The Star ofRemphan, deemed an object of idolatrous worship bySaint Stephen.[1] Cropped “Delubrum Samaritanum”, emblem of the Samaritan cult. FromEgyptian Oedipus, byAthanasius Kircher, 1652.
Theworship of heavenly bodies is the veneration ofstars (individually or together as the night sky), the planets, or otherastronomical objects asdeities, or the association of deities with heavenly bodies. In anthropological literature these systems of practice may be referred to asastral cults.
The most notable instances of this aresun gods andmoon gods in polytheistic systems worldwide. Also notable are the associations of theplanets with deities inSumerian religion, and hence inBabylonian,Greek andRoman religion, viz.Mercury,Venus,Mars,Jupiter, andSaturn. Gods, goddesses, and demons may also be considered personifications of astronomical phenomena such as lunar eclipses, planetary alignments, and apparent interactions of planetary bodies with stars. TheSabians of Harran, a poorly understood pagan religion that existed inHarran during the early Islamic period (7th–10th century), were known for their astral cult.
Babylonian astronomy from early times associates stars with deities, but the identification of theheavens as the residence of an anthropomorphic pantheon, and later of monotheisticGod and his retinue of angels, is a later development, gradually replacing the notion of the pantheon residing or convening on the summit of high mountains.Archibald Sayce (1913) argues for a parallelism of the "stellar theology" of Babylon and Egypt, both countries absorbing popular star-worship into the official pantheon of their respective state religions by identification of gods with stars or planets.[4]
TheChaldeans, who came to be seen as the prototypical astrologers and star-worshippers by the Greeks, migrated into Mesopotamia c. 940–860 BCE.[5] Astral religion does not appear to have been common in theLevant prior to theIron Age, but becomes popular underAssyrian influence around the 7th-century BCE.[6] The Chaldeans gained ascendancy, rulingBabylonia from 608 to 557 BCE.[7] The Hebrew Bible was substantially composed during this period (roughly corresponding to the period of theBabylonian captivity).
Astral cults were probably an early feature of religion inancient Egypt.[8] Evidence suggests that the observation and veneration of celestial bodies played a significant role in Egyptian religious practices, even before the development of a dominant solar theology. The early Egyptians associated celestial phenomena with divine forces, seeing the stars and planets as embodiments of gods who influenced both the heavens and the earth.[9] Direct evidence for astral cults, seen alongside the dominantsolar theology which arose before theFifth Dynasty, is found in the Pyramid Texts.[10] These texts, among the oldest religious writings in the world, contain hymns and spells that not only emphasize the importance of the Sun God Ra but also refer to stars and constellations as powerful deities that guide and protect the deceased Pharaoh in the afterlife.[11]
The growth of Osiris devotion led to stars being called "followers" of Osiris.[12] They recognized five planets as"stars that know no rest", interpreted as gods who sailed across the sky inbarques: Sebegu (perhaps a form ofSet), Venus ("the one who crosses"), Mars ("Horus of the horizon"), Jupiter ("Horus who limits the two lands"), and Saturn ("Horus bull of the heavens").[12]
One of the most significant celestial deities in ancient Egyptian religion was the goddessSopdet, identified with the starSirius.[13] Sopdet's rising coincided with the annual flooding of the Nile, a crucial event that sustained Egyptian agriculture. The goddess was venerated as a harbinger of the inundation, marking the beginning of a new agricultural cycle and symbolizing fertility and renewal. This connection between Sopdet and the Nile flood underscores the profound link between celestial phenomena and earthly prosperity in ancient Egyptian culture. She was known to the Greeks asSothis. The significance of Sirius in Egyptian religion is further highlighted by its association with the goddess Isis during later periods, particularly in the Ptolemaic era, where Isis was often depicted as the star itself.[14]
Sopdet is the consort ofSah, the personifiedconstellation ofOrion near Sirius. Their childVenus[15] was the hawk godSopdu,[16] "Lord of the East".[17] As the bringer of the New Year and the Nile flood, she was associated withOsiris from an early date[16] and by thePtolemaic period Sah and Sopdet almost solely appeared in forms conflated with Osiris[18] andIsis.[19] Additionally, the alignment of architectural structures, such as pyramids and temples, with astronomical events reveals the deliberate integration of cosmological concepts into Egypt's built environment.[20] For example, the Great Pyramid of Giza is aligned with the cardinal points, and its descending passage is aligned with the star Thuban in the constellation Draco, which was the pole star at the time. This alignment likely served both symbolic and practical purposes, connecting the Pharaoh's eternal journey with the stars.[21]
Among the various religious groups which in the 9th and 10th centuries CE came to be identified with the mysterious Sabians mentioned in theQuran (sometimes also spelled 'Sabaeans' or 'Sabeans', but not to be confused with theSabaeans ofSouth Arabia),[22] at least two groups appear to have engaged in some kind of star worship.
By far the most famous of these two are theSabians of Harran, adherents of aHellenized Semiticpagan religion that had managed to survive during the earlyIslamic period in theUpper Mesopotamian city ofHarran.[23] They were described bySyriac Christianheresiographers as star worshippers.[24] Most of the scholars andcourtiers working for theAbbasid andBuyid dynasties inBaghdad during the ninth–eleventh centuries who were known as 'Sabians' were either members of this Harranian religion or descendants of such members, most notably the Harranian astronomers and mathematiciansThabit ibn Qurra (died 901) andal-Battani (died 929).[25] There has been some speculation on whether these Sabian families in Baghdad, on whom most of our information about the Harranian Sabians indirectly depends, may have practiced a different, more philosophically inspired variant of the original Harranian religion.[26] However, apart from the fact that it contains traces ofBabylonian andHellenistic religion, and that an important place was taken by planets (to whom ritualsacrifices were made), little is known about Harranian Sabianism.[27] They have been variously described by scholars as (neo)-Platonists,Hermeticists, orGnostics, but there is no firm evidence for any of these identifications.[28][a]
Apart from the Sabians of Harran, there were also various religious groups living in theMesopotamian Marshes who were called the 'Sabians of the Marshes' (Arabic:Ṣābiʾat al-baṭāʾiḥ).[29] Though this name has often been understood as a reference to theMandaeans, there was in fact at least one other religious group living in the marshlands of Southern Iraq.[30] This group still held on to a pagan belief related toBabylonian religion, in which Mesopotamian gods had already been venerated in the form of planets and stars since antiquity.[31] According toIbn al-Nadim, our only source for these star-worshipping 'Sabians of the Marshes', they "follow the doctrines of the ancient Aramaeans [ʿalā maḏāhiban-Nabaṭ al-qadīm] and venerate the stars".[32] However, there is also a large corpus of texts byIbn Wahshiyya (died c. 930), most famously hisNabataean Agriculture, which describes at length the customs and beliefs — many of them going back to Mespotamian models — of Iraqi Sabians living in theSawād.[33]
TheSanxing (Three Stars Gods) at a Chinese temple in Mongkok, Hong Kong
Heaven worship is aChinesereligious belief that predatesTaoism andConfucianism, but was later incorporated into both.Shangdi is the supreme unknowable god ofChinese folk religion. Over time, namely following the conquests of theZhou dynasty who worshippedTian (天 lit. "sky"), Shangdi became synonymous with Tian, or Heaven. During the Zhou dynasty, Tian not only became synonymous with the physical sky but also embodied the divine will, representing the moral order of the universe. This evolution marked a shift from the earlier concept of Shangdi to a more abstract and universal principle that guided both natural and human affairs.[34] In the Han dynasty the worship of Heaven would be highly ritualistic and require that the emperor hold official sacrifices and worship at an altar of Heaven, the most famous of which is theTemple of Heaven inBeijing.[35][36]
Heaven worship is closely linked withancestor veneration andpolytheism, as the ancestors and the gods are seen as a medium between Heaven and man. TheEmperor of China, also known as the "Son of Heaven", derived theMandate of Heaven, and thus his legitimacy as ruler, from his supposed ability to commune with Heaven on behalf of his nation.[37][38] This mandate was reinforced through celestial observations and rituals, as astrological phenomena were interpreted as omens reflecting the favor or disfavor of Heaven. The Emperor’s role was to perform the necessary rites to maintain harmony between Heaven and Earth, ensuring the prosperity of his reign.[39]
Star worship was widespread in Asia, especially in Mongolia[40] and northern China, and also spread to Korea.[41] According to Edward Schafer, star worship was already established during theHan dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), with theNine Imperial Gods becoming star lords.[42] The Big Dipper (Beidou) and the North Star (Polaris) were particularly significant in Chinese star worship. The Big Dipper was associated with cosmic order and governance, while the North Star was considered the throne of the celestial emperor. These stars played a crucial role in state rituals, where the Emperor’s ability to align these celestial forces with earthly governance was seen as essential to his legitimacy.[34] This star worship, along with indigenousshamanism andmedical practice, formed one of the original bases ofTaoism.[43] TheHeavenly Sovereign was identified with theBig Dipper and theNorth Star.[44] Worship of Heaven in the southern suburb of the capital was initiated in 31 BCE and firmly established in the first century CE (Western Han).[45]
During theTang dynasty,Chinese Buddhism adopted Taoist Big Dipper worship, borrowing various texts and rituals which were then modified to conform with Buddhist practices and doctrines. The integration of Big Dipper worship into Buddhist practices highlights the adaptability of star worship in China, where it was syncretized with various religious traditions over time.[34] The cult of the Big Dipper was eventually absorbed into the cults of various Buddhist divinities,Myōken being one of these.[47]
Star worship was also practiced in Japan.[48][49][50] Japanese star worship is largely based on Chinese cosmology.[51] According to Bernard Faure, "thecosmotheistic nature of esoteric Buddhism provided an easy bridge for cultural translation between Indian and Chinese cosmologies, on the one hand, and between Indian astrology and local Japanese folk beliefs about the stars, on the other".[51]
The cult of Myōken is thought to have been brought into Japan during the 7th century by immigrants (toraijin) fromGoguryeo andBaekje. During the reign ofEmperor Tenji (661–672), thetoraijin were resettled in the easternmost parts of the country; as a result, Myōken worship spread throughout the eastern provinces.[52]
By theHeian period,pole star worship had become widespread enough that imperial decrees banned it for the reason that it involved "mingling of men and women", and thus caused ritual impurity. Pole star worship was also forbidden among the inhabitants of the capital and nearby areas when the imperial princess (Saiō) made her way toIse to begin her service at the shrines. Nevertheless, the cult of the pole star left its mark on imperial rituals such as theemperor's enthronement and the worship ofthe imperial clan deity at Ise Shrine.[53] Worship of the pole star was also practiced inOnmyōdō, where it was deified asChintaku Reifujin (鎮宅霊符神).[54]
Myōken worship was particularly prevalent among clans based in eastern Japan (the modernKantō andTōhoku regions), with theKanmuTaira clan (Kanmu Heishi) and their offshoots such as theChiba and theSōma clans being among the deity's notable devotees. One legend claims thatTaira no Masakado was a devotee of Myōken, who aided him in his military exploits. When Masakado grew proud and arrogant, the deity withdrew his favor and instead aided Masakado's uncleYoshifumi, the ancestor of the Chiba clan.[55] Owing to his status as the Chiba clan'sujigami (guardian deity), temples and shrines dedicated to Myōken are particularly numerous in former Chiba territories.[56] Myōken worship is also prevalent in manyNichiren-shū Buddhist temples due to the clan's connections with the school'sNakayama lineage.[57]
Heavenly bodies held spiritual wisdom. ThePleiades, revered in various cultures, symbolized diverse concepts such asagricultural cycles andancestral spirits.[61] In North America, star worship was practiced by theLakota people[62][63][64] and theWichita people.[65] The Inca civilization engaged in star worship,[66] and associated constellations with deities and forces, while theMilky Way represented a bridge between earthly and divine realms.[60]
Indigenous American cultures encapsulate a holistic worldview that acknowledges the interplay of humanity, nature, and the cosmos.Oral traditions transmitted cosmic stories, infusing mythologies, songs, and ceremonies with cosmic significance.[61] These narratives emphasized the belief that the celestial realm offered insights into origins and purpose.[58]
Gnosticism largely relies on Greek and Persian dualism, especially onPlatonism. In accordance with Platonism, they regarded theidea as good while considering the material and conscious world to be inherently evil.[67] The demonized star-deities of late Persian religion became associated with a demon, thus identifying the seven observable planets with anArchon (demonic ruler).[67] These demons rule over the earth and the realm of planets, representing different desires and passions.[68] According toOrigen, theOphites depicted the world as surrounded by the demonicLeviathan.[68]
The termdaimons was used for demons and refers to both the Archons as well as to their demonic assistants.Judas Iscariot is, in theGospel of Judas, portrayed as the thirteenthdaimon for betraying Jesus and a supporter of the Archons.[69]
Examples of Gnostic portrayals of demons can be found in theApocryphon of John in which they are said to have helped to construct the physicalAdam[70] and inPistis Sophia which states they are ruled over byHekate and punish corrupt souls.[71]
TheHebrew Bible contains repeated reference denouncing astrolatry.Deuteronomy 4:19, 17:3 contains a stern warning against worshipping the Sun, Moon, stars or any of theheavenly host. Relapse into worshipping the host of heaven (i.e. the stars) is said to have been the cause of the fall of theKingdom of Judah inII Kings 17:16. KingJosiah in 621 BCE is recorded as having abolished all kinds ofidolatry in Judah, but astrolatry continued in private (Zephaniah 1:5;Jeremiah 8:2, 19:13).Ezekiel 8:16 describes sun-worship practised in the court of theTemple of Jerusalem, andJeremiah 44:17 says that even after the destruction of the Temple, women in particular insisted on continuing their worship of the"Queen of Heaven".[72]
Views on stars (abāxtarān) are thus mixed. On one hand, they are regarded as light particles of the world soul fixed in the sky. On the other hand, stars are identified with powers hindering the soul from leaving the material world.[73] TheThird Messenger (Jesus) is said to have chained up demons in the sky. Their offspring, thenephilim (nĕf īlīm) orasrestar (āsarēštārān),Ašqalūn andNebrō'ēl in particular, play instrumental roles in the creation of Adam and Eve.[73] According to Manichaeism, the Watchers, known as angels in Jewish lore, are not considered angels but demons.[73]
Astrolatry is mentioned in theQuran, in the context of the prophetIbrahim (Abraham)'s observation of celestial bodies inSurat al-An'am. Scholarly analysis of Islamic beliefs underscores the unequivocal monotheism emphasized in the Quran andHadith literature.[75] The Qur'an repeatedly emphasizes the singular nature ofGod and denounces the attribution of divinity to any other entities, celestial or terrestrial.[76] This monotheistic stance is deeply ingrained within Islamic theology and is extensively discussed in academic works on Islamic belief systems.[77]
Muhammad's teachings, as documented in Hadith literature, reflect his commitment to monotheism and opposition toidolatry.[78] Academic studies in Islamic theology and comparative religion affirm the contrast between Islamic monotheism and the practice of astrolatry.[79] Islamic scholars and researchers underline that the focus of Islamic spirituality remains centered on the worship of God alone, with no association of divinity to any created entities, including celestial bodies.[80]
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