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Khvarenah (also spelledkhwarenah orxwarra(h):Avestan:𐬓𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬥𐬀𐬵xᵛarənah) is anAvestan word for aZoroastrian concept literally denoting "glory" or "splendour" but understood as a divine mystical force or power projected upon and aiding the appointed. The neuter noun thus also connotes "(divine) royal glory", reflecting the perceived divine empowerment of kings. The term also carries a secondary meaning of "(good) fortune"; those who possess it are able to complete their mission or function.
In 3rd- to 7th-centurySassanid-era inscriptions as well as in the 9th- to 12th-century texts of Zoroastrian tradition, the word appears as ZoroastrianMiddle Persiankhwarrah, rendered with thePahlavi ideogramGDE, reflectingAramaicgada "fortune". Middle Persiankhwarrah continues asNew Persiank(h)orra. These variants, which are assumed to be learned borrowings from the Avestan, are the onlyIranian language forms with an initial 'xᵛ-'. In all other dialects, the word has an initialf- (see details underrelated terms, below).
Avestankhvarenah is probably[1] derived from Proto-Avestan*hvar "to shine", nominalized with the-nah suffix. Proto-Avestan*hvar is in turn related to Old Indicsvar with the same meaning, and together descending from Proto-Indo-Iranian*súHr̥ "to shine", ultimately fromProto-Indo-European*sóhr "to shine". Other proposals suggest a linguistic relationship with Avestanxᵛar- "to eat".
Of the numerousIranian languages in which the word is attested, the initialxᵛ- is evident only as Avestankhvar(e)nah and as ZoroastrianMiddle Persiankhwarrah, from whichNew Persiankhorra then derives. In other Iranian dialects the word has anf- form, for instance asMedian andOld Persianfarnah-, from which Middle- and New Persianfarr(ah) and adjectivalfarrokh derive. For many decades, thef- form was believed to represent a specific Median sound-law change of proto-Iranianxᵛ- tof-. The hypothesis has since been shown to be untenable, and the proto-Iranian form is today reconstructed as*hu̯,[2] preserved in Avestan asxᵛ- and dissimilated asf- in other Iranian dialects.
Pre-ChristianGeorgian kings of thePharnavazid dynasty were divinely assignedkxwarrah and its loss usually led to the monarch's imminent death or overthrow in Georgian kingship. Many of the monarchs had names based on this etymological root likePharnavaz,Pharnajom andPharasmanes.[3] The word was borrowed into theGeorgian language asp'ar[n].[4][5]
In the Iranian languages of the Middle Period, the word is also attested asBactrianfar(r)o,Khotanesepharra,Parthianfarh,Sogdianf(a)rn, andOsseticfarnæ andfarn, though in these languages the word does not necessarily signify "glory" or "fortune": InBuddhism, Sogdianfarn and Khotanesepharra signified a "position of a Buddha," that is, with "dignity" or "high position." This meaning subsequently passed intoTocharian. InManicheanism, Sogdianfrn signified "luck" and was a designator of the "first luminary". Manichean Parthianfarh again signifies "glory." InScytho-Sarmatian andAlan culture,Digor-Osseticfarnæ andIron-Osseticfarn signified "peace, happiness, abundance, fortune."
The term also appears as a borrowing inArmenianpʿarkʿ, but with a greater range of meaning than in Iranian languages.
Bisyllabickhvarenah is only attested once in theGathas, the oldest hymns of Zoroastrianism and considered to have been composed by the prophet himself. The one instance of Gathickhvarenah occurs inYasna 51.18, where the word appears to mean royal glory. The primary source of information onkhvarenah comes from theYashts, the youngerAvesta's collection of 21 hymns dedicated to individual divinities.
Two distinct forms ofkhvarenah are discernible inYasht 19:[6]
SimilarlyYasht 18, although nominally dedicated toArshtat, is a short 9-verse ode to a third variant ofkhvarenah; theIraniankhvarenah (airiianəm xᵛarənah) that is created byAhura Mazda and that is "full of milk and pastures," vanquishes thedaevas and theUn-Iranians.
Yasht 19, which is nominally dedicated toZam "Earth", further typifieskhvarenah as ayazata,[7] that is, itself "worthy of worship." The same hymn includes a list of divinities and mortals who perform their duties due to the power ofkhvarenah. Among these are the mythological Kayanian kings – thekavis (kauuis) – who are rulers through the grace of, and empowered by,khvarenah.
Khvarenah is however also glory held by divinities:Ahura Mazda has it (19.9-13), theAmesha Spentas have it (19.14-20), the otheryazatas as well (19.21-24).Yima loses it thrice, in turn toMithra,Thraetaona andKeresaspa.Khvarenah assumes the shape of a bird when leaving Yima. (19.35-36, 19.82)
According toYasht 13.14, the waters flow, the plants spring forth, and the winds blow through thekhvarenah of theFravashis. InYasna 68.11, the waters ofAredvi Sura are invoked to bestow radiance and glory.Khvarenah is also associated with the waters in other texts; with the world-sea Vourukasha inYasht 19.51 and 19.56-57; with the Helmand river inYasht 19.66ff. It is also identified withHaoma, together with which it plays a seminal role in the legend of the birth of Zoroaster. In these passages,khvarenah has a seminal and germinal implication, being both fiery fluid and living seed.
InYasna 60.2, the family priest is seen to request joy and blessings for the righteous, good nature, truth, prosperity, power, and glory for the house in which he offers prayers. The hymn to Mithra speaks of the divinity as the "dispenser ofkhvarenah" (Yasht 10.16, 10.128, 10.141). Other texts describe Mithra as "most endowed with glory" (Yasht 19.35,Vendidad 19.15).
InYasht 19.46,Akem Manah, the demon of "evil purpose" attempts (but fails) to seizekhvarenah. The Iraniankhvarenah andDahman, the hypostasis of prayer, renderBushyasta - the demoness of "sloth" – powerless (Yasht 10.97, 13.4).
At the final renovation of the world, the royal glory will follow theSaoshyants (Yasht 19.89).
In the 9th-12th century texts of Zoroastrian traditionkhvarenah (→Middle Persiankhwarrah) is a spiritual force that exists before the creation of thetan-gohr, the mortal body (Bundahishn II.7ff,Zadspram 3.75). In these later texts, the glory appears to be acquirable through learning and knowledge (Bundahishn II.9ff).
Khwarrah continues to be identified with astral bodies (Dadistan-i Denig I.25, I.35-36), but its primary function is in its role as the divine glory of kings, the continuation of the Avestan notion of thekavam khvarenah. New in tradition is an identification ofkhwarrah with religion, as in "the greatkhwarrah-bestowing force of the pure religion" (Dadistan-i Denig I.36)
TheKar-namag i Ardashir, a collection of hagiographic legends related toArdashir, the founder of theSassanid Empire, includes (4.11.16 and 4.11.22-23) a tale in which Ardashir – who at that point in the story is still a vassal of theArsacid Parthians – escapes from the court of the last Arsacid king,Ardavan. In the story, Ardashir makes off with much Ardavan's treasure, as well as Ardavan's favourite concubine, and is being chased by Ardavan and his troops. On the road, Ardavan and his contingent are overtaken by an enormous ram, which is also following Ardashir. Ardavan's religious advisors explain that the ram is the manifestation of thekhwarrah of the ancient Iranian kings, which is leaving Ardavan and the Parthians in favor of a new emperor.
The representation ofkhwarrah as a ram reappears on Sassanid seals and as an ornament in Sassanid architecture.Khwarrah also appears in Sassanian crowns as a bird with a pearl in its beak. Depictions ofkhwarrah as a bird are allusions to the Avestan myth ofYasht 19.35-36, 19.82 in whichkhvarenah takes the shape of a bird as it leavesYima (MP: Jamshid), a metamorphosis similar to that of the yazata of victory,Verethragna.[8] The crown as a repository ofkhwarrah is also attested in the Paikuli inscription of Narseh, which describes the punishment meted out to an individual who has been "driven byAhriman and thedevs" to stealkhwarrah by placing the crown on the head of a false ruler.[9] Another ubiquitous motif in Sassanian art is the symbol of a boar, which is a representation of the protection of theyazataVerethragna (MP: Wahram) given to rulers that holdkhwarrah.
The ring of kingship that appears in Sassanian investiture reliefs is often identified as representingkhwarrah.[10] This is also the case for the ring held by the bearded figure in the Achaemenid winged sun-disk symbol that is traditionally considered to represent afravashi (MP:fravahr). The Achaemenid winged sun-disk has in its entirety also been occasionally been interpreted as a representation ofkhvarenah.[10]
Thatkhwarrah – in addition to its significance as "royal fortune" – also signified "fortune" in a general sense is demonstrated by the use of anAramaic ideogramGDE in the Middle Persian texts of theSassanid and post-Sassanid periods.[11] The custom of using this Aramic ideogram to representkhvarenah is probably inherited from Achaemenid times.[11]
"The fundamental motif of Iranian kingship, a hereditary dynastic charisma [...], which, could however be lost, was at the root of ideas that were widespread in the Hellenistic and Roman periods."[11] For example, as thetyche basileos, fortuna regia, the saving grace (luck) of fortune of a king; and probably also the royalfarrah in thetyche of the various Hellenistic rulers of theSeleucid andArsacid periods as well as of theKushan kings.[11]
Because the concepts ofkhvarenah/khwarrah and Aramaicgd(y) circulated in the same areas and have many characteristics in common, it is possible that the Mesopotamian concept influenced the Zoroastrian one.[8] On the other hand,khvarenah may also be a facet of Zoroastrianism's Indo-Iranian cultural inheritance sincekhvarenah appears to have a parallel in Indictejas, in which kingship is likewise associated with the bright splendor and power of light and fire.[8]
The concept of the royalkhwarrah survived the 7th century downfall of theSassanid Empire, and remained a central motif (for instance as thefarr-e elahi) in the culture, philosophy and epics of Islamic Iran.[11]