Personal seal of Sir William Wallace, found on a letter written on 11 October 1297, to the mayor of Lübeck, Germany
William Wallace was a member of the lesser nobility, but little is definitely known of his family history or even his parentage. William's ownseal, found on a letter sent to theHanse city ofLübeck in 1297,[5] gives his father's name as Alan Wallace.[6][7] This Alan Wallace may be the same as the one listed in the 1296Ragman Rolls as a crown tenant inAyrshire, but there is no additional confirmation.[8] Others have speculated this Alan held Ellerslie, nearKilmarnock, Ayrshire, and if true, the estate could be a possible birthplace for William,[9] though there is no record of Wallaces holding the estate in the mid-13th century.Blind Harry's late-15th-century poem offers an alternate father for William, a Sir Malcolm ofElderslie, inRenfrewshire, and has similarly given rise to a possible birthplace for William.[10][11] There is no contemporary evidence linking him with either location, although both areas had connections with the wider Wallace family.[12] Records show early members of the family as holding estates atRiccarton,Tarbolton,Auchincruive inKyle andStenton inEast Lothian.[13] They werevassals ofJames Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland, as their lands fell within his territory. It has been claimed that Wallace's brothers Malcolm and John are known from other sources, but there is a lack of verifiable evidence for John's relationship with William.[14]
The origins of theWallace surname and its association with southwest Scotland are also far from certain, other than the name's being derived from theOld Englishwylisc (pronounced'wullish'), meaning'foreigner' or'Welshman'.[15] It is possible that all the Wallaces in theClyde area were medieval immigrants fromWales, but, as the term was also used for the Cumbric-speakingStrathclyde kingdom of theCeltic Britons, it seems equally likely that the surname refers to people who were seen as being "Welsh" due to theirCumbric language.[16][17]
When Wallace was growing up,King Alexander III ruled Scotland. His reign had seen a period of peace and economic stability. On 19 March 1286, however, Alexander died after falling from his horse.[18][19] The heir to the throne was Alexander's granddaughter,Margaret, Maid of Norway. As she was still a child and in Norway, the Scottish lords set up a government of guardians. Margaret fell ill on the voyage to Scotland and died in Orkney in late September 1290.[20] The lack of a clear heir led to a period known as the "Great Cause", with a total of thirteen contenders laying claim to the throne. The most credible claims wereJohn Balliol andRobert Bruce, grandfather of the future monarch,Robert the Bruce.[21]
With Scotland threatening to descend into civil war,King Edward I of England was invited in by the Scottish nobility to arbitrate. Before the process could begin, he insisted that all of the contenders recognise him asLord Paramount of Scotland. In early November 1292, at a great feudal court held in the castle atBerwick-upon-Tweed, judgment was given in favour ofJohn Balliol having the strongest claim in law based on being senior in genealogicalprimogeniture even though not inproximity of blood.[22]
Edward proceeded to take steps to progressively undermine John's authority, treatingScotland as a feudal vassal state, demandinghomage be paid towards himself and military support in his war against France—even summoning King John Balliol to stand before the English court as a common plaintiff. The Scots soon tired of their deeply compromised king, and the direction of affairs was allegedly taken out of his hands by the leading men of the kingdom, who appointed a Council of Twelve—in practice, a new panel of Guardians—atStirling in July 1295. They went on to conclude a treaty of mutual assistance with France—known in later years as theAuld Alliance.[23]
In retaliation for Scotland's treaty with France, Edward I invaded, storming Berwick-upon-Tweed and commencing theWars of Scottish Independence. The Scots were defeated atDunbar and the English tookDunbar Castle on 27 April 1296.[24] Edward forced John to abdicate, which he did atStracathro nearMontrose on 10 July 1296.[25] Here the arms of Scotland were formally torn from John's surcoat, giving him the abiding name of "Toom Tabard" (empty coat). By July, Edward had instructed his officers to receive formal homage from some 1,800 Scottish nobles (many of the rest being prisoners of war at that time).[26]
Silent years prior to the Wars of Independence
Some historians[who?] believe Wallace must have had some earlier military experience in order to lead a successful military campaign in 1297. Campaigns like Edward I of England's wars in Wales might have provided a good opportunity for a younger son of a landholder to become amercenary soldier.[27][page needed] Wallace's personal seal bears the archer's insignia,[28] so he may have fought as an archer in Edward's army.
Walter Bower's mid-15th-centuryScotichronicon, states that Wallace was "a tall man with the body of a giant ... with lengthy flanks ... broad in the hips, with strong arms and legs ... with all his limbs very strong and firm".[29]Blind Harry's late 15th-century poemThe Wallace, asserts Wallace was seven feet tall, though the historical accuracy of this claim is questionable.[30]
The first act definitely known to have been carried out by Wallace was hiskilling of William de Heselrig, the English High Sheriff of Lanark, in May 1297. He then joined withWilliam the Hardy, Lord of Douglas, and they carried out theraid of Scone. This was one of several rebellions taking place across Scotland, including those of several Scottish nobles andAndrew Moray in the north.[31]
The uprising suffered a blow when the nobles submitted to the English atIrvine in July. Wallace and Moray were not involved and continued their rebellions. Wallace used theEttrick Forest as a base for raiding and attackedWishart's palace atAncrum. Wallace and Moray met and joined their forces, possibly at the siege of Dundee in early September.[32]
On 11 September 1297, an army jointly led by Wallace andAndrew Moray won theBattle of Stirling Bridge. Although vastly outnumbered, the Scottish army routed the English army.The 6th Earl of Surrey's feudal army of 3,000 cavalry and 8,000 to 10,000 infantry met disaster as they crossed over to the north side of the river. The narrowness of the bridge prevented many soldiers from crossing together (possibly as few as three men abreast), so, while the English soldiers crossed, the Scots held back until half of them had passed and then killed the English as quickly as they could cross.[33] The infantry were sent on first, followed by heavy cavalry. The Scots'schiltron formations forced the infantry back into the advancing cavalry. A pivotal charge, led by one of Wallace's captains, caused some of the English soldiers to retreat as others pushed forward, and under the overwhelming weight, the bridge collapsed, and many English soldiers drowned. Thus, the Scots won a significant victory, boosting the confidence of their army.Hugh de Cressingham, Edward's treasurer in Scotland, died in the fighting and it is reputed that his body was subsequentlyflayed, and the skin cut into small pieces as tokens of the victory. The Lanercost Chronicle records that Wallace had "a broad strip [of Cressingham's skin] ... taken from the head to the heel, to make therewith abaldrick for his sword".[34][35]
After the battle, Moray and Wallace assumed the title of Guardians of the Kingdom of Scotland on behalf of KingJohn Balliol. Moray died of wounds suffered on the battlefield sometime in late 1297.[35]
Wallace soon mounted an invasion of northern England, crossing intoNorthumberland. The Scots army followed the English army fleeing south. Caught between two armies, hundreds of refugees fled to safety behind the walls ofNewcastle. The Scots laid waste a swathe of countryside before turning west intoCumberland and pillaging all the way toCockermouth, before Wallace led his men back into Northumberland and fired 700 villages. Wallace then returned from England laden with booty.[4]
In April 1298, Edward ordered a second invasion of Scotland. Two days prior to the battle 25,781foot soldiers were paid. More than half of them would have been Welsh. There are no clear cut sources for the presence of cavalry, but it is safe to assume that Edward had roughly 1,500 horse under his command.[40] They plunderedLothian and regained some castles, but failed to bring William Wallace to combat; the Scots shadowed the English army, intending to avoid battle until shortages of supplies and money forced Edward to withdraw, at which point the Scots would harass his retreat. The Englishquartermasters' failure to prepare for the expedition left morale and food supplies low, and a resulting riot within Edward's own army had to be put down by his cavalry. In July, while planning a return toEdinburgh for supplies, Edward received intelligence that the Scots were encamped nearby at Falkirk, and he moved quickly to engage them in thepitched battle for which he had long hoped.[41][42]
Wallace arranged his spearmen in fourschiltrons—circular, defensive hedgehog formations, probably surrounded by wooden stakes connected with ropes, to keep theinfantry in formation. The English, however, employed Welshlongbowmen, who swung tactical superiority in their favour. The English proceeded to attack with cavalry and put the Scottish archers to flight. The Scottish cavalry withdrew as well, due to its inferiority to the English heavy horses. Edward's men began to attack the schiltrons, which were still able to inflict heavy casualties on the English cavalry. It remains unclear whether the infantry shooting bolts, arrows and stones at the spearmen proved the deciding factor, although it is very likely that it was the arrows of Edward's bowmen. Gaps in the schiltrons soon appeared, and the English exploited these to crush the remaining resistance. The Scots lost many men, includingJohn de Graham. Wallace escaped, though his military reputation suffered badly.[41][42]
By September 1298, Wallace resigned as Guardian of Scotland in favour ofRobert the Bruce, Earl of Carrick and future king, andJohn Comyn, King John Balliol's nephew.[43][42]
Details of Wallace's activities after this are vague, but there is some evidence that he left on a mission to the court of KingPhilip IV of France to plead the case for assistance in the Scottish struggle for independence. There is a surviving letter from the French king dated 7 November 1300 to his envoys in Rome demanding that they should help Sir William.[44] It also suggests that Wallace intended to travel to Rome, although it is not known if he did.[45] There is also a report from an English spy at a meeting of Scottish leaders, where they said Wallace was in France.[46]
By 1304 Wallace was back in Scotland and involved in skirmishes atHapprew andEarnside.[42]
Capture and execution
Wallace's trial in Westminster Hall. Painting byDaniel Maclise.
Wallace evaded capture by the English until 5 August 1305, whenJohn de Menteith, a Scottish knight loyal to Edward, turned Wallace over to English soldiers at Robroyston, near Glasgow, a site commemorated by a small monument in the form of a Celtic cross.[47] Letters ofsafe conduct fromHaakon V of Norway,Philip IV of France andJohn Balliol, along with other documents, were found in Wallace's possession and delivered to Edward by John de Segrave.[48]
Wallace was transported to London and taken toWestminster Hall. There he was tried for treason, for which his defence was that he, unlike most of the other Scottish leaders, had never sworn allegiance to Edward.[49] He was also charged with committing atrocities against civilians in war, "sparing neither age nor sex, monk nor nun".[50][51] As a result, the trial has attracted the attention of modern legal scholarship as it is one of the earliest examples of what would now be considered a prosecution forwar crimes. It is one of only three known pre-modern trials which raised, in today's terms, issues ofinternational humanitarian law.[51]
Plaque marking the place of Wallace's execution
Following the trial, on 23 August 1305, Wallace was taken from the hall to theTower of London, then stripped naked and dragged through the city at the heels of a horse to the Elms atSmithfield.[52] He washanged, drawn and quartered—strangled byhanging, but released while he was still alive,emasculated,eviscerated (with his bowels burned before him),beheaded, then cut into four parts.[53] Wallace's head was dipped in tar and placedon a spike atopLondon Bridge. His preserved head was later joined by the heads of his brother John and his compatriotsSimon Fraser andJohn of Strathbogie.[2] Wallace's limbs were displayed, separately, inNewcastle,Berwick,Stirling andPerth. A plaque unveiled 8 April 1956 stands in a wall ofSt. Bartholomew's Hospital near the site of Wallace's execution at Smithfield. It includes inLatin the wordsDico tibi verum libertas optima rerum nunquam servili sub nexu vivito fili ("I tell you the truth: Freedom is what is best. Son, never live your life like a slave"), and inGaelicBas Agus Buaidh ("Death and Victory"), an old Scottish battle cry.[54]
In 1869, theWallace Monument was erected, close to the site of his victory at Stirling Bridge. TheWallace Sword, which supposedly belonged to Wallace, although some parts were made at least 160 years later, was held for many years inDumbarton Castle and is now in the Wallace Monument.[55]
In popular culture
Film
A popular depiction of Wallace's life is presented in the filmBraveheart (1995), directed by and starringMel Gibson as Wallace, written byRandall Wallace, and filmed in Scotland and Ireland. The film was criticised for many historical inaccuracies.[56][57]
In the filmOutlaw King (2018),Robert the Bruce (Chris Pine) is prompted to plan a revolt against the English after observing rioting induced by the public display of thequartered body of Wallace.[58] A prior scene featuring a withered Wallace conferring with Bruce was cut from the film after an initial screening atTIFF.[59][60]
Literature
EnglishWikisource has original text related to this article:
Blind Harry's 15th-century poem has been a major influence on the legend of Wallace, including details like a wife named Marion Braidfute, and claiming that Wallace killed the Sheriff of Lanark in revenge for the killing of his wife. However much of this poem is unsubstantiated, at variance with contemporary sources, or disputed by historians.[61]
In her prize-winning poem of 1819,Wallace's Invocation to Bruce,Felicia Hemans imagines Wallace urging Bruce to continue the struggle for freedom after defeat at theBattle of Falkirk.
G. A. Henty wrote a novel about this time period titledIn Freedom's Cause: A Story of Wallace and Bruce (1885). Henty, a producer of and writer for theBoy's Own Paperstory paper, portrays the life of William Wallace, Robert the Bruce,The Black Douglas and others, while dovetailing the events of his novel withhistorical fiction.[65]
Nigel Tranter wrote a historical novel titledThe Wallace (1975), "admirably free of anything to do with Braveheart".[66]
The Temple and the Stone (1998), a novel byKatherine Kurtz andDeborah Turner Harris, includes a storyline creating a fictional connection between Wallace and Templar Knights.[67]
A number of beers are named for Wallace. A brewery inBridge of Allan, Scotland, makes a Scottish ale named "William Wallace", and ScottishMaclays Brewery had a beer called "Wallace".[69]
^Fisher, Andrew (2007).William Wallace. Birlinn.ISBN978-1-84158-593-2.Harry's Wallace reaches seven feet. None of this need necessarily be discounted; the Emperor Charlemagne was said to be seven feet tall.
^"Info". www.gamespot.com. Archived fromthe original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved12 June 2021.
^Kaufman, Alex (2011). "Robert de Bruce and William Wallace". In Matheson, Lister M. (ed.).Icons of the Middle Ages: Rulers, Writers, Rebels, and Saints. Vol. 1. Greenwood. pp. 107–142.
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