| Yellow Turban Rebellion | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the wars at theend of the Han dynasty | |||||||
 Map showing the extent of the Yellow Turban Rebellion in China in 184 CE | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
| Han dynasty | Yellow Turban Army | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Emperor Ling He Jin Huangfu Song Lu Zhi Zhu Jun | Zhang Jue † Zhang Bao † Zhang Liang † | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 350,000 | 2,000,000 (360,000 were initially followers of Zhang Jue)[2] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| Unknown[a] | |||||||
| Yellow Turban Rebellion | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Chinese | 黃巾之亂 | ||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 黄巾之乱 | ||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | Yellow turban conflict | ||||||||||||||
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TheYellow Turban Rebellion, alternatively translated as theYellow Scarves Rebellion, was apeasant revolt during the lateEastern Han dynasty ofancient China. The uprising broke out in 184 CE, during the reign ofEmperor Ling. Although the main rebellion was suppressed by 185 CE, it took 21 years for full suppression of resistant areas and emerging rebellions by 205 CE.[1] The weakening of the imperial court and the rising political influence of ultra-autonomous regional military-governors, who helped suppress the rebellion, eventually led to rampantwarlord dominance and the resultantThree Kingdoms period.
The rebellion, which got its name from the color of the rebels' headwear (巾jīn, defined as more of ascarf[4] than theturban of South Asia) marked an important point in thehistory of Taoism due to the rebel leaders' association with the then secretTaoist societies.[5] The revolt was also used as the opening event in the 14th-century historical novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms.
By 184 CE, the Han Dynasty's central government was weakened by courteunuchs abusing their power over the emperor to enrich themselves. Twelve of the most powerful eunuchs were referred to as theTen Attendants withEmperor Ling once claiming that "Regular Attendant Zhang Rang is my father and Regular Attendant Zhao Zhong is my mother".[6] The government corruption was perceived as causing plagues, natural disasters, and poor agricultural yields, reflecting that the emperor had lost hisMandate of Heaven.
As flooding along theYellow River forced farmers and military settlers south, the labor surplus incentivized exploitation. Disease outbreaks were reported in 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185 CE, with the potential cause theorized as theAntonine Plague of 165 to 180CE ofsmallpox ormeasles spreading along theSilk Road.[6]
Through claims of providing curative water and bamboo playing, the Taoist leaderZhang Jue developed his initial following to send his disciples throughout northern China in preparation for a revolt.[6] Their rapid rise was relatively unnoticed until they became too powerful to challenge.[7] Zhang Jue intended to launch an uprising throughout the Han Empire, but the plan was betrayed before he was ready. Rebel sympathizers inLuoyang were arrested and executed, forcing a premature beginning in March 184. Despite the inevitable lack of co-ordination and overall preparation, tens of thousands of men rose in rebellion. Government offices were plundered and destroyed and the imperial armies were immediately forced on the defensive.[7]
The rebellion was led byZhang Jue (also referred to as Zhang Jiao, known to his followers as the "General of Heaven") and his two younger brothers Zhang Bao (張寶) and Zhang Liang (張梁), who were born inJulu Commandery. The brothers had founded a Taoist religious sect in present-dayShandong, praised as healers who offered free care to impoverished patients. Recognizing how the local government abused the peasant class through harsh labor and heavy taxes, they plotted rebellion.[citation needed]
The rebels were the first followers of the Way of Supreme Peace (太平道;Tàipíng Dào) and venerated the deityHuang–Lao, who according to Zhang Jue, had given him a sacred book called theCrucial Keys to the Way of Peace (太平要術;Tàipíng Yàoshù) based on theTaipingjing. Zhang Jue, who was said to be a sorcerer, called himself the "Great Teacher" (大賢良師). When the rebellion was proclaimed on 4 March, Zhang Jue created a 16-word slogan spread through the brothers' medical work:[8]
The Azure Sky[b] is already dead; the Yellow Sky[c] will soon rise.
When the year isjiǎzǐ,[d] there will be prosperityunder Heaven!
(蒼天已死，黃天當立。歲在甲子，天下大吉。)
Zhang Jue claimed to cure patients by having them confess sins for Taoistfaith healing. The Zhang brothers believed in an impending apocalyptic change in thejiazi year, the beginning of the newsexagenary cycle, involving yellow skies marking new governance, which inspired the color of their headwear.[7] Through the sect's communal activities like trances, fasting, musical performances, chanting, incense burning, and sermons, followers united across ethnic and gender lines. SeveralXiongnu leaders, such asYufuluo, lent their support, potentially inspiring Zhang Jue to adopt theirshamanistic beliefs.[9]
Despite few surviving records, the early Path of Supreme Peace was likely similar to theWay of the Celestial Masters, considering that Zhang Jue claimed to be a descendant ofZhang Daoling. Much of theTaipingjing's surviving 52 chapters, found in theDaozang, have a direct relationship to the Way of the Celestial Masters with discrepancies potentially suppressed by later Taoists.[10]
Before the rebellion started, Zhang Jue had sent Ma Yuanyi (馬元義) to recruit followers from Jing andYang provinces and gather them inYe. Since Ma Yuanyi frequently traveled toLuoyang, the Han imperial capital, he was able to persuade Feng Xu (封諝) and Xu Feng (徐奉), members of the imperial court'seunuch faction, to secretly collaborate with Zhang Jue. They set 3 April 184 as the date for the rebellion, but before the plans was set in motion, the Yellow Turbans were betrayed. One of the founders of "The Way of Peace" movement, Tang Zhou (唐周) had been excluded from later planning, so he reported Ma Yuanyi to the authorities. Ma Yuanyi was arrested and executed by dismemberment in Luoyang.[11][7]
After Emperor Ling learned that Zhang Jue was plotting a revolt, he ordered Zhou Bin (周斌), Prefect of the Palace Parks (鉤盾令), to conduct an investigation and capture all the conspirators. Hundreds of people were arrested and executed during this time.[12]
When Zhang Jue heard that the Han government had learned about his plans to rebel, he quickly sent messengers to contact his allies throughout China and take action immediately. In March, Zhang Jue started the Yellow Turban Rebellion with roughly 360,000 followers wearing yellow headscarves or turbans.[13] He called himself the "Lord General of Heaven" (天公將軍), while his brothers Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang were called the "Lord General of Earth" (地公將軍) and "Lord General of Man" (人公將軍), respectively. The rebels attacked government offices, pillaged villages, and seized control of commanderies. Within 10 days, the rebellion had spread throughout China, alarming the Han imperial court inLuoyang.[14]
The rebels were mostly concentrated in theJi,Jing,You andYu provinces. The group led by Zhang Jue and his brothers gained their support in Ji Province, located just north of theYellow River, near Zhang Jue's home territory ofJulu Commandery (around present-dayPingxiang County,Hebei) andWei Commandery (around present-dayHandan, Hebei). A second major uprising took place inGuangyang Commandery (around present-dayBeijing) andZhuo Commandery (around present-dayZhuozhou, Hebei) in You Province. The third centre of the rebellion was inYingchuan Commandery (around present-dayXuchang,Henan) andRunan Commandery (around present-dayXinyang, Henan) in Yu Province, andNanyang Commandery (around present-dayNanyang, Henan) in northernJing Province.
On 1 April 184, Emperor Ling appointed his brother-in-lawHe Jin, the Intendant of Henan (河南尹), as General-in-Chief (大將軍) and ordered him to supervise the imperial armies in suppressing the rebellion.[15] Emperor Ling also appointed three generals –Lu Zhi,Huangfu Song andZhu Jun – to lead three separate armies to deal with the rebels with a total of roughly 40,000 troops.[16] Lu Zhi went for Zhang Jue's base in Ji Province, while Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun headed to Yingchuan Commandery.[17]
InYou Province, the rebels killed Guo Xun (郭勳), the provincial Inspector, and Liu Wei (劉衛), the Administrator of Guangyang Commandery.[18]
Zou Jing, a colonel, led imperial forces to eliminate the rebels in You Province.Liu Bei led a group of volunteers[e] to assist him.[19]
When the rebellion first broke out inYu Province, the Han imperial court specially selectedWang Yun to be the inspector of the province to oversee the military operations.[20]
Zhao Qian (趙謙), the administrator ofRunan Commandery, led his troops to attack the rebels beforeZhu Jun arrived, but was defeated at Shaoling (邵陵; in present-day southeastern Henan).[21] When Chen County (陳縣; present-dayHuaiyang County, Henan) was under attack by the rebels, seven of Zhao Qian's subordinates, who were non-military personnel, armed themselves with swords and attempted to fight the rebels but were all killed. Later, after the rebellion was suppressed,Emperor Ling issued an edict to honor the seven as the "Seven Virtuous" (七賢).[22][23]
Chen State (陳國; around present-dayZhoukou, Henan), one of the commanderies in Yu Province, avoided the Yellow Turban Rebellion's bloodshed because the rebels feared PrinceLiu Chong, famous for his unit of skilled archers.[24]
The rebels in Runan Commandery, led by Bo Cai (波才), initially defeated Zhu Jun in battle and drove him back. The imperial court sent a cavalry contingent, led by young officerCao Cao (曹操), as reinforcements for Zhu Jun.[25] Sometime between 28 May and 25 June, Zhu Jun,Huangfu Song, and Cao Cao joined forces to defeat Bo Cai at Changshe (長社; east of present-dayChangge, Henan).[26][27] While Bo Cai attempted to flee, Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun pursued him to Yangzhai County (陽翟縣; present-dayYuzhou, Henan) and defeated him again, causing the rebels to scatter.[28]
Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun then defeated the rebels in Runan Commandery, led by Peng Tuo (彭脫), at Xihua County (西華縣; south of present-dayXihua County, Henan).[28] The imperial court ordered them to split up: Huangfu Song would attack the rebels atDong Commandery (東郡; around present-dayPuyang County, Henan), while Zhu Jun would attack the rebels at Nanyang Commandery.[29] During this time,Wang Yun, the Inspector ofYu Province, found evidence that the rebels had been secretly maintaining contact with Zhang Rang (張讓), the leader of theeunuch faction in Luoyang, so he reported it to Emperor Ling, who scolded Zhang Rang but did not punish him.[20]
Between 7 November and 6 December, Bao Hong (鮑鴻), a colonel, led imperial forces to attack the rebels in Gebei (葛陂; northwest of present-dayXincai County, Henan) and defeated them.[30]
In the meantime,Lu Zhi defeated Zhang Jue's rebel forces inJulu Commandery and besieged the rebel leader in Guangzong County (廣宗縣; southeast of present-dayGuangzong County, Hebei). However, after a eunuch falsely accused Lu Zhi of treason,Emperor Ling ordered his arrest, escorted back toLuoyang as a prisoner.[31] The imperial court then sent GeneralDong Zhuo to take over Lu Zhi's position and attack Zhang Jue. However, Dong Zhuo failed and retreated.[32][33]
On 23 or 24 September,Huangfu Song andFu Xie (傅燮), a Major under him,[34] defeated the rebels at Cangting (倉亭; north of present-dayYanggu County, Shandong), captured their leader Bu Ji (卜己), and killed over 7,000 rebels, including other minor leaders Zhang Bo (張伯) and Liang Zhongning (梁仲寧).[35][36] On 25 September, the imperial court ordered him to replace Dong Zhuo and lead his troops north to Guangzong County and attack Zhang Jue.[37]
Zhang Jue died of illness in October 184 while under attack by Huangfu Song in Guangzong County. Between 21 November and 20 December, Huangfu Song kept attacking Zhang Liang, who had taken over command of his brother's followers at Guangzong County. Unable to defeat Zhang Liang's skilled Yellow Turbans, Huangfu Song switched to a defensive approach, tricking the rebels into lowering their guard for a devastating nighttime strike. Zhang Liang was killed in action alongside 30,000 rebels, while another 50,000 rebels drowned while attempting to flee across a river. Huangfu Song burnt over 30,000 carts containing rebel supplies and captured most of their family members.[38] Huangfu Song then had Zhang Jue's body excavated and decapitated, sending his head to the imperial court in Luoyang.[39]
In recognition of Huangfu Song's achievements, Emperor Ling promoted him to Left General of Chariots and Cavalry (左車騎將軍). Between 21 December 184 and 18 January 185, Huangfu Song joined forces with Guo Dian (郭典), the Administrator of Julu Commandery, to attack the remaining rebels led by Zhang Jue's other brother, Zhang Bao. They defeated the rebels at Xiaquyang County (下曲陽縣; west of present-dayJinzhou, Hebei), killed Zhang Bao, and received the surrender of over 100,000 rebels.[40][41]
On 24 March 184, the rebels led by Zhang Mancheng (張曼成) killed Chu Gong (褚貢), the Administrator ofNanyang Commandery, and occupied the commandery's capital, Wancheng (宛城; present-dayWancheng District, Nanyang, Henan).[42] Chu Gong's successor, Qin Jie (秦頡), rallied local forces in Nanyang Commandery to attack Zhang Mancheng and defeated and killed him between 26 June and 25 July,[43][44] beforeZhu Jun's reinforcements arrived.
After Zhang Mancheng's death, Zhao Hong (趙弘) became the new rebel leader in Wancheng. During or after October 184, Qin Jie and Zhu Jun combined forces with Xu Qiu (徐璆), the Inspector ofJing Province, to attack Wancheng with an army of about 18,000. They defeated and killed Zhao Hong.[45]
Following Zhao Hong's death, Han Zhong (韓忠) and the remaining rebels seized control of Wancheng, continuing to resist imperial forces. Zhu Jun ordered his troops to pretend to attack from the southwest, while he secretly led 5,000 elite soldiers to infiltrate Wancheng from the northeast. Han Zhong retreated into the citadel and requested to surrender. Qin Jie, Xu Qiu and Zhang Chao (張超), a Major under Zhu Jun, all urged Zhu Jun to accept Han Zhong's surrender, but he refused. Zhu Jun instead pretended to lift the siege to lure Han Zhong to come out and attack. Han Zhong fell for the ruse, lost the battle, and tried to flee north while some 10,000 of his men were slaughtered by imperial forces. In desperation, Han Zhong surrendered to Zhu Jun, but Qin Jie had him executed.[46]
On 11 January 185, Zhu Jun defeated another rebel force led by Sun Xia (孫夏), who then fled towards Xi'e County (西鄂縣; north of present-dayNanyang, Henan). Zhu Jun pursued him there, defeated him and caused the remaining rebels to disperse.[47][48]
InXu Province, the provincial InspectorTao Qian, with the aid ofZang Ba, managed to defeat the rebels to restore regional peace.[49][50]
Sun Jian, then a minor official serving in Xiapi County (下邳縣; south of present-dayPizhou,Jiangsu) in Xu Province, came to join Zhu Jun's army as a Major. He brought along several young men from Xiapi County and other soldiers recruited from theHuai River region.[51]
InYang Province, the rebels attacked Shu County (舒縣; in present-day centralAnhui), a county in Lujiang Commandery (廬江郡; around present-dayLu'an, Anhui), and set fire to buildings. Yang Xu (羊續), the Administrator of Lujiang Commandery, successfully rallied thousands of able-bodied men aged 19 and above for countering the attack and firefighting.[52]
By the beginning of 185, the rebellion had mostly been suppressed following Zhu Jun's recapture of Wancheng in Nanyang Commandery and Huangfu Song's victories over the Zhang brothers in Ji Province. The remaining, scattered rebels were pursued by government forces in smaller military campaigns, and by mid-February 185, Emperor Ling issued a celebratory proclamation by changing hisera name from Guanghe (光和) to Zhongping (中平; "pacification achieved").[7]
Although the main Yellow Turban Rebellion ended by February 185, smaller rebellions by Yellow Turban remnants continued over the following two decades.
Between 16 March and 13 April 188, Guo Tai (郭太) led some 100,000 Yellow Turban remnants to start a rebellion inXihe Commandery (around present-dayFenyang,Shanxi). As they originated from Baibo Valley (白波谷; "White Wave Valley") in Xihe Commandery, they later became known as the "White Wave Bandits" (白波賊). They allied with theXiongnu leaderYufuluo and attackedTaiyuan Commandery (around present-dayTaiyuan,Shanxi) andHedong Commandery (around present-dayYuncheng, Shanxi).[53][54] Between 27 October and 25 November 189, when the bandits attacked Hedong Commandery, the warlordDong Zhuo's son-in-lawNiu Fu attacked the bandits but failed in the attempt.[55][56]
Around mid-195,Emperor Xian fled from the imperial capitalChang'an, where he had been held hostage by Dong Zhuo's followers, led byLi Jue andGuo Si, since Dong Zhuo's death in 192. He returned to the ruins of the old imperial capitalLuoyang, which Dong Zhuo burnt down in 191 while forcefully relocating its residents to Chang'an.Dong Cheng (a former subordinate of Niu Fu) andYang Feng (a former White Wave bandit)[57] protected Emperor Xian in Luoyang when Li Jue and Guo Si tried to pursue and bring the emperor back to Chang'an. Dong Cheng and Yang Feng summoned the White Wave Bandits, led by Li Le (李樂),Han Xian, Hu Cai (胡才) and others, to come to Emperor Xian's aid. Xiongnu forces led byQubei also responded to the call and came to help Emperor Xian resist Li Jue and Guo Si's forces.[58] Between 195 and 196, the warlordCao Cao led his forces into Luoyang and escorted Emperor Xian to his own base in Xu (許; present-dayXuchang,Henan) and established the new imperial capital there.[citation needed]
In 188,Ma Xiang (馬相) and Zhao Zhi (趙祗) led Yellow Turban remnants to start a rebellion inYi Province (covering present-daySichuan andChongqing). They killed Li Sheng (李升; Prefect of Mianzhu County緜竹縣), Zhao Bu (趙部; Administrator of Ba Commandery巴郡) and Xi Jian (郗儉; Inspector of Yi Province). Ma Xiang declared himself emperor before this sect of the rebellion was suppressed by local forces led by Jia Long (賈龍), a former subordinate of Xi Jian.[59][60]
Around 189, Zhang Rao (張饒) led some 200,000 Yellow Turban remnants to ravageQing Province. He defeated imperial forces underKong Rong, the Han-appointed Chancellor ofBeihai State (around present-dayWeifang,Shandong) in Qing Province.[61] Later, Kong Rong was besieged in Duchang County (都昌縣; present-dayChangyi, Shandong) by thousands of Yellow Turban rebels led by Guan Hai (管亥).Taishi Ci, then a military officer under Kong Rong, managed to break out of the siege and seek help fromLiu Bei, who was then the Chancellor of the nearbyPingyuan State. Liu Bei brought along 3,000 troops to attack Guan Hai and succeeded in saving Kong Rong.[62]
In the 200s, Xu He (徐和) and Sima Ju (司馬俱) led Yellow Turban remnants fromJinan Commandery (around present-dayZhangqiu,Shandong) andLe'an Commandery (around present-dayZibo, Shandong) respectively to ravageQing Province. They were defeated and killed byXiahou Yuan,Zang Ba and Lü Qian some time between 206 and 209.[f][63][64]
Around May 192, hundreds of thousands of Yellow Turban remnants fromQing Province swarmed intoYan Province and killed Zheng Sui (鄭遂), the Chancellor of Rencheng State (任城國; around present-dayZoucheng,Shandong), before moving into Dongping Commandery (東平郡; around present-dayDongping County, Shandong).Liu Dai, the Inspector of Yan Province, wanted to lead his troops to attack the rebels but the generalBao Xin advised him against it. Liu Dai ignored this advice, dying in his attack against the rebels. Bao Xin and another official, Wan Qian (萬潛), went to Dong Commandery (東郡; around present-dayPuyang,Henan) to inviteCao Cao to be the new Governor of Yan Province. Bao Xin then led government forces to attack the rebels at the east of Shouzhang County (壽張縣; south of present-day Dongping County, Shandong) but was killed in action.[65] Later, despite having fewer troops, Cao Cao managed to defeat the rebels inJibei State. The rebels, numbering over 300,000, surrendered to Cao Cao along with their families. Cao Cao then recruited their best warriors and organised them to form an elite military unit, the Qingzhou[g] Army (青州兵; also translated as "Qingzhou Corps").[66][67]
In Runan Commandery and Yingchuan Commandery, thousands of Yellow Turban remnants remained active under the leadership of He Yi (何儀), Liu Pi (劉辟), Huang Shao (黃邵), and He Man (何曼). They were initially allied with the warlordsYuan Shu andSun Jian, but became an independent force in the 190s. Between 17 March and 15 April 196, the warlordCao Cao led his forces to attack them and killed Liu Pi, Huang Shao, and He Man. He Yi led the remaining forces in surrendering to Cao Cao.[68]
Other Yellow Turban forces in Runan Commandery were led by Wu Ba (吳霸) and Gong Du (龔都). Wu Ba was defeated and captured by the generalLi Tong.[69] Gong Du posed a threat to Cao Cao when he allied with Cao Cao's rival,Liu Bei, and seized control of Runan Commandery in 201. Cao Cao first sent Cai Yang (蔡揚) to eliminate them, but after Cai Yang was killed, he personally led his troops to attack and defeat them. Liu Bei fled south to joinLiu Biao, while Gong Du and the remaining rebels dispersed.[70]
Another Yellow Turban remnant force was active inKuaiji Commandery (around present-dayShaoxing,Zhejiang) untilLiu Zan killed its leader Wu Huan (吳桓).[71]
In the 200s, Chen Bai (陳敗) and Wan Cheng (萬秉) started a rebellion inJiuzhen Commandery (九真郡; present-dayThanh Hóa Province,Vietnam). In 202, they were defeated and captured byZhu Zhi, the commandery's administrator.[72]
Although the Han armies emerged victorious, the rebellion caused the destruction of major government buildings, deaths of high-ranking officials, and fragmentation of the dynasty's territory. Rebel deaths numbered in the hundreds of thousands, while many non-combatants had been left homeless or destitute by the wars.[3] The heavily weakened Han Dynasty was unable to fully govern, distributing its powers to military commanders and local leaders until its complete collapse by 220 CE.[7]
AfterEmperor Ling died in 189, a power struggle between his brother-in-lawHe Jin and the eunuchs culminated in He Jin's assassination on 22 September 189. He Jin's chief ally,Yuan Shao, retaliated by setting the palace on fire and slaughtering the eunuchs. The warlordDong Zhuo gained control over the underage heir,Liu Bian, to legitimize his occupation and ransacking of the capital. Dong Zhuo was murdered for his cruelty in 192, allowing the warlordCao Cao to seize power.[citation needed]
Ma Yuanyi (馬元義)[11]
He Yi (何儀), led rebels in the 190s in Runan Commandery[68]The rebellion is portrayed in the opening chapters of the 14th-century historical novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms, which portrays the Zhang brothers as sorcerers, having been provided theTaiping Jing from the "old immortal spirit from the southern lands" (sometimes identified asZhuangzi).[73]
Many fictional Yellow Turban figures were created for the novel, including:
Though not a fictional character,Liao Hua was presented in the novel as having been a Yellow Turban rebel in his earlier days, which is historically unlikely, given his date of death and predicted lifespan.
The rebellion appears as an early stage in each iteration ofKoei'sDynasty Warriors video game franchise, remaining largely unchanged throughout the series. He Yi, Gong Du, and Huang Shao lead playable factions in the Yellow Turban DLC of the turn-based strategy video gameTotal War: Three Kingdoms, while the Mandate of Heaven DLC features Zhang Jue, Zhang Bao, and Zhang Liang.
By the year 205 (21 years after it had begun) the Yellow Turban Rebellion was over, and rule by the Han family was shattered and at its end.
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