 An early 20th-century Yavapai basket bowl woven of willow and reed | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| 1,550 (1992)[1] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| United States (Arizona) | |
| Languages | |
| Yavapai (three dialects ofUpland Yuman language),English | |
| Religion | |
| Indigenous religion,Christianity | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Havasupai,Hualapai,Mohave,Western Apache |
TheYavapai (/ˈjævəˌpaɪ/YAV-ə-py) are aNative American tribe inArizona. TheirYavapai language belongs to the UplandYuman branch of the proposedHokan language family.[1]
Today Yavapai people are enrolled in the followingfederally recognized tribes:
The Yavapai historically controlled about 10 million acres of land in west-central Arizona.[1] Their lands bordered theSan Francisco Peaks to the north, thePinaleno Mountains andMazatzal Mountains to the southeast, theColorado River to the west, and almost to theGila River and theSalt River to the south.[2]
The Yavapai historically were divided into geographically distinct bands or subtribes:
The nameYavapai comes from theMojave language termEnyaéva Pai, translating as "People of the Sun".[1][4]
American settlers often mistakenly called the Yavapai "Mohave-Apache," "Yuma-Apache," or "Tonto-Apache".[5][1]
The Yavapai language is one of three dialects of theUpland Yuman language, itself a member of the Pai branch of the Yuman language family.[6] Their UplandYuman language may be part of the proposedHokan language family.[1]
The language includes four dialects, known as Kwevkepaya (Southern), Tolkepaya (Western), Wipukepa (Verde Valley), and Yavepe (Prescott).[7]
The Yavapai population was about 1,550 in 1992.[1] In C.E. 1500, by some estimates there were perhaps 1,500 Yavapai.[1]
Their creation story explains that Yavapai people originated "in the beginning," or "many years ago," when either a tree or a maize plant sprouted from the ground in what is nowMontezuma Well, bringing the Yavapai into the world.
Western archeologists believe the Yavapai derived fromPatayan (Hakataya) peoples who migrated east from theColorado River region to become Upland Yumans. Archeological and linguistic evidence suggests that they split off to develop as the Yavapai somewhere around CE 1300.[3]
The first recorded contact with Yavapai was in 1583, whenHopi guides led Spanish explorerAntonio de Espejo,[8] to Jerome Mountain. De Espejo sought gold and was disappointed to find only copper. In 1598, Hopi broughtMarcos Farfán de los Godos and his group to the same mines, to their excitement. Farfán referred to the Yavapai ascruzados because of the crosses painted on their heads.[9]
Juan de Oñate had led a group through Yavapai lands in 1598 and went back again in 1604–1605, looking for a route to the sea which Yavapai had told them about.
Warfare was not uncommon in the Yavapai world, and they made changing alliances for security. Wi:pukba (Wipukepa) and Guwevkabaya (Kwevkepaya) bands formed alliances withWestern Apache bands, to attack and defend against raids by theAkimel O'odham andMaricopa bands from the south. Because of the greater strength of the Akimel O'odham/Maricopa, Yavapai/Apache raids generally conducted small-scale quick raids, followed by a retreat to avoid counterattack. The Yavapai defended their lands against Akimel O'odham incursions when the Akimel O'odham would invade to harvestsaguaro fruits.[10]
To the north and northwest, Wi:pukba and Yavbe' bands had off-and-on relations with thePai people throughout most of their history. Though Pai and Yavapai both spokeUpland Yuman dialects, and had a common cultural history, each people had tales of a dispute that separated them from each other. According to Paioral history, the dispute began with a "mudball fight between children." Scholars believe this split occurred around 1750.[11]
In the intervening time, through contact with other tribes that had more European contact, the Yavapai began to adopt certain European practices. They raised some livestock and planted crops, also adopting some metal tools and weaponry. In a syncretic way, they adopted elements ofChristianity. An estimated quarter of the population died as a result of smallpox in the 17th and 18th centuries, smaller losses than for some tribes, but substantial enough to disrupt their societies. With the use of guns and other weapons, they began to change methods of warfare, diplomacy, and trade. They used livestock raiding, either from other tribes such as the Maricopa, or fromSpanish settlements to their south, to supplement their economy. They often acquired human captives in raids, whom they traded as slaves to Spaniards in exchange for European goods.[12]
Spanish missionaryFrancisco Garcés lived among the Yavapai in 1776.[1]
In the 1820s, American beaver trappers, having depleted the beaver population of theRocky Mountains, began entering Yavapai territory. They trapped beaver along the Salt,Gila, andBill Williams rivers. WhenKit Carson andEwing Young led a trapping group through the territory in 1829, the group was "nightly harassed..." Traps were stolen and some of their horses and mules killed.[13]
The first fighting between US troops and Yavapai came in early 1837, when the Tolkepaya joined with their Quechan neighbors to defend againstMajor Samuel Heintzelman over a Quechan ferry crossing on the Colorado River. The Quechan used the ferry to transport settlers over the river, into California. After they killed a group led byJohn Glanton, who had taken over the crossing, the US government retaliated by burning the fields of the Quechans, and taking control of the crossing.[14]
According to Thomas Sweeney, the Tolkepaya would tell US officers encountered in Quechan territory, that they had a 30-day march to their own territory. They wanted to discourage US encroachment on their land.[15]
Following the declaration ofwar against Mexico in May 1845 and especially after the claim by the US of southwest lands under theTreaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, US military incursions into Yavapai territory greatly increased. After gold was discovered in California in 1849, more Euro-American emigrants passed through Yavapai territory than ever had before.[16] Despite the thousands of emigrants passing through their territory, the Yavapai avoided contact with them.
The last big battle between the Colorado–Gila River alliances took place in August 1857, when about 100 Yavapai, Quechan, and Mohave warriors attacked a settlement of Maricopa near Pima Butte. After overwhelming the Maricopa, the Yavapai left. A group of Akimel O'odham, supplied with guns and horses from US troops, arrived and routed the remaining Mohave and Quechans.[17]
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In 1851, a group of Yavapai attacked American settlers, the Oatman family.[18] Roys Oatman and his wife were killed, along with four of their seven children. The son, Lorenzo, was left for dead but survived, while sistersOlive Oatman andMary Ann were later sold to Mojaves as slaves. The story was widely published and increased white settlers' fears of attack in Arizona.[19]
TheYavapai Wars, or the Tonto Wars, were a series of armed conflicts between the Yavapai and Tonto Apache against the United States in Arizona. The period began no later than 1861, with the arrival of American settlers on Yavapai and Tonto land. At the time, the Yavapai were considered a band of theWestern Apache people due to their close relationship with tribes such as the Tonto and Pinal. From 366 to 489 Yavapai were killed in massacres,[20] and 375 perished inIndian Removal deportations out of 1,400 remaining Yavapai.[21][22]
When in early 1863, theWalker Party discovered gold inLynx Creek (near present-dayPrescott, Arizona), it set off a chain of events that would have White settlements along theHassayampa andAgua Fria Rivers, the nearby valleys, as well as in Prescott, andFort Whipple would be built, all by the end of the year, and all in traditional Yavapai territory.
The Americans, led by GeneralGeorge Crook, fought against the Yavapai andTonto Apache in 1872–73.[23] Aided by Pai scouts, the Americans killed many of the Yavapai and forced them onto a reservation at Camp Verde, where a third of the surviving Yavapai died from disease.[23] In 1875, they were forcibly relocated to theSan Carlos Reservation in the March of Tears. After only 25 years, their population of 1,500 plummeted to only 200 survivors.[23]
By 1900, most Yavapai left the San Carlos Reservation to return to theVerde Valley and neighboring homelands.[23]
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Before being confined toreservations, the Yavapai were mainlyhunter-gatherers, following an annual migration to different areas to follow the ripening of different edible plants and movement of game animals. Some communities supplemented this diet with small-scale cultivation of the "three sisters" (maize, squash, and beans) in fertile streambeds. In particular, the Tolkepaya, who lived in lands that were less supportive of food gathering, turned to agriculture more than other Yavapai. They had to work to cultivate crops, as their land was also less supportive of agriculture. In turn, Tolkepaya often traded items such as animal skins, baskets, andagave to Quechan groups for food.
The main plant foods gathered were walnuts,saguaro fruits,juniper berries, acorns, sunflower seeds,manzanita berries and apples,hackberries, the bulbs of theQuamash, and the greens of theLamb's quarters,Scrophularia, andLupinus plants. Agave was the most crucial harvest, as it was the only plant food available from late fall through early spring. The hearts of the plant were roasted in stone-lined pits, and could be stored for later use.[24] Primary animals hunted were deer, rabbit,jackrabbit, quail, andwoodrat. Fish[25] and water-borne birds[26] were eschewed by most Yavapai groups. Some groups of Tolkepaya began eating fish after contact with their Quechan neighbors.[27]
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The Yavapai practiced traditional dances such as the Mountain Spirit Dance, War Dances, Victory Dances and Social Dances. The Mountain Spirit dance was a masked dance, which was used for guidance or healing of a sick person. The masked dancers represented Mountain Spirits, who dwell inFour Peaks,McDowell Mountains, Red Mountain (near Fort McDowell),Mingus Mountain-(Black Hills) near Camp Verde, andGranite Mountain near present-day Prescott. The Mountain Spirits also dwell in the caves ofMontezuma Castle andMontezuma Well in the Verde Valley.
Yavapai also participate in dances and singing shared with neighboring tribes such as the Apache Sunrise Dance and the Bird Singing and Dancing of theMojave people.
The Yavapai built brush shelter dwellings calledWa'm bu nya:va (Wom-boo-nya-va). In summer, they built simple lean-tos without walls. During winter months, closed huts (calleduwas) would be built ofocotillo branches or other wood and covered with animal skins, grasses, bark, and/or dirt. In the Colorado River area, Tolkepaya builtUwađ a'mađva, a rectangular hut, that had dirt piled up against its sides for insulation, and a flat roof. They also sought shelter in caves or abandonedpueblos to escape the cold.[28]
The Yavapai main sociopolitical organization were local groups of extended families, which were identified with certain geographic regions in which they resided.[29] These local groups would form bands in times of war, raiding or defense. For most of Yavapai history, the family was the focal group, be it the nuclear family, or extended. This is partly because most food-providing sites were not large enough to support larger populations. However, exceptions are known.
NearFish Creek, Arizona, wasAnanyiké (Quail's Roost), a Guwevkabaya summer camp that supported upwards of 100 people at a time. It supported aprickly pear fruit harvest, and hunting of rabbits and woodrats.[30] In winter, camps were formed of larger groups, consisting of several families. They separated into smaller groups at the end of winter, in time for the spring harvest.
Government among the Yavapai tended to be informal. There were no tribal and hand chiefs. Certain men became recognized leaders based on others choosing to follow them, heed their advice, and support their decisions. Men who were noted for their skills as warriors were calledmastava ("not afraid") orbamulva ("person who goes forward"). Other warriors were willing to follow such men into combat. Some Yavapai men were noted for their wisdom and speaking ability. Calledbakwauu ("person who talks"), they would settle disputes within the camp and advise others on the selection of campsites, work ethics, and food production.
The Yavapai have never been unified by a single central government. Historically they were four separate autonomous bands, connected through kinship and shared cultures and language, which were in turn composed of clans.[31] The bands or subtribes allied with and traded with external tribes independently of each other. These four subtribes are the Kewevkepaya (southeastern), Tolkepaya (western), Wipukepa (northeastern), Yavepé (northwestern)[3]
TheKewevkepaya lived in the southeast, along the Verde River south of theMazatzal Mountains and theSalt River to theSuperstition Mountains and the westernSierra Estrella Mountains, including the southern and western slopes of the Pinal Mountains, theMcDowell Mountains, Dripping Springs, the Four Peaks and Mazatzal Mountains in south-western Arizona. They intermarried with the Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache and spoke their language in addition to their own. They were also called the Guwevkabaya, Kwevkepaya, Kwevikopaya, or Southern Yavapai.[citation needed]
TheTolkepaya lived in the western Yavapai territory along theHassayampa River in southwestern Arizona. They maintained close ties to the Quechan and Mojave. They were also called Ɖo:lkabaya, Tulkepaia, or Western Yavapai.[citation needed]
TheWipukepa lived in the northeast, inOak Creek Canyon and alongFossil Creek andRio Verde, Arizona, in north-central Arizona. They often intermarried with the Tonto Apache and spoke their language as well as Yavapai. They were also called the Wipukpaya or Wi:pukba, which translates as "Foot of the Mountain (Red Buttes) People" or "People from the Foot of the Red Rock".[citation needed]
TheYavapé lived in the northwestern Yavapai territory fromWilliamson (Williamson Valley) south of theBradshaw Mountains to theAgua Fria River. They were also called Northwestern Yavapai, Yavbe, Central Yavapai, or the "real Yavapai", because they were little culturally influenced by neighboring peoples.[citation needed]
A fifth Yavapai band, no longer in existence, was the Mađqwarrpaa or "Desert People." Members of this band intermarried with the Mojave andQuechan peoples. The Yavapai have much in common with their linguistic relatives to the north, theHavasupai and theHualapai.[32]
TheWi:pukba ("People from the Foot of the Red Rock") andGuwevkabaya lived alongside the Tonto Apache of central and western Arizona. The Tonto Apache lived usually east of theVerde River and most of the Yavapai bands lived west of it. The Wi:pukba tribal areas in theSan Francisco Peaks, along theUpper Verde River,Oak Creek Canyon andFossil Creek, overlapped with those of theNorthern Tonto Apache.
Likewise the Guwevkabaya shared hunting and gathering grounds east of the Verde River, along Fossil Creek,East Verde River, Salt River, and in theSuperstition Mountains,Sierra Ancha andPinaleno Mountains withSouthern Tonto Apache and bands of theSan Carlos Apache. Therefore, they formedbilingual mixed-tribalbands.[31] Outsiders, such as the Spanish, Mexicans and Americans distinguished the peoples primarily by language, but often referred to them as one name. The Apache spoke the Tonto dialect of theWestern Apache language (Ndee biyati' / Nnee biyati'), and the Yavapai spoke theYavapai language, a branch ofUpland Yuman. Living together in common rancherias, families identified as Apache or Yavapai based on their “Mother tongue.” Both groups hadmatrilineal kinship systems, with children considered born into the mother's family and clan, with inheritance and property figured through the maternal line.
Most of the people in these mixed groups spoke both languages. The headman of each band usually had two names, one from each culture. Therefore, the enemyNavajo to the north called both, the Tonto Apache and their allies, the Yavapai,Dilzhʼíʼ dinéʼiʼ – "People with high-pitched voices." The ethnic Europeans referred to the Yavapai and Apache together as Tonto Apache. The peoples raided and warred together against enemy tribes such as theTohono O'odham and theAkimel O'odham.
Scholars cannot tell from records whether the writers of the time, when using the term Tonto Apache, were referring to Yavapai or Apache, or those mixed bands. In addition, the Europeans often referred to the Wi:pukba and Guwevkabaya incorrectly as the Yavapai Apache or Yuma Apache. The Europeans referred to the Tolkepaya, the western group of Yavapai, and theHualapai (who belonged to theUpland Yuma Peoples), as Yuma Apache or Mohave Apache.
Ethnological writings describe some major physical differences between Yavapai and Tonto Apache peoples. The Yavapai were described as taller, of more muscular build, well-proportioned and thickly featured, while the Tonto Apache were slight and less muscular, smaller of stature and finely featured. The Yavapai women were described as stouter and having "handsomer" faces than the Yuma, in a historicSmithsonian Institution report. The Yavapai often acquiredtattoos, but the Apache seldom used tattoos. They created different painted designs on faces. They also had different funeral practices. In clothing, Yavapai moccasins were rounded, whereas those of the Apaches were shaped with pointed toes. Both groups were hunter-gatherers. They left campsites so similar that scholars are seldom able to distinguish between them.[33]
After being relocated to theCamp Verde Reservation, on theVerde River nearCamp Verde, the Yavapai there began to construct irrigation systems (including a five-mile (8 km) long ditch)[23] that functioned well enough to reap sufficient harvests, making the tribe relatively self-sufficient. But contractors that worked with the government to supply the reservations were disappointed, and petitioned to have the reservation revoked. The government complied, and in March 1875, the government closed the reservation, and marched the residents 180 miles (290 km) to theSan Carlos reservation. More than 100 Yavapai died during the winter trek.[34]
By the early 20th century, Yavapai were moving away from the San Carlos Reservation, and were requesting permission to live on the grounds of the original Camp Verde Reservation. In 1910, 40 acres (161,874 m2) was set aside as the Camp Verde Indian Reservation, and in the following decade added 248 acres (1,003,620 m2) in two parcels, which became the Middle Verde Indian Reservation. These two reservations were combined in 1937, to form the Camp Verde Yavapai–Apache tribe.[35] Today, the reservation spans 665 acres (2.7 km2), in four separate locales.[36] Tourism contributes greatly to the economy of the tribe, due largely to the presence of many preserved sites, including theMontezuma Castle National Monument. The Yavapai–Apache Nation is the amalgamation of two historically distinct Tribes both of whom occupied the Upper Verde prior to European arrival. TheTonto Apache, calling themselves Dilzhe'e, utilized the lands to the north, east and south; while the Wi:pukba or Northeastern Yavapai were using country to the north, the west and the south. It was the Upper Verde where they overlapped.[37]
TheYavapai reservation in Prescott was established in 1935, originally consisting of just 75 acres (300,000 m2) of land formerly occupied by the Fort Whipple Military Reserve.[38] In 1956, an additional 1,320 acres (5 km2) were added. Succeeding the tribe's first chief, Sam Jimulla, his wifeViola became the first female chieftess of a North American tribe. Today, the tribe consists of 159 official members.[39] The population consists mainly of the Yavbe'/Yavapé Group of Yavapais.
TheFort McDowell Yavapai Nation is located within Maricopa County approximately 20 miles northeast of Phoenix. The reservation came into existence when Theodore Roosevelt had Fort McDowell declared a 40 square miles (100 km2) reservation in 1903,[40] but by 1910, theOffice of Indian Affairs was attempting to relocate the residents, to open up the area, and water rights to other interests. A delegation of Yavapai testified to a Congressional Committee against this, and won. Today, the tribal community consists of 900 members, 600 of whom live on the reservation and the remaining 300 who live off the reservation. TheGuwevkabaya orSoutheastern Yavapai on Fort McDowell Reservation call themselvesA'ba:ja - "The People" therefore some anthropologists and linguists believe, that the nameApache for the variousSouthern Athabascan peoples derives from the self-designation of the Yavapai. The population of Fort McDowell consists of the Guwevkabaya Yavapai.[41]
Responding to growth in thePhoenix area, in the early 1970s Arizonan officials proposed to build adam at the point where theVerde andSalt rivers meet. The dam would have flooded two-thirds of the 24,000-acre (97 km2) reservation. In return, the members of the tribe (at the time consisting of 425 members) were offered homes and cash settlements. But in 1976, the tribe rejected the offer by a vote of 61%, claiming that the tribe would be effectively disbanded by the move. In 1981, after much petitioning of the US government, and a three-day march by approximately 100 Yavapai,[42] the plan to build the dam was withdrawn.[43]
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