TheWuhuan (simplified Chinese:乌桓;traditional Chinese:烏桓;pinyin:Wūhuán, <Eastern Han Chinese: *ʔɑ-ɣuɑn, <Old Chinese (c. 78 BC): *ʔâ-wân < *Awar[1]) were aProto-Mongolic[2][3] orpara-Mongolic[4]nomadic people who inhabitednorthern China, in what is now the provinces ofHebei,Liaoning,Shanxi, the municipality ofBeijing and the autonomous region ofInner Mongolia.
After theDonghu "Eastern Barbarians" were defeated by theXiongnu around 209 BC, they split into two groups. The northern Donghu became theXianbei while the southern Donghu living around modernLiaoning became the Wuhuan. According to theBook of the Later Han, "the language and culture of the Xianbei are the same as the Wuhuan".[5] Until 121 BC, the Wuhuan were a tributary of the Xiongnu empire. TheBook of the Later Han says: "From the time thatModu Chanyu crushed them the Wuhuan became weak. They were kept in constant subjugation to the Xiongnu and were forced to pay annual taxes of cow, horse and sheep skins. If anybody did not pay this tax his wife and children were taken from him."
In 121 BC, theHan dynasty generalHuo Qubing defeated the eastern wing of the Xiongnu. He then settled the Wuhuan in fivecommanderies (Shanggu,Yuyang,Youbeiping,Liaoxi andLiaodong) created on the northern Chinese border to keep watch on the Xiongnu. The chieftains of the Wuhuan paid annual visits to the Han capitalChang'an and were given rewards.
In 78 BC, the Wuhuan looted the tombs of the Xiongnu chanyus. The outraged Xiongnu rode east and defeated them.[6] Fan Minyou was sent with 20,000 men to aid the Wuhuan. However he arrived too late as the Xiongnu were out of his reach so he attacked the Wuhuan instead, defeated them and beheaded three of their kings.[7]
In 71 BC, the Wuhuan joined the Han, Dingling, and Wusun to defeat the Xiongnu.[6]
In 7 AD, the Han convinced the Wuhuan to stop sending tribute to the Xiongnu, who immediately attacked and defeated the Wuhuan.[8]
In 49, Hedan, the Wuhuan elder of the Liaoxi district, came to the Han court with 922 other chieftains and "paid tribute" toEmperor Guangwu of Han with slaves, cattle, horses, bows and tiger, leopard and sable skins.
In 58, the Xianbei chieftain Pianhe attacked and killed Xinzhiben, a Wuhuan leader causing trouble inYuyang Commandery.[9]
In 109, the Wuhuan joined the Xianbei in attackingWuyuan Commandery and defeated the local Han forces.[10]
In 168, the Wuhuan established some degree of independence under their own leaders. The largest of these groups were led by Nanlou in Shanggu,Qiuliju in Liaoxi, Supuyan in the Dependent State of Liaodong, and Wuyan in Youbeiping.[11]
In 187 Qiuliju joined the rebellion of Zhang Chun. Following the defeat of Zhang Chun in 188, Qiuliju attackedGongsun Zan but was defeated. In 190 he surrendered toLiu Yu and died in 193.[12] Qiuliju's sonLouban was too young to succeed him so his cousinTadun became acting guardian.[13] In 195 Tadun, Nanlou and Supuyan supportedYuan Shao against Gongsun Zan.[14][15] In 207 Tadun was defeated byCao Cao at theBattle of White Wolf Mountain and died in battle. Louban and Supuyan fled toGongsun Kang, who killed them.[13]
After their defeat, many of the Wuhuan surrendered to Cao Cao, who relocated a great number of them to theCentral Plains. The Wuhuan ofYoubeiping,Liaoxi andLiaodong commanderies also served as part of Cao Cao's elite cavalry forces.[15][14] Meanwhile, the Wuhuan ofDai Commandery were divided into three groups. Nengchendi and the chieftains of Dai continued to cause trouble until 218 whenCao Zhang destroyed the last remnants of their power for good.[16] In 237, the surviving Wuhuan that fled to Gongsun Kang surrendered to theCao Wei general,Guanqiu Jian during his campaign against Kang's son,Gongsun Yuan.
The Wuhuan gradually lost their cultural identity as they integrated into the Han Chinese and the Xianbei that filled the power vacuum they left behind. They continued to appear during theJin dynasty andSixteen Kingdoms period in the 4th century, but at this point, the word "Wuhuan" broadly referred to miscellaneoushu tribes with Donghu backgrounds. Under theDai and earlyNorthern Wei dynasty, "Wuhuan" was used to refer to migrants of any ethnicity living under the ruling Tuoba clan. TheTiefu andDugu tribes, who were a mix of the Xiongnu and Xianbei people, were also referred to as "Wuhuan".[17]
The Wuhuan families of the 4th century had adopted Han Chinese surnames such asWang,Zhang andLü, although non-Chinese surnames like Kunuguan (庫傉官) and Kezuhun (可足渾)[18] were also present.[19] They served as auxiliaries for the Jin during theWar of the Eight Princes andUpheaval of the Five Barbarians before becoming subjects of the Sixteen Kingdoms in the north. Many of the Wuhuan were also leaders of fortified settlements (wubao) and assisted theLater Yan dynasty in their restoration in the late 380s. By the late Northern Wei period, the Wuhuan had fully assimilated into the Chinese and Xianbei.[17]
Part of the Wuhuan also became known as theKumo Xi, or the Tatabi, who were ultimately absorbed by theKhitans in the 10th century, bringing an end to the Wuhuan name.
TheBook of the Later Han (Ch. 120) records:
The Wuhuan are skilled in mounted archery. They engage in hunting animals and birds. They nomadise from place to place in search of grass and water. Without permanent settlements they live in round yurts (穹廬 -qiónglú). The entrance of the yurt faces the sun (south). They eat meat and drinkkumiss (酪 -lào). They make clothes from fine wool (máocuì -毛毳). Youthfulness and strength are held in esteem among them while old age and weakness are not. They are brave and valorous by nature. In anger they kill each other but nobody harms mothers, because the continuation of their progeny depends on their mothers. Fathers and elder brothers on the other hand can create their own separate tribes, so the original tribe does not bear responsibility for them. Whoever is brave, strong and able to deal with contentious cases of litigation are chosen to be elders (大人 -dàren). The office of elder is not hereditary. Each nomadic community has its own small commander (帥 -shuài). A community is composed of a hundred to a thousand yurts. When an elder makes a proclamation they carve markings on wood (刻木為信 -kèmùwéixìn), even though they have no script, and none of the tribes dare to violate it.
| Wuhuan | |
|---|---|
| Awar | |
| Region | Inner Mongolia |
| Ethnicity | Wuhuan |
| Extinct | 3rd century CE[4] |
Serbi–Mongolic?
| |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | None (mis) |
| Glottolog | None |
Andrew Shimunek (2017) classifies the Wuhuan (or "Awar"/"Avar", per Shimunek's reconstruction) language as the most divergentpara-Mongolic language.[4]
The ancient Mongolian nomads – the Wuhuan and Xianbei – migrated in the late centuries BC – first centuries AD mainly in the territory ofInner Mongolia, as well as, partially, in the neighboring geographic areas.
Historical non-Han peoples in China | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ancient |
|  | ||||||||
| Medieval |
| |||||||||
| Early Modern |
| |||||||||
Authority control databases: National |
|---|