although manyModern OrthodoxRabbis study throughHesder, or other Yeshivot in Israel such asYeshivat HaMivtar,Mizrachi'sMusmachim program,[24] and Machon Ariel.[25]RIETS also houses several post-semikha kollelim, including one focused onDayanut.[26] Dayanim also train through Kollel Eretz Hemda[27] and Machon Ariel; while Mizrachi's post-semikhaManhigut Toranit program[28] focuses on leadership and scholarship, with the advanced semikha of"Rav Ir". Communities will often host aTorah MiTzion kollel, whereHesder graduates learn and teach, generally for one year. There are numerousModern Orthodox Jewish day schools, typically offering abeit midrash /metivta program in parallel with thestandard curriculum, (often) structured such that students are able to join the firstshiur in an Israeli yeshiva.
The US educational pattern is to be found around the Jewish world, with regional differences; seeCategory:Orthodox yeshivas in Europe andCategory:Orthodox yeshivas by country.
| typical daily schedule |
The following is a typical daily schedule for Beit Midrash students in mainstream Lithuanian yeshivas, although the schedule will vary from Yeshiva to Yeshiva:[29]
This schedule is generally maintained Sunday through Thursday. On Thursday nights, there may be an extra long night seder, known asmishmar sometimes lasting beyond 1:00 am, and in some yeshivot even until the following sunrise. On Fridays, there is usually at least oneseder in the morning, with unstructured learning schedules for the afternoon. Saturdays have a specialShabbat schedule which includes somesedarim but usually no shiur. |
Yeshiva study is differentiated from, for example university study, by several features, apart from the curriculum. The year is structured into "zmanim"; the day is structured into "seders". The learning itself is delivered through a "shiur", a discursive-lecture with pre-specified sources, or "marei mekomot" (מראה מקומות; "bibliography", lit. "indication of the (textual) locations");[30][31] study in general, and particularly the preparation forshiur, takes place in "chavruta" or paired-study. This study is in a common venue called thebet midrash (Yiddish, "zal" i.e. "hall").
The institution is headed by itsrosh yeshiva, while other senior rabbis are referred to as "Ram" (rosh mesivta or reish metivta); themashgiach assumes responsibility for students' spiritual development (mashpia, in Hasidic yeshivot). Akollel is headed by itsrosh kollel, even when it is part of a yeshiva. Asho'el u'meishiv (Hebrew:שואל ומשיב;lit. transl. ask and he answers; often simply "meishiv", or alternately "nosay v'notayn") is available to consult to students on difficult points in their day's Talmudic studies. The rabbi responsible for the Talmudicshiur is known as amaggid shiur. Students are known astalmidim (sing.talmid).Rav muvhak is sometimes used in reference to one's primary teacher; correspondingly,talmid muvhak may refer to a primary, or outstanding, student.
In most yeshivot, the year is divided into three periods (terms) calledzmanim (lit. times; sing.zman).Elul zman starts from the beginning of the Hebrew month ofElul and extends until the end ofYom Kippur. The six-weeks-long semester is the shortest yet most intense session, as it comes before the High Holidays ofRosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Winterzman starts afterSukkot and lasts until about two weeks beforePassover, a duration of five months (six in aJewish leap year). Summerzman starts after Passover and lasts untilRosh Chodesh Av orTisha B'Av, a duration of about three months.
Yeshiva students prepare for and review theshiur (lecture) with theirchavruta during a study session known as aseder.[1] In contrast to conventional classroom learning, in which a teacher lectures to the student,chavruta-style learning requires the student to analyze and explain the material, point out the errors in their partner's reasoning, and question and sharpen each other's ideas, often arriving at entirely new insights of the meaning of the text.[32] Achavruta is intended to help a student keep their mind focused on the learning, sharpen their reasoning powers, develop their thoughts into words, organize their thoughts into logical arguments, and understand another person's viewpoint.[33] The shiur-based system wasinnovated at the Telshe yeshiva, where there were five levels.
Chavruta-style learning tends to be animated, as study partners read the Talmudic text and the commentaries aloud to each other, and then analyze, question, debate, and argue their points of view to arrive at an understanding of the text. In the heat of discussion, they may wave their hands, pound the table, or shout at each other.[34] Depending on the size of the yeshiva, dozens or even hundreds of pairs ofchavrutas can be heard discussing and debating each other's viewpoints.[35] Students need to learn the ability to block out other discussions in order to focus on theirs.[1]
A post-high school for women is generally called a "seminary", ormidrasha (pluralmidrashot) in Israel,[37] and not a yeshiva. (Although there are exceptions such as Prospect Park Yeshiva.) TheHarediBais Yaakov system was started in 1918 under the guidance ofSarah Schenirer. These institutions provide girls with a Torah education, using a curriculum that skews more toward practicalhalakha (Jewish law) and the study ofTanakh, rather thanTalmud. The curriculum at Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodoxmidrashot includes some study of Talmud: often Mishnah, sometimesGemara; in further distinction, curricula generally entailchavruta-based study of the texts of Jewish philosophy, and likewise Tanakh is studied with commentaries. SeeMidrasha § Curriculum for further discussion.
Classes in mostLithuanian andHasidic yeshivot (throughout the world) are taught inYiddish;Kol Torah, established in 1939 inJerusalem and headed byShlomo Zalman Auerbach for over 40 years, was the first mainstream Haredi yeshiva to teach in Hebrew, as opposed to Yiddish.Sephardi, Modern Orthodox,Zionist, andbaal teshuvah yeshivot useModern Hebrew or the local language. In many American non-Hassidic Yeshivos, the language generally used is English.
Students learn with each other in whatever language they are most proficient, with Hasidic students usually learning in Yiddish, Israeli Lithuanian students in Hebrew, and American Lithuanian students in English.
Some yeshivas permit students to attend college. Often there are arrangements for the student to receive credit towards a college degree for their yeshiva studies.[38]Yeshiva University in New York provides a year's worth of credit for yeshiva studies.[39] Institutions with similar arrangements in place includeLander College for Men,Yeshivas Ner Yisroel andHebrew Theological College.
As above, some Americanyeshivot in factaward the degreesBachelor of Talmudic Law (4 years cumulative study),Master of Rabbinic Studies /Master of Talmudic Law (six years), and (atNer Yisroel) the Doctorate in Talmudic Law (10 years).These degrees arenationally accredited by theAssociation of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools, and may then grant access to graduate programs such as law school.
Non-Orthodox institutions, typically, require that students earn amaster's degree, inherent in the Ordination program. The program is then oftencredit-based, and may require a thesis.
For further discussion on the contemporary integration of secular education, see:Jewish education § Secular education emphasis,Mesivta § Modern-day concept andControversy over secular education in New York Hasidic schools.
For historical context see:Moses Sofer § Influence against changes in Judaism;Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary;Volozhin yeshiva § History;Telshe Yeshiva § History;Vilna Rabbinical School and Teachers' Seminary;Yitzchok Hutner § Rabbinic and teaching career;Torah Lehranstalt § History;Kelm Talmud Torah;Yitzchak Yaacov Reines § Biography.
Torah study at an Orthodox yeshiva comprises the study ofrabbinic literature - essentially along the lines established in the Lithuanian Yeshivasas above - principally the Talmud, along with the study ofhalacha (Jewish law);Musar andHasidic philosophy are often studied also.[10] In some institutions, classicalJewish philosophy or Kabbalah are formally studied, or the works of individual thinkers (such asAbraham Isaac Kook). See alsoRabbi § Contemporary ordination.
Non-Orthodox institutions offer a synthesis of traditional and critical methods, allowing Jewish texts and tradition to encounter social change and modern scholarship. The curriculum is thus also focused on classical Jewish subjects – e.g. Talmud, Tanakh, Midrash,halacha, and Philosophy –but differs from Orthodox yeshivot in that the subject-weights are more even (correspondingly, Talmud and halacha are less emphasized), and the approach entails anopenness to modern scholarship;the curriculum also emphasizes "the other functions of a modern rabbi such as preaching, counseling, and pastoral work".[40]As mentioned, often, in these institutions less emphasis is placed on Talmud and Jewish law, "but rather on sociology, cultural studies, and modern Jewish philosophy".[41]
Conservative Yeshivot occupy a position midway,[41] in that their training places (significantly) more emphasis on Halakha and Talmud than other non-Orthodox programs.SeeConservative halakha.
The sections below discuss the Orthodox approach, but may also be seen as overviews of the traditional content.
In a typical Orthodox yeshiva, the main emphasis is on Talmud study, and particularly on its analytic component,Gemara:- an often intensive "dialectic give and take" (Aramaic:shakla v'tarya) wherethe cases brought in the underlyingMishnah are analyzed,[43] thereby explicating all[44]inherent teachings and insights. For discussion of the nature, structure and characteristics of this activity, seeGemara § Argumentation and debate and§ Gemara and Mishnah.
Generally, two parallel Talmud streams are covered during azman (trimester). The first isiyyun, or in-depth study (variants described below), often confined to selected legally focused tractates with an emphasis on analytical skills and close reference to the classical commentators.[31]The second stream,beki'ut ("expertise"), seeks to build general knowledge of the Talmud. In some Hasidic yeshivas,girsa ("text"), is the term used forbeki'ut, but may also incorporate an element of memorization.
In the yeshiva system of Talmudic study, the undergraduate yeshivot focus on themesechtohs (tractates) that cover civil jurisprudence and monetary law (Nezikin) and those dealing with contract and marital law (Nashim); through them, the student can best master theproper technique of Talmudic analysis, and in parallel,[45] the halakhic application ofTalmudic principles. With these mastered, the student goes on to other areas of the Talmud.[10] TractatesBerachot,Sukkah,Pesachim andShabbat are often included.[46][47] See for example underYeshivas Ner Yisroel § Cycle of Masechtos (Tractates of the Talmud). Sometimes tractates dealing with an upcomingreligious holiday are studied before and during the holiday (e.g.Shabbat 21a–23b forChanukah,TractateMegilla forPurim, etc.).
Works initially studied to clarify the Talmudic text are the commentary byRashi, andthe related workTosafot, a parallel analysis andrunning critique.[43]The integration of Talmud, Rashi and Tosafot, is considered as foundational – and prerequisite – to further analysis[48] (in fact, this combination is sometimes referred to by its own acronym,"gefet" גפ״ת –Gemara,perush Rashi,Tosafot).[47] Thesuper-commentaries by"Maharshal","Maharam" and"Maharsha" address the three components together: being at a further remove fromthe underlying Talmudic debate, these - with their interplay - constitute a higher-order of analysis.[42]
At more advanced levels, additionalmefarshim (commentators) are similarly studied:[42] otherrishonim, from the 11th to 14th centuries, as well asacharonim, from later generations. There are two main schools ofrishonim, from France and from Spain, who will hold different interpretations and understandings of the Talmud; theacharonim collate and clarify these opinions, and constitute, then, a further layer of analysis. Widely referenced here are the"Meiri","Ramban","Rashba","Ritva","Ran" and"Rim", as well as the parallelShitah Mekubezet compilation.
At these levels, students link the Talmudic discussion tocodified law – particularlyMishneh Torah (i.e.Maimonides),Arba'ah Turim andShulchan Aruch – by studying, also, the halakha-focused commentaries ofAsher ben Jehiel,Isaac Alfasi andMordechai ben Hillel, respectively referred to as "Rosh", "Rif", and the "Mordechai". Here, too, any differences give rise to further analysis - especially where these have implications repractice -[48] and theunderlying Talmudic opinions, and the other commentaries, are in turn revisited.[49]
As thelevel of theshiur progresses, so the student must integrate more of these commentaries[42] into their analysis of thesugya (loosely, Talmudic "unit of analysis"), simultaneously understanding the specificchidush, i.e. novel contribution, as well as any implication re practical-halakha. Thisiyyun will generally take one of the following forms, each the"derech ha-limud" or "way of learning" of the Yeshiva (see the Hebrew article"Approaches to Learning Talmud"):
TheRosh Yeshiva gives the most seniorshiur. It is here that the student consolidates the yeshiva's approach toiyyun, i.e. itsderech ha-limud; seeRosh yeshiva § Role. At many yeshivot, students are thus expected to learn in thisshiur for at least two years before proceeding toKollel orsemikha study (and with theRosh Yeshiva's sanction).TheRosh Yeshiva also delivers the weeklyshiur klali ("comprehensive lecture"), which sums up the week's learning, and revisits a selected topic or concept in further detail; this is attended by all levels, and will often have its ownmarei mekomot.
Typically, boys begin their study of Talmud in late elementary school, initially studyingMishnah, the component of Talmud where, as outlined above, theunderlying "cases" are presented. (At this stage, they have completed their survey ofChumash, with these cases expanding on thelegal precepts there; seebelow.) In early middle school,gemara, the analytic component, is introduced; byhigh school some are able to work withTosafot. Some systems more closely followPirkei Avotch 5:21 as a guideline; where Mishna-study begins at age 10, andGemara at 15. SeeZilberman Method for further discussion.
Generally, a period is devoted to the study of practicalhalakha ("Halakha LeMaaseh"), emphasizing application as opposed to derivation. The text most commonly studied in Ashkenazi yeshivot is theMishnah Berurah, a commentary on theShulchan Aruch originally published between 1884 and 1907. In Sephardic yeshivot, theShulchan Aruch itself is more commonly studied, along with theBet Yosef commentary; theYalkut Yosef andKaf Hachaim are also often studied - similar toMishnah Berurah - whileBen Ish Hai is a standard reference. InChabad yeshivot,[55] emphasis is placed upon study ofShulchan Aruch HaRav. In their first year, students are encouraged to work through theKitzur Shulchan Aruch, so as to survey all areas of applicablehalacha, preparatory to further study (and to consolidate their prior, high school, knowledge); this is also often the practice outside of Chabad. More advanced students, additionally and similarly, review theMishneh Torah throughits daily study cycle (this is often outside of anyseder), here includinghalachot relating to, for example, the Temple.
Students inSemikha (Rabbinic ordination)programs, and often those inkollel, devote the largest portion of their schedule tohalakha. The focus is on in-depth,[56] source-based[30] study of those areas where (community) Rabbis will typically be asked"shaylas", i.e. halachic questions: the testing[55][57][58][59] invariably coversKashrut (referred to as"Issur v'Heter"), usuallyShabbat, oftenNiddah, sometimesAvelut (mourning) and/ormarriage. This study, typically of two to four year's duration, encompasses a detailed analysis of thehalakha in theArba'ah Turim andBet Yosef, through its final presentation in theShulchan Aruch, withits major commentaries (especially"Shakh" and"Taz"), complemented by a survey of keyShe'elot u-Teshuvot (responsa), recent and historical. The analysis, in turn, is built on a detailed knowledge[60] of all relevant Talmudicsugyas, which are studied accordingly within the schedule,[45][46] emphasizing the legal commentaries mentioned. Students in an Orthodox Semikha program will thus have a thorough[60]background in Talmud, typically[57] having spent at least four[46][47] preceding years in Yeshiva; Kollel students likewise. (SeeRabbi § Orthodox and Modern Orthodox Judaism.) During the morningseder, Semikha students continue their Talmud studies, learning the samemasechet as the rest of the Yeshiva,[59] often independently, but in many yeshivot, participating in theRosh Yeshiva'sshiur. (Rabbis, then,will have been direct "students of theRosh Yeshiva" for their final four, or more, years of study.)
HarediYeshivot (with the exception of Brisker yeshivot) typically devote aseder tomussar (ethics and character development). The preeminent text studied is theMesillat Yesharim ("Path of the Just") ofMoshe Chaim Luzzatto.Other works ofmussar literature studied include:
As above, these sessions focus the student on self-understanding and introspection, internalizing the spiritual aims of Judaism, and developing the character-traits, ormiddos, appropriately. Topics inapplied Jewish ethics, such asthe "laws of speech", are often studied separately.
Hasidic yeshivot study the mystical, spiritualworks of Hasidic philosophy (Chassidus). These draw on the earlier esoteric theology ofKabbalah, but articulates it in terms of inner psychological awareness and personal analogies. This study thus makes Jewish mysticism accessible and tangible, so that it inspires emotionaldveikus (cleaving to God) and embeds a deepspiritual element in daily Jewish life; it thereby serves a similar purpose tomussar, but through different means and with different contributions to intellectual and emotional life. Chabad yeshivot, for example, study theTanya, theLikutei Torah, and the voluminousworks of theRebbes of Chabad for an hour and a half each morning, before prayers, and an hour and a half in the evening.
As mentioned, Sephardiyeshivot often incorporate study of selected Kabbalistic texts into their curriculum –standard texts, as well as works byYosef Hayyim,Yehuda Fatiyah andYaakov Chaim Sofer. Kabbalistic sources are brought inhalachik works such asKaf Hachaim andBen Ish Hai – and are then studied indirectly also; seeSephardic law and customs § Lurianic Kabbalah.
In Hesder,Religious Zionist andModern Orthodox yeshivot,Machshavah (Jewish philosophy generalized / applied as "Jewish thought"; alsoHashkafa, "worldview") is taught formally,[61]withshiurim systematically covering theclassic topics, as well ascontemporary issues, in light of theleading works here,[62] with the treatment mirroring Talmud-study as above. (Indeed, themaggid shiur may refer to the topic in question as "our sugya".) These works —Kuzari,Moreh Nevukhim,Sefer ha-Ikkarim,Emunot ve-Deot,Derech Hashem,Nefesh Ha-Chaim,Kad ha-Kemach and others — in turn draw onTalmudic-Aggadah /Midrash, and onTanach (see below). Hesder yeshivot additionally devote specific time to the writings ofAbraham Isaac Kook, "Rav Kook", who articulated a unique personal blend of mysticism, creative exegesis and philosophy (as well as toTorat Eretz Yisrael generally). TheModern Orthodox, similarly, study the works ofJoseph B. Soloveitchik, "Rav Soloveitchik".Hasidic philosophy and Mussar are also often taught; andMaharal may have a dedicatedshiur. Machshava is also a focus-area of manyMidrashot.
Some Haredi and Hasidic yeshivas also include formal study ofHashkafa, especially atba'al teshuva focused institutions; manySemikha programs likewise, particularly those with an outreach, orkiruv, component. Regardless, students here typically study the major works independent of ashiur.
Intensive study ofChumash (Torah) with the commentary ofRashi is stressed and taught in all elementary grades.[10] In Haredi and Hasidic yeshivas, this is often done with Yiddish translations. The rest of theTanach (Hebrew Bible; acronym:Torah andNach ="Torah,Nevi'im u'Ketuvim"; "Torah, Prophets and Writings") is usually taught through high school, although less intensively.
In Yeshivot, thereafter,Chumash, and especiallyNach, are studied less directly. Yeshiva students typically follow the practice ofShnayim mikra ve-echad targum, independently reviewing the upcomingparashah (weekly Torah portion) twice in the original Hebrew and once inTargum Onkelos (anAramaic translation), together with Rashi's commentary. Students often also studyRamban's commentary, functioning in relation to Rashi here, somewhat as Tosafot above; less frequently, other commentaries from theMikraot Gedolot edition are reviewed. Students may similarly studyNach independently (often using theMetzudos commentary); usually,Tanach is not taughtper se, with exceptions being the fiveMegilloth andTehillim. TheRosh Yeshiva delivers a weeklyshiur on theparashah, exploring a particular question or theme, with a related ethical orhashkafic teaching; this is oftenopen to the public.
AtHesder,Religious Zionist andModern Orthodox yeshivot, the study ofChumash andNach continues in parallel with Talmud study. These institutions offer formalshiurim in many, if not all, of the books ofNevi'im andKetuvim. These are often structuredby level, similar to Talmud study, where the text, and its overall structure, is then analyzed in light of thevarious commentaries andMidrashim,[63] typically complementing theMachshavahshiurim. (See further re this approach underYeshivat Har Etzion § Educational and religious philosophy.)More recent commentaries especially studied are"Netziv" and"Malbim"; as well as reference works such asDa'at Miqra byMordechai Breuer and others.The commentaries by Ramban,Abarbanel,"Rabbeinu Behaye", and"Rav Hirsch" provide much philosophical content. TheSefer ha-Chinuch, although not a commentaryper se, offers a systematiclegal and philosophic discussion ofthe commandments, and is similarly studied. (The relatedMinchat Chinuch is often referenced in legal-focused Talmudshiurim.)Intensive study of Tanach, as for Machshava, is likewise a feature of manyMidrashot.
Beth Medrash Gohova is said to be the world's largest Jewish-affiliated university outside of Israel.
The sea change can be pinned to one event: The founding of the Beth Medrash Govoha yeshiva in the mid-20th century. The Orthodox Jewish community has set down roots en masse around the religious school, which is now the largest yeshiva in North America.
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