Thewood industry ortimber industry (sometimeslumber industry -- when referring mainly to sawed boards) is theindustry concerned withforestry,logging,timber trade, and the production of primaryforest products andwood products (e.g. furniture) and secondary products likewood pulp for thepulp and paper industry. Some of the largest producers are also among the biggest owners offorest. The wood industry has historically been and continues to be an important sector in many economies.
In the narrow sense of the terms, wood, forest, forestry and timber/lumber industry appear to point to different sectors, in the industrialized,internationalized world, there is a tendency toward huge integrated businesses that cover the complete spectrum fromsilviculture and forestry in privateprimary orsecondary forests orplantations via the logging process up towood processing andtrading and transport (e.g.timber rafting,forest railways,logging roads).[citation needed]
Processing and products differs especially with regard to the distinction betweensoftwood andhardwood.[1][2][3][4][5] While softwood primarily goes into the production of wood fuel and pulp and paper, hardwood is used mainly for furniture,floors, etc.. Both types can be of use for building and (residential) construction purposes (e.g.log houses,log cabins,timber framing).[citation needed]
Lumber andwood products, includingtimber for framing,plywood, andwoodworking, are created in the wood industry from the trunks and branches oftrees through several processes, commencing with the selection of appropriate logging sites and concluding with the milling and treatment processes of the harvested material. In order to determine which logging sites and milling sites are responsibly producing environmental, social and economic benefits, they must be certified under the Forest Stewardship Council Forests For All Forever (FSC) Certification that ensures these qualities.[6]
Mature trees are harvested from both plantations and native forests. Trees harvested at a younger age produce smaller logs, and these can be turned into lower-value products. Factors such as location, climate conditions, species, growth rate, andsilviculture can affect the size of a mature tree.[7]
The native hardwood saw-milling industry originally consisted of small family-owned mills, but has recently changed to include a small number of larger mills. Mills produce large volumes of material and aim to ensure delivery of a high quality standard of product. Their goal is to do this efficiently and safely, at low cost, with rapid production time and high output.[7]
Once the timber has been manipulated in the required fashion, it can be shipped out for usage. There are many different purposes for wood includingplywood, veneer, pulp,paper, particleboard, pallets, craft items, toys, instrument-making, furniture production, packing cases, wine barrels, cardboard, firewood, garden mulch, fibre adhesives, packaging and pet litter. Western Australia has a unique substance called ‘biochar’, which is made fromjarrah andpine and sometimes fromcrop andforestry residues, along with the former materials. Biochar can be used to manufacturesilicone and as a soil additive.
Softwoods, such as the Australianeucalyptus, are highly valued, a are used mainly forconstruction,paper making, andcladding. The term 'round wood' describes all the wood removed from forests in log form and used for purposes other than fuel. Wood manufacturing residues, such as sawdust and chippings, are collectively known as "pulp".[7] TheUnited States industrial production index hit a 13-year high during the COVID-19 pandemic, according to a report from the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.[8][9]
Originally, trees were felled from native forests using axes and hand-heldcross-cut saws – a slow process involving significant manual labor. Since sawmills were traditionally located within forests, milled timber had to be transported over long distances via rough terrain or waterways to reach its destination. Logs were later transported via train and tram lines, first by steam-powered log haulers then bysteam-powered locomotives, and finally diesel and petrol-powered locomotives. Even in the modern era, timber is dried inkilns. When thefirst steam railway in Australia opened in Melbourne in 1854, timber transportation changed dramatically. Trains made the transportation of lumber quicker and more affordable, making it possible for the Australian sawmill industry to move inland.[7]
Wood is transported by a variety of methods, typically by road vehicle andlog driving over shorter distances. For longer journeys, wood is transported by sea on timber carriers, subject to theIMO TDC Code.[10]
As of 2019, the toptimberland owners in the US were structured asreal-estate investment trusts and include:[11]
In 2008 the largest lumber and wood producers in the US were[12]
As these companies are often publicly traded, their ultimate owners are a diversified group of investors. There are also timber-orientedreal-estate investment trusts.
According to sawmilldatabase, the world top producers of sawn wood in 2007 were:[14]
| Company | Production or Capacity in m3/yr |
|---|---|
| West Fraser Timber Co Ltd | 8,460,000 |
| Canfor | 6,900,000 |
| Weyerhaeuser | 6,449,000 |
| Stora Enso | 4,646,000 |
| Georgia Pacific | 4,300,000 |
| Resolute Forest Products | 3,760,000 |
| Interfor | 3,550,000 |
| Sierra Pacific Industries | 3,200,000 |
| Hampton Affiliates[15] | 3,100,000 |
| Arauco | 2,800,000 |
| Tolko Industries Ltd | 2,500,000 |
| Pfeifer Group[16] | 2,200,000 |
Workers within the forestry and logging industry sub-sector fall within the agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting (AFFH) industry sector as characterized by theNorth American Industry Classification System (NAICS).[17] TheNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has taken a closer look at the AFFH industry's noise exposures and prevalence of hearing loss. While the overall industry sector had a prevalence of hearing loss lower than the overall prevalence of noise-exposed industries (15% v. 19%), workers within forestry and logging exceeded 21%.[18] Thirty-six percent of workers within forest nurseries and gathering of forest products, a sub-sector within forestry and logging, experienced hearing loss, the most of any AFFH sub-sector. Workers within forest nurseries and gathering of forest products are tasked with growing trees forreforestation and gathering products such asrhizomes and barks. Comparatively, non-noise-exposed workers have only a 7% prevalence of hearing loss.[19]
Worker noise exposures in the forestry and logging industry have been found to be up to 102 dBA.[20] NIOSH recommends that a worker have an 8-hour time-weighted average of noise exposure of 85 dBA.[21] Excessive noise puts workers at an increased risk of developing hearing loss. If a worker were to develop a hearing loss as a result of occupational noise exposures, it would be classified asoccupational hearing loss. Noise exposures within the forestry and logging industry can be reduced by enclosing engines and heavy equipment, installing mufflers and silencers, and performing routine maintenance on equipment.[20] Noise exposures can also be reduced through thehierarchy of hazard controls where removal or replacement of noisy equipment serves as the best method of noise reduction.[citation needed]
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TheBureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) has found that fatalities of forestry and logging workers have increased from 2013 to 2016, up from 81 to 106 per year. In 2016, there were 3.6 cases of injury and illness per 100 workers within this industry.[22]
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Illegal logging is the harvest, transportation, purchase, or sale oftimber in violation oflaws. The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including using corrupt means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission, or from a protected area; the cutting down ofprotected species; or the extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits. Illegal logging is a driving force for a number of environmental issues such asdeforestation,soil erosion andbiodiversity loss which can drive larger-scale environmental crises such asclimate change and other forms ofenvironmental degradation.
Illegality may also occur during transport, such as illegal processing and export (throughfraudulent declaration to customs); theavoidance of taxes and other charges, and fraudulent certification.[23] These acts are often referred to as "wood laundering".[24]
Illegal logging is driven by a number of economic forces, such as demand for raw materials,land grabbing and demand forpasture for cattle. Regulation and prevention can happen at both the supply side, with better enforcement of environmental protections, and at the demand side, such as an increasing regulation of trade as part of the internationallumber industry.The existence of awood economy, or more broadly, aforest economy (in many countries abamboo economy predominates), is a prominent matter in manydeveloping countries as well as in many other nations with a temperate climate and especially in those withlow temperatures. These are generally the countries with greater forested areas so conditions allow for development of localforestry to harvest wood for local uses. The uses of wood in furniture, buildings, bridges, and as a source of energy are widely known. Additionally, wood from trees andbushes, can be used in a variety of products, such aswood pulp,cellulose in paper,celluloid in early photographic film,cellophane, andrayon (a substitute for silk).[citation needed]
At the end of their normal usage, wood products can be burnt to obtainthermal energy or can be used as afertilizer. The potential environmental damage that a wood economy could occasion include a reduction ofbiodiversity due tomonocultureforestry (the intensive cultivation of very few trees types); and CO2 emissions. However, forests can aid in the reduction of atmosphericcarbon dioxide and thuslimit climate change.[25]
Paper is today the most used wood product.[citation needed]
The wood economy was the starting point of thecivilizations worldwide, since eras preceding thePaleolithic[clarification needed] and theNeolithic. It necessarily precededages of metals by many millennia, as the melting of metals was possible only through the discovery of techniques to light fire (usually obtained by the scraping of two very dry wooden rods) and the building of manysimple machines and rudimentary tools, as canes, club handles,bows,arrows,lances. One of the most ancient handmade articles ever found is a polished wooden spear tip (Clacton Spear) 250,000 years old (third interglacial period), that was buried under sediments in England, atClacton-on-Sea.[26][27]
The main source of the lumber used in the world is forests, which can be classified asvirgin,semivirgin andplantations. Much timber is removed forfirewood by local populations in many countries, especially in thethird world, but this amount can only be estimated, with wide margins of uncertainty.[citation needed]
In 1998, the worldwide production of "Roundwood" (officially counted wood not used as firewood), was about 1,500,000,000 cubic metres (2.0×109 cu yd), amounting to around 45% of the wood cultivated in the world. Cut logs and branches destined to become elements for building construction accounted for approximately 55% of the world's industrialwood production. 25% becamewood pulp (including wood powder and broccoli) mainly destined for the production of paper andpaperboard, and approximately 20% became panels inplywood and valuable wood for furniture and objects of common use (FAO 1998).[28]
By 2001 therainforest areas of Brazil werereduced by a fifth (respect of 1970), to around 4,000,000 km2; the ground cleared was mainly destined for cattlepasture—Brazil is the world's largest exporter of beef with almost 200,000,000 head of cattle.[29] The booming Brazilianethanol economy based uponsugar cane cultivation, is likewise reducing forests area. Canadian forest was reduced by almost 30% to 3,101,340 km2 over the same period.[30]
Regarding the problem of climate change, it is known that burning forests increase CO2 in the atmosphere, while intact virgin forest or plantations act as sinks for CO2, for these reasons wood economy fightsgreenhouse effect. The amount of CO2 absorbed depends on the type of trees, lands and the climate of the place where trees naturally grow or are planted. Moreover, by night plants do notphotosynthesize, and produce CO2, eliminated the successive day. Paradoxically in summeroxygen created by photosynthesis in forests near to cities and urban parks, interacts with urban air pollution (from cars, etc.) and is transformed by solar beams inozone (molecule of three oxygen atoms), that while in high atmosphere constitutes a filter againstultraviolet beams, in the low atmosphere is a pollutant, able to provoke respiratory disturbances.[31][32]
In alow-carbon economy, forestry operations will be focused on low-impact practices and regrowth. Forest managers will make sure that they do not disturb soil-based carbon reserves too much. Specialized tree farms will be the main source of material for many products. Quick maturing tree varieties will be grown on short rotations to maximize output.[33]
Brazil has a long tradition in the harvesting of several types of trees with specific uses. Since the 1960s, imported species of pine tree and eucalyptus have been grown mostly for theplywood andpaper pulp industries. Currently high-level research is being conducted, to apply the enzymes ofsugar cane fermentation to cellulose in wood, to obtainmethanol, but the cost is much higher when compared with ethanol derived fromcorn costs.[34]
There is a close relation in the forestry economy between these countries; they have many tree genera in common, and Canada is the main producer of wood and wooden items destined to the US, the biggest consumer of wood and its byproducts in the world. The water systems of theGreat Lakes,Erie Canal,Hudson River andSaint Lawrence Seaway to the east coast and theMississippi River to the central plains andLouisiana allows transportation of logs at very low costs. On thewest coast, the basin of theColumbia River has plenty of forests with excellent timber.[citation needed]
The agency Canada Wood Council calculates that in the year 2005 in Canada, the forest sector employed 930,000 workers (1 job in every 17), making around $108 billion of value in goods and services. For many years products derived from trees in Canadian forests had been the most important export items of the country. In 2011, exports around the world totaled some $64.3 billion – the single largest contributor to Canadian trade balance.[30][36][better source needed]
Canada is the world leader insustainable forest management practices. Only 120,000,000 hectares (1,200,000 km2; 463,320 sq mi) (28% of Canadian forests) are currently managed for timber production while an estimated 32,000,000 hectares (320,000 km2; 123,550 sq mi) are protected from harvesting by the current legislation.[37][better source needed]
The Canadian timber industry has led toenvironmental conflict withIndigenous people protecting their land from logging. For example, theAsubpeeschoseewagong First Nation set up theGrassy Narrows road blockade for twenty years beginning in 2002 to prevent clearcutting of their land.[38][39]
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Wood obtained fromNigeria's wood industry undergoes processing in various wood processing sectors, including furniture manufacturing, sawmill operations, plywood mills, pulp and paper facilities, and particleboard mills. As of 2010, workers are typically not given any safety training.[47]
Poplar: in Italy is the most important species for tree plantations, is used for several purposes asplywood manufacture, packing boxes, paper,matches, etc. It needs good quality grounds with good drainage, but can be used to protect the cultivations if disposed inwindbreak lines. More than 70% of Italian poplar cultivations are located in thepianura Padana. Constantly the extension of the cultivation is being reduced, from 650 km2 in the 1980s to current 350 km2. The yield of poplars is about 1,500 t/km2 of wood every year.[48] The production from poplars is around 45–50% of the total Italian wood production.[49]
In Sweden, Finland and to an extent Norway, much of the land area is forested, and the pulp and paper industry is one of the most significant industrial sectors. Chemical pulping produces an excess of energy, since the organic matter inblack liquor, mostlylignin andhemicellulose breakdown products, is burned in therecovery boiler. Thus, these countries have high proportions of renewable energy use (25% in Finland, for instance). Considerable effort is directed towards increasing the value and usage of forest products by companies and by government projects.[citation needed]
Aforest product is any material derived fromforestry for direct consumption or commercial use, such aslumber,paper, orfodder forlivestock.Wood, by far the dominantproduct offorests, is used for many purposes, such aswood fuel (e.g. in form offirewood orcharcoal) or the finished structural materials used for theconstruction ofbuildings, or as a raw material, in the form ofwood pulp, that is used in the production ofpaper. All other non-wood products derived from forest resources, comprising a broad variety of other forest products, are collectively described asnon-timber forest products (NTFP).[52][53][54] Non-timber forest products are viewed to have fewer negative effects on forest ecosystem when providing income sources for local community.[55]
Globally, about 1,150,000,000 ha (2.8×109 acres) of forest is managed primarily for theproduction of wood and non-wood forest products. In addition, 749,000,000 ha (1.85×109 acres) is designated for multiple use, which often includes production.[56]
Worldwide, the area of forest designated primarily for production has been relatively stable since 1990, but the area of multiple-use forest has decreased by about 71,000,000 ha (180,000,000 acres).[56]
In 2023, the global export value of wood and paper products reached USD 482 billion. Industrial rundwood removals amounted to 1.92 billion cubic meters. Global sawnwood production totaled 445 million cubic meters.[57]
Combustion of wood is linked to the production of micro-environmental pollutants, ascarbon dioxide (CO2),carbon monoxide (CO) (an invisible gas able to provoke irreversible saturation of blood'shemoglobine), as well asnanoparticles.[58]
Charcoal is the dark grey residue consisting of impurecarbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slowpyrolysis, the heating of wood or other substances in the absence ofoxygen. Charcoal can then be used as a fuel with a higher combustion temperature.[citation needed]
Wood gas generator (gasogen): is a bulky and heavy device (but technically simple) that transforms burning wood in a mix of molecularhydrogen (H2),carbon monoxide (CO),carbon dioxide (CO2), molecularnitrogen (N2) and water vapor (H2O). This gas mixture, known as "wood gas", "poor gas" or "syngas" is obtained after thecombustion of dry wood in areductive environment (low inoxygen) with a limited amount of atmospheric air, at temperatures of 900 °C, and can fuel aninternal combustion engine.[59]
Wood is relatively light in weight, because itsspecific weight is less than 500 kg/m3, this is an advantage, when compared against 2,000–2,500 kg/m3 forreinforced concrete or 7,800 kg/m3 for steel.[citation needed]
Wood is strong, because the efficiency of wood for structural purposes has qualities that are similar to steel.[citation needed]
| Material | E/f | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Concrete | (Rck300, fck 25M-Pascal) | 1250 | |
| Structural steel | Fe430 (ft = 430 MPa) | 480 | |
| Glued laminated timber | (BS 11 ÷ BS 18) | 470 | |
| Aluminium | (alloy 7020, ft 355 MPa) | 200 |
Wood is used to build bridges (as theMagere bridge in Amsterdam), as well as water and air mills, andmicrohydro generators for electricity.[citation needed]
Hardwood is used as a material inwooden houses, and other structures with a broad range of dimensions. In traditional homes wood is preferred for ceilings,doors,floorings andwindows. Woodenframes were traditionally used for home ceilings, but they risk collapse during fires.[citation needed]
The development ofenergy efficient houses including the "passive house" has revamped the importance of wood in construction, because wood provides acoustic and thermalinsulation, with much better results than concrete.[citation needed]
In Japan, ancient buildings, of relatively high elevation, likepagodas, historically had shown to be able to resist earthquakes of highintensity, thanks to the traditional building techniques, employing elasticjoints, and to the excellent ability of wooden frames to elastically deform and absorb severeaccelerations andcompressive shocks.[citation needed]
In 2006, Italian scientists fromCNR patented[60] a building system that they called "SOFIE",[61] a seven-storey wooden building, 24 meters high, built by the "Istituto per la valorizzazione del legno e delle specie arboree" (Ivalsa) ofSan Michele all'Adige. In 2007 it was tested with the hardest Japaneseantiseismic test for civil structures: the simulation ofKobe's earthquake (7.2Richter scale), with the building placed over an enormous oscillating platform belonging to the NIED-Institute, located inTsukuba science park, near the city ofMiki in Japan. This Italian project, employed very thin and flexible panels inglued laminated timber, and according to CNR researchers could lead to the construction of much more safe houses in seismic areas.[62]
One of the most enduring materials is the lumber fromvirginiansouthern live oak andwhite oak, specially live oak is 60% stronger than white oak and more resistant to moisture. As an example, the main component in the structure of battle shipUSS Constitution, the world's oldest commissioned naval vessel afloat (launched in 1797) is white oak.[63]
Woodworking
Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making (cabinetry and furniture),wood carving,joinery, carpentry, andwoodturning. Millions of people make a livelihood on woodworking projects.[citation needed]
Most of the laundering was reportedly done through the creation of fake or inflated creditos florestais, a document that defines how much timber a landowner is entitled to extract from his property.
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