| Yazdegerd I 𐭩𐭦𐭣𐭪𐭥𐭲𐭩 | |
|---|---|
| King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians | |
 | |
| Shahanshah of theSasanian Empire | |
| Reign | 399–420 |
| Predecessor | Bahram IV |
| Successor | Shapur IV |
| Died | 420 Gurgan orTus |
| Spouse | Shushandukht |
| Issue | |
| House | House of Sasan |
| Father | Shapur III |
| Religion | Zoroastrianism |
Yazdegerd I (also spelledYazdgerd andYazdgird;Middle Persian:𐭩𐭦𐭣𐭪𐭥𐭲𐭩) was theSasanianKing of Kings (shahanshah) ofIran from 399 to 420. A son ofShapur III (r. 383–388), he succeeded his brotherBahram IV (r. 388–399) after the latter's assassination.
The largely uneventful reign of Yazdegerd I is seen in Sasanian history as a period of renewal, although he was periodically known as "the Sinner" in native sources, Yazdegerd was more competent than his immediate predecessors. He enjoyed cordial relations with theEastern Roman Empire and was entrusted byArcadius with the guardianship of his sonTheodosius. Yazdegerd I is known for his friendly relations with theJews as well as theChristians of theChurch of the East, which he acknowledged in 410. As a result, he was compared by the Jews and Christians toCyrus the Great, theAchaemenid emperor who liberated the Jews from captivity inBabylon.
His religious policies were disliked by the nobility and theZoroastrian clergy, whose power and influence he strove to curb. These efforts eventually backfired and Yazdegerd I met his end at the hands of the nobility in the remote northeast. The nobles then sought to prevent Yazdegerd's sons from ascending the throne; his eldest son,Shapur IV, was quickly killed after his accession and replaced withKhosrow. Another son,Bahram V, hurried to the Sasanian capital ofCtesiphon with anArab army and pressured the nobility to acknowledge him asshah.
The name Yazdegerd is a combination of theOld Iranianyazad / yazata (divine being) and-karta (made) – "God-made", comparable to the IranianBagkart andGreekTheoktistos. It is known in other languages as Yazdekert (Pahlavi); Yazd[e]gerd (New Persian); Yazdegerd, Izdegerd and Yazdeger (Syriac); Yazkert (Armenian); Izdeger and Azger (in theTalmud); Yazdeijerd (Arabic), and Isdigerdes (Greek).[1]
Yazdegerd I was the son ofShapur III (r. 383–388). When Yazdegerd I's brotherBahram IV (r. 388–399) was assassinated in 399, he succeeded him.[2] Yazdegerd I inherited an empire which had been through tumultuous times; his three previous predecessors, Bahram IV, Shapur III andArdashir II, had been murdered by the nobility.[3][4] Most of the high nobility belonged to the powerfulParthian noble families (known as thewuzurgan) who were centered on theIranian Plateau.[5] The backbone of the Sasanianfeudal army, they were largely autonomous.[5]
The Sasanianshahs had little control of thewuzurgan, and attempts to restrict them were usually costly to the shah (as indicated by the fate of the three previous shahs).[6] The Parthian nobility worked for the Sasanian shah for personal benefits, out of loyalty, and (possibly) an awareness of theAryan, ie. Iranian, kinship they shared with theirPersian overlords.[5] Late in Yazdegerd's reign, the powerful ParthianHouse of Suren became powerful associates of the shah and played a key role in the affairs of the empire.[7] The authority of the Suren family flourished until the end of the reign of Yazdegerd's grandson,Yazdegerd II (r. 438–457).[7]
During Yazdegerd I's rule, his western neighbours in theEastern Roman Empire were in turmoil; while experiencing a civil war, their territory in the Balkans was attacked by theOstrogoths, and rebellion was occurring amongst theirFrankish subjects and the eastern provinces.[1] Instead of exploiting the empire's weakened state, Yazdegerd I had Roman Christian prisoners who were saved after an Iranian victory over theHuns returned to Roman territory.[1] The Roman emperorArcadius (r. 383–408) asked Yazdegerd for aid to guarantee the succession of his young son,Theodosius, as a result of the shah's generosity.[1][8]
This account is only mentioned by the 6th-century Roman historianProcopius and was questioned by his fellow Roman historianAgathias, who wrote that the report was "on the lips" of "Roman commoners and aristocrats alike"[9] but was absent from contemporary sources.[8] Yazdegerd I agreed to act as Theodosius' protector, however, and threatened to wage war against whoever sought to put him in danger.[8][1] According to Procopius, "Loyally observing the behests of Arcadius, [Yazdegerd] adopted and continued without interruption a policy of profound peace with the Romans, and thus preserved the empire for Theodosius."[1] The shah sentAntiochus, "a most remarkable and highly educated advisor and instructor", to educate Theodosius.[1]
Yazdegerd I, like all other Sasanian rulers, was an adherent ofZoroastrianism.[10] One of his predecessors, the powerful Sasanian shahShapur II (r. 309–379), was thought to have brutally persecuted theChristians of Iran from 340 to 379 in a "Great Persecution".[11] Although later shahs – Yazdegerd I,Bahram V (r. 420–438),Yazdegerd II (r. 438–457),Peroz I (r. 459–484),Khosrow I (r. 531–579) andKhosrow II (r. 591–628) – were also said to have persecuted theChurch of the East, the church quickly expanded.[11] According tohagiographical sources, this was due to the "unwavering hostility of Zoroastrian religious authorities toward Christians."[12]
Persecution of the Christians, however, was limited to their religious leaders who had failed to meet the commitment demanded of them by the court.[13] Although Shapur II disciplined leading priestly leaders for insubordination, neither he nor his court persecuted the Christian population as a whole;[13] the "Great Persecution" was fictional.[13] According to the modern historian Eberhard Sauer, Sasanian shahs persecuted other religions only when it was in their urgent political interest to do so.[14] Shapur II's killing of Christians was due to the priestly leaders' refusal to participate more fully in the management of the empire.[13] This was finally achieved during Yazdegerd's reign, when the priestly leaders agreed to cooperate with the court.[15]
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Yazdegerd I's reign was a landmark for the Christians in Iran. With the counsel of Roman bishopMarutha, he acknowledged the Church of the East in 410; this led to the establishment of the Iranian church, which would declare its independence from the Roman church in 424.[16][1] Yazdegerd's decree has been called the Sasanian version of the 313Edict of Milan by Roman emperorConstantine the Great (r. 306–337).[1][17] Churches, shrines to martyrs, and monasteries were soon established under Iranian bureaucracy.[15] They were near the court in the Sasanian capital ofCtesiphon, indicating the consent of Yazdegerd (who financed churches with East Syrian or Roman diplomats as their main patrons).[15] One of his gestures of generosity was to permit Christians to bury their dead, which Zoroastrians believed tainted the land.[18]
The number of Christian elites in the bureaucracy increased, a flow which continued until the fall of the empire in 651.[15] Although priestly leaders such asShemon Bar Sabbae and his colleagues had zealously opposed Shapur II's request to participate in the imperial bureaucracy, thebishops began operating as agents of Iran (dissociating themselves from Zoroastrianism) during the fifth century.[15] Yazdegerd made use of the priestly leaders, sending the Patriarch of theCatholicos of Ctesiphon to mediate between himself and his brother (the governor ofPars, in southern Iran).[1] Another patriarch was Yazdegerd's ambassador to Theodosius.[1] The shah does not seem to have had much knowledge of Christianity, and was (like Shapur II) more interested in improving his empire's political and economic capabilities.[19] Owing to his tolerant treatment of the Christians, he is described in their chronicles as a "noble soul" and a secondCyrus the Great (r. 550 – 530 BC), the founder of the IranianAchaemenid Empire.[20]
Reckless acts by the Christians tested Yazdegerd I's tolerance toward them at the end of his reign.[18]Abda, the bishop ofOhrmazd-Ardashir inKhuzestan, and a band of Christian priests andlaity levelled a Zoroastrianfire temple inc. 419–420; the court summoned them to answer for their actions.[21] Yazdegerd was said to ask Abda, "Since you are the chief and leader of these men, why do you allow them to despise our kingdom, to transgress against our command, and to act in accordance with their own will? Do you demolish and destroy our houses of worship and the foundations of our fire temples, which we have received from the fathers of our fathers to honor?"[21] Although Abda hesitated to answer, a priest in his entourage replied: "I demolished the foundation and extinguished the fire because it is not a house of God, nor is the fire the daughter of God."[21] Demolishing a fire temple was reportedly a way of broadcasting the "victory of Christianity."[21]
Abda refused to have the fire temple rebuilt, and he and his entourage were executed.[21] At another location, a priest had asacred fire put out and celebratedmass there.[18] Yazdegerd I, forced to yield to pressure from the Zoroastrian priesthood, changed his policy towards the Christians and ordered them persecuted.[14] Probably due to his change of policy, Yazdegerd appointedMihr Narseh of the Suren family as his minister (wuzurg framadar).[1] This brief persecution did not mar Yazdegerd I's representation in Christian sources,[22] some of which justified his actions.[9]
TheJews of Iran were treated so generously and respectfully by Yazdegerd I that theirexilarch called him the new Cyrus the Great, who liberated the Jews from captivity inBabylon.[1][23] Although Yazdegerd was reportedly kind to therabbis and quoted scriptures to them, this account may have been a fabrication of Jewish historiography.[24] He had a Jewish wife,Shushandukht, the daughter of the exilarch.[25] The identity of her father is obscure; he may have been Mar Kahana I, Mar Yemar, orMar Zutra.[26] The Middle Persian geography textŠahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr (The Provincial Capitals of Iran) reports that Yazdegerd had Jews settled inSpahan at Shushandukht's request,[26] and she was the mother of his sonBahram V.[26] According to theIranologistErnst Herzfeld, theTomb of Esther and Mordechai inHamadan was not the burial site ofEsther andMordechai but that of Shushandukht.[27]
Roman sources describe Yazdegerd I as an astute, benevolent and friendly ruler.[28] Said to be well-read, "from the start" he was known for "nobility of character" and as a champion of "the poor and the wretched."[2]Persian andArabic sources, however, call him a "sinner" (bazehkar orbezehgar) and "outcast" (dabhr).[28][2][a] They describe him as a monarch who misused his authority by intimidating and suppressing the nobility and Zoroastrian clergy.[28] This hostile view of Yazdegerd is due to his peaceful attitude towards the Romans and his religious tolerance of the country's non-Zoroastrians (the Christians and Jews).[28]
The hostility of the priesthood towards Yazdegerd was due to his execution of several Zoroastrian priests who disapproved of his friendly management of the religious minorities.[28] Well aware of the fate of his predecessor, Yazdegerd I could not put his trust in the nobility and prevented them from acquiring excessive influence at the expense of royal power;[2][23] therefore, he was at odds with the nobility and clergy.[2][29] Yazdegerd was more competent than his recent predecessors, however, and his reign is seen in Sasanian history as a period of renewal.[30]
Yazdegerd I's coins portray him wearing a combination of the dome-shapedcrown used byArdashir II and twomerlons and a crescent moon on the top.[1] His reign marks a shift in the political perspective of the Sasanian Empire, which (originally disposed towards the West) moved to the East.[31] The shift may have been triggered by hostile tribes in eastern Iran.[31] The war with theIranian Huns may have reawakened the mythical rivalry between the mythologicalIranianKayanian rulers and theirTuranian enemies, which is illustrated by YoungerAvestan texts.[31] The title ofRamshahr (peacekeeper in [his] dominion) was added to the traditional "King of Kings of the Iranians and non-Iranians" on Yazdegerd's coins.[32][33][b] In the Middle Persianheroic poemAyadgar-i Zariran (The Testament of Zarer), the title was used by the last Kayanian monarch (Vishtaspa) and occurs in the 10th-century ZoroastrianDenkard.[35] Sasanian interest in Kayanian ideology and history continued until the end of the empire.[36]
Under Yazdegerd I, a mint was established in the city ofYazd (under the mint abbreviation of "YZ"), which demonstrates its increasing importance.[37] A mint was also established in Gurrah,[38] and possiblyGahrum.[39]
Yazdegerd I is notable for having ordered the renewal of a number cities, which includeQumis, Hamadan,Susa,Shushtar, and Spahan.[40] His military commanders are said to have founded the cities ofAqda andMaybud.[37]
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Yazdegerd I died in 420. According to 5th-centuryArmenian historianMovses Khorenatsi, his cause of death was disease.[1] According to an old, popular legend mentioned byFerdowsi in theShahnameh, however, he was kicked to death by a white horse which suddenly arose from the Chishmih-i Su or Chishmih-i Sabz (the green spring) adjacent to the city ofTus in the eastern province ofAbarshahr.[41] The horse was said to suddenly disappear afterwards.[42]GermanorientalistTheodor Nöldeke surmised that "Ferdowsi had fecklessly grafted this tradition onto traditions of his hometown, Tus",[42] and the murder may have taken place inGurgan;[42] the legend predated Ferdowsi's work.[42] Whether Yazdegerd's death was in Tus or Gurgan, the legend was probably fabricated by the Parthian nobility who had Yazdegerd I killed in the distant northeast (the traditional homeland of the Parthians and part of the fiefdom of three strong Parthian families, including theKanarangiyan, who were based in the Tus region).[42]
The nobility and clergy, who despised Yazdegerd I, now strove to strip his sons of kingship. Three are known: Shapur, Bahram and Narseh.[35][1] Shapur (the governor-king ofArmenia) rushed to Ctesiphon and assumed the crown asShapur IV, but was betrayed by his courtiers and killed.[1][35] The nobility then placed Bahram IV's son,Khosrow, on the throne.[35] Bahram, who had grown up in theLakhmid court ofal-Hira, arrived in Ctesiphon with anArab army and pressured the nobility to acknowledge him as ShahBahram V.[1] His brother, Narseh, was appointed governor of Abarshahr.[1]
Yazdegerd I Died: 420 | ||
| Preceded by | King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran 399–420 | Succeeded by |
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