"Wilhelmus van Nassouwe", known simply as "Wilhelmus",[a] is thenational anthem of both theNetherlands and its sovereign state, theKingdom of the Netherlands. It dates back to at least 1572, making it the oldest national anthem in use today, provided that the latter is defined as consisting of both a melody and lyrics.[2][3][self-published source?] Although "Wilhelmus" was not recognized as the officialnational anthem until 1932, it has always been popular with parts of the Dutch population and resurfaced on several occasions in the course of Dutch history before gaining its present status.[4][self-published source?] It was also the anthem of theNetherlands Antilles from 1954 to 1964.
"Wilhelmus" originated in theDutch Revolt, the nation's struggle to achieve independence from theSpanish Empire. It tells of theFather of the NationWilliam of Orange who wasstadtholder in the Netherlands under KingPhilip II of Spain. In the first person, as if quoting himself, William speaks to the Dutch about both the revolt and his own, personal struggle: to be faithful to the king,[5] without being unfaithful to his conscience: to serve God and the Dutch. In the lyrics, William compares himself with the biblicalDavid who serves under the tyrannical kingSaul. As the merciful David defeats the unjust Saul and is rewarded by God with thekingdom of Israel, so too William hopes to be rewarded with a kingdom. Both "Wilhelmus" and the Dutch Revolt should be seen in the light of the 16th centuryReformation in Europeand the resulting persecution ofProtestants by theSpanish Inquisition in theLow Countries. Militant music proved very useful not only in lampooning Roman clerks and repressive monarchs but also in generating class-transcending social cohesion. In successfully combining apsalmic character with political relevancy, "Wilhelmus" stands as the pre-eminent example of the genre.[6]
The melody of "Wilhelmus" was borrowed from a well-knownRoman Catholic French song titledAutre chanson de la ville de Chartres assiégée par le prince de Condé[7][b] (orChartres in short). This song ridiculed the failedSiege of Chartres in 1568 by theHuguenot (Protestant)Prince de Condé during theFrench Wars of Religion. However, the triumphant contents of "Wilhelmus" differ greatly from the content of the original song, making it subversive at several levels. Thus, the Dutch Protestants had taken over an anti-Protestant song, and adapted it into propaganda for their own agenda. In that way, "Wilhelmus" was typical for its time: it was common practice in the 16th century for warring groups to steal each other's songs in order torewrite them.[5]
Even though the melody stems from 1568, the first known written down version of it comes from 1574; at the time the anthem was sung at a much quicker pace.[8] Dutch composerAdriaen Valerius recorded the current melody of "Wilhelmus" in hisNederlantsche Gedenck-clanck in 1626, slowing down the melody's pace, probably to allow it to be sung in churches.
The origins of the lyrics are uncertain. "Wilhelmus" was first written some time between the start of theEighty Years' War in April 1568 and thecapture of Brielle on 1 April 1572.[9] Soon after the anthem was finished, it was said that either formerAntwerp mayorPhilips of Marnix or the politicianDirck Coornhert wrote the lyrics. However, this is disputed as neither Marnix nor Coornhert ever mentioned that they had written the lyrics, even though the song was immensely popular in their time. "Wilhelmus" also has some oddrhymes in it. In some cases the vowels of certain words were altered to allow them to rhyme with other words. Some see this as evidence that neither Marnix or Coornhert wrote the anthem, as they were both experienced poets when "Wilhelmus" was written, and it is said they would not have taken these small liberties. Hence some believe that the lyrics of the Dutch national anthem were the creation of someone who just wrote one poem for the occasion and then disappeared from history. A French translation of "Wilhelmus" appeared around 1582.[10]
The complete text comprises fifteenstanzas. The anthem is anacrostic: the first letters of the fifteen stanzas formed the name "Willem van Nassov" (Nassov was a contemporaryorthographic variant ofNassau). In the current Dutch spelling the first words of the 12th and 13th stanzas begin with Z instead of S.
Like many of the songs of the period, it has a complex structure, composed around a thematicchiasmus: the text is symmetrical, in that verses one and 15 resemble one another in meaning, as do verses two and 14, three and 13, etc., until they converge in the 8th verse, the heart of the song: "OhDavid, thou soughtest shelter from KingSaul's tyranny. Even so I fled this welter", where the comparison is made not only between the biblical David and William of Orange as a merciful and just leader of theDutch Revolt, but also between the tyrant King Saul and the Spanish crown. William expresses his hope that he will be rewarded with a kingdom, or "realm", just as David was rewarded with the throne of Israel.[14]
In the first person, as if quoting himself, William speaks about how his disagreement with his king troubles him; he tries to be faithful to his king,[5] but he is above all faithful to his conscience: to serve God and the Dutch people. Therefore, the last two lines of the first stanza indicate that the leader of the Dutch civil war against theSpanish Empire, of which they were part, had no specific quarrel with kingPhilip II of Spain, but rather with his emissaries in theLow Countries, such asFernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba. This may have been because at the time (late 16th century) it was uncommon to doubt publicly thedivine right of kings, who were accountable to God alone.[15] In 1581 the Netherlands nevertheless rejected the legitimacy of the king of Spain's rule over it in theAct of Abjuration.
The wordDuytschen in the first stanza, generally translated into English as 'Dutch', 'native' or 'Germanic', is a reference to William's roots; its modern Dutch equivalent,Duits, exclusively means 'German', and while it may refer to William's ancestral house (House of Nassau) or to the lands of theHoly Roman Empire it is most probably a reference to an older meaning of the word, which can loosely be translated as 'Germanic', and seeks to position William as a person with a personal connection with the Low Countries as opposed to the king of Spain, Philip II, who was commonly portrayed as foreign, disconnected and out of touch. In doing so, William is also implicitly comparing himself with the well likedCharles V (Philip's father) who, unlike his son, was born in the Low Countries, spoke Dutch and visited the Low Countries more often than any other part of his realm.[16][full citation needed][17][18][19]
First recording of the "Wilhelmus" in 1899Vocal rendition of the "Wilhelmus" in 1920
Though only proclaimed the national anthem in 1932, the "Wilhelmus" already had a centuries-old history. It had been sung on many official occasions and at many important events since the outbreak of theDutch Revolt in 1568, such as thesiege of Haarlem in 1573 and the ceremonial entry of thePrince of Orange intoBrussels on 18 September 1578.
It has been claimed that during the gruesome torture ofBalthasar Gérard (the assassin ofWilliam of Orange) in 1584, the song was sung by the guards who sought to overpower Gérard's screams when boiling pigs' fat was poured over him. Gérard allegedly responded "Sing! Dutch sinners! Sing! But know that soon I shall be sung of!".[20]
Another legend claims that following theNavigation Act 1651 (an ordinance byOliver Cromwell requiring all foreign fleets in theNorth Sea or theChannel to dip their flag in salute) the "Wilhelmus" was sung (or rather, shouted) by the sailors on the Dutch flagshipBrederode in response to the first warning shot fired by an English fleet underRobert Blake, when their captainMaarten Tromp refused to lower his flag. At the end of the song, which coincided with the third and last English warning shot, Tromp fired a full broadside, thereby beginning theBattle of Goodwin Sands and theFirst Anglo-Dutch War.[20]
During theDutch Golden Age, the popular song became thede facto anthem of theHouse of Orange-Nassau and itssupporters – which meant, in the politics of the time, songs of a specific political faction which was involved in a prolonged struggle with opposing factions (which sometimes became violent, verging on civil war). Therefore, the song's status paralled that of its faction.Trumpets played the "Wilhelmus" whenPrince Maurits visitedBreda, and again when he was received in state inAmsterdam in May 1618. When William V arrived inSchoonhoven in 1787, after the authority of the stadholders had been restored, the church bells are said to have played the "Wilhelmus" continuously. After theBatavian Revolution, inspired by theFrench Revolution, it had come to be called the "Princes' March" as it was banned during the rule of thePatriots, who did not support theHouse of Orange-Nassau.
However, at the foundation of theSovereign Principality of the United Netherlands, forerunner of the current Dutch state, in 1813, the "Wilhelmus" had fallen out of favour. The newly installed prince, William Frederick (the future KingWilliam I), son of William V, had completed his family's quest to unite the Low Countries. Having received the "realm" referenced in the "Wilhelmus", William Frederick now sought to represent the entire nation and stand above factions. He decided to break with the song which served his family as heads of a faction. A competition was organised for a new anthem, and the victor was"Wien Neêrlands Bloed", written byHendrik Tollens, which served as the official Dutch anthem from 1815 until 1932.
"Wien Neêrlands Bloed" never gained traction and was generally disliked, with the second line, "Free from foreign stain", being increasingly seen as racist. Meanwhile, "Wilhelmus" remained popular. An arrangement created by Austrian musicianEduard Kremser was played during the inauguration ofQueen Wilhelmina. Alongside "Wilhelmus", Kremser created arrangements of other songs from theEighty Years' War written byAdrianus Valerius, one of which is the popularThanksgiving song "We Gather Together". On 10 May 1932, partially because Wilhelmina suggested the idea, "Wilhelmus" replaced "Wien Neêrlands Bloed" as the official Dutch anthem in time for thesilver jubilee of Wilhelmina's inauguration, the harmonization was made by Dutch composerWalther Boer. Additionally, the change was largely driven by growing dislike of Tollens' song, with Socialists refusing to sing it. "Wilhelmus" itself received some protest over its historical association with theOrangists, but this disappeared after theSecond World War.
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During theGerman occupation of the Netherlands,Arthur Seyss-Inquart, the NaziReichskommissar, banned all the emblems of the Dutch royal family, including the "Wilhelmus". It was then taken up by all factions of theDutch resistance, even those socialists who had previously taken an anti-monarchist stance. The pro-GermanNationaal-Socialistische Beweging (NSB), who had sung the "Wilhelmus" at their meetings before the occupation, replaced it with"Alle Man van Neerlands Stam" ("All Men of Dutch Origin").[22] The anthem was drawn to the attention of the English-speaking world by the 1942 Britishwar filmOne of Our Aircraft Is Missing. The film concerns aRoyal Air Force bomber crew who are shot down over the occupied Netherlands and are helped to escape by the local inhabitants. The melody is heard during the film as part of the campaign ofpassive resistance by the population, and it finishes with thecoat of arms of the Netherlands on screen while the "Wilhelmus" is played.[23] Today, the sixth verse is sometimes sung after the first, because it contains the lineDe tirannie verdrijven, die mij mijn hart doorwondt ("Defeat the tyranny, which pierces my heart") was popular with the resistance fighters, as it was interpreted as referring to the Nazis (it originally meantthe Habsburgs).
Announcer Bert Garthoff gained fame by concludingNIROM's broadcasts on the day of the surrender to Japan during theDutch East Indies campaign on 8 March 1942 with the words "Listeners, we're closing now. Farewell, until better days. Long live the Fatherland, long livethe Queen." Garthoff later said that the station's employees were told by the Japanese authorities to "carry on as usual". This they did by concluding the broadcasts with the Dutch national anthem, much to the surprise of the listeners. When the Japanese found out about this, they executed three NIROM employees in retaliation.[24]
The "Wilhelmus" is to be played only once at a ceremony or other event and, if possible, it is to be the last piece of music to be played when receiving a foreignhead of state or emissary.[according to whom?]
The "Wilhelmus" is played during international sport events in the Netherlands or involving athletes representing the Netherlands, such as theFIFA World Cup, theUEFA European Championship, theOlympic Games, and theDutch Grand Prix. In nearly every case the 1st and 6th stanzas (or repeating the last lines), or the 1st stanza alone, are sung/played rather than the entire song, which would result in about 15 minutes of music. (Each of the 15 stanzas lasts 56 seconds, and the last stanza has aritenuto.)
The "Wilhelmus" is also widely used inFlemish nationalist gatherings as a symbol of cultural unity with the Netherlands. Yearly rallies like the"IJzerbedevaart" and the"Vlaams Nationaal Zangfeest" close with singing the 6th stanza, after which the Flemish national anthem"De Vlaamse Leeuw" is sung.
An important set of variations on the melody of "Wilhelmus van Nassouwe" is that by the blindcarillon-playerJacob van Eyck in his mid-17th century collection of variationsDer Fluyten Lust-hof.[25]
Thegrand ducal anthem ofLuxembourg, which bares thesame name, has its melody derived from "Wilhelmus". The song was introduced during the visit of the Dutch royal pair in a parade titledVive la Roi, Vive la Reine ("Long live the King, Long live the Queen") and was used even after the end of the personal union. It had lyrics written to it in 1915 and 1919, with the 1919 lyrics on the melody being in official use from the same year.
The songWenn alle untreu werden ("When All Become Unfaithful"), better known asDas Treuelied, written by the poetMax von Schenkendorf, used the melody of a French song titled "Pr aller à la chasse faut être matineux" but since 1923 the melody of the "Wilhelmus" was introduced for the song. AfterWorld War I, this song became popular amongGerman nationalist groups. It became one of the most popular songs of theSS, together with the "Horst-Wessel-Lied".
The "Wilhelmus" was first printed in ageuzenliedboek (lit. 'Beggars' songbook') in 1581. It used the following text as an introduction to the "Wilhelmus":'[26]
Een nieuw Christelick Liedt gemaect ter eeren des Doorluchtichsten Heeren, Heere Wilhelm Prince van Oraengien, Grave van Nassou, Patris Patriae, mijnen Genaedigen Forsten ende Heeren. Waer van deerste Capitael letteren van elck veers syner Genaedigen Forstens name metbrengen. Na de wijse van Chartres.
Translation:
A new Christian song made in the honour of the most noble lord, lord William Prince of Orange, count of Nassau,Pater Patriae (Father of the Nation), my merciful prince and lord. [A song] of which the first capital letter of each stanza form the name of his merciful prince. To the melody of Chartres.
The original text contains 15 stanzas and is written in the form of anacrostic; the first letter in each of the following stanzas, highlighted inbold below, spell outWilliam of Nassau.
Wilhelmus van Nassouwe Ben ick van Duytschen Bloedt, Den Vaderland ghetrouwe Blijf ick tot inden doet; Een Prince van Orangien Ben ick vry onverveert. Den Coninck van Hispangien. Heb ick altijt gheeert.
In Godes vrees te leven Heb ick altijt betracht, Daerom ben ick verdreven Om Land, om Luyd ghebracht: Maer Godt sal my regeren Als een goet Instrument, Dat ick sal wederkeeren In mijnen Regiment.
Lijdt U, mijn Ondersaten, Die oprecht zijn van aert, Godt sal u niet verlaten Al zijt ghy nu beswaert: Die vroom begheert te leven, Bidt Godt nacht ende dach. Dat Hy my cracht wil gheven Dat ick u helpen mach.
Lijf ende goed al te samen Heb ick u niet verschoont, Mijn Broeders, hooch van Namen, Hebbent u oock vertoont: Graef Adolff is ghebleven, In Vrieslandt in den Slach, Sijn siel int eewich leven Verwacht den jonghsten dach.
Edel en Hooch gheboren Van Keyserlicken stam: Een Vorst des Rijcks vercoren, Als een vroom Christen-man, Voor Godes Woort ghepreesen, Heb ick vrij onversaecht, Als een helt zonder vreesen Mijn edel bloet gewaecht.
Mijn schilt ende betrouwen Zijt ghy, O Godt, mijn Heer. Op U soo wil ick bouwen, Verlaet my nimmermeer; Dat ick doch vroom mag blijven U dienaer t'aller stond Die tyranny verdrijven, Die my mijn hert doorwondt.
Val al die my beswaren, End mijn vervolghers zijn, Mijn Godt wilt doch bewaren Den trouwen dienaer dijn: Dat sy my niet verasschen In haeren boosen moet, Haer handen niet en wasschen In mijn onschuldich bloet.
Als David moeste vluchten Voor Saul den tyran: Soo heb ick moeten suchten Met menich edelman: Maer Godt heeft hem verheven, Verlost uit alder noot, Een Coninckrijck ghegheven In Israël, seer groot.
Na tsuer sal ick ontfanghen Van Godt, mijn Heer, dat soet, Daer na so doet verlanghen Mijn vorstelick ghemoet, Dat is, dat ick mag sterven Met eeren, in dat velt, Een eeuwich rijk verwerven Als een ghetrouwe helt.
Niets doet my meer erbarmen In mijnen wederspoet, Dan dat men siet verarmen Des Conincks landen goet, Dat ud de Spaengiaerts crencken, O edel Neerlandt soet, Als ick daeraen ghedencke, Mijn edel hert dat bloet.
Als een Prins opgheseten Met mijnes heyres cracht, Van den tyran vermeten Heb ick den slach verwacht, Die, by Maestricht begraven, Bevreesde mijn ghewelt; Mijn ruyters sach men draven Seer moedich door dat velt.
Soo het den wil des Heeren Op die tijt had gheweest, Had ick geern willen keeren Van u dit swaer tempeest: Maer de Heer van hier boven Die alle dinck regeert, Die men altijt moet loven, En heeftet niet begeert.
Seer christlick was ghedreven Mijn princelick ghemoet, Stantvastich is ghebleven Mijn hert in teghenspoet, Den Heer heb ick ghebeden Van mijnes herten gront, Dat Hy mijn saeck wil reden, Mijn onschult doen oircont.
Oorlof mijn arme schapen, Die zijt in grooten noot. U Herder sal niet slapen, Al zijt ghy nu verstroit: Tot Godt wilt u begheven, Sijn heylsaem woort neemt aen, Als vrome Christen leven, Tsal hier haest zijn ghedaen.
Voor Godt wil ick belijden End sijner grooter macht, Dat ick tot gheenen tijden Den Coninck heb veracht: Dan dat ick Godt den Heere, Der hoochster Majesteyt, Heb moeten obedieren, In der gherechticheyt.
Wilhelmus van Nassouwe ben ik, van Duitsen bloed, den vaderland getrouwe blijf ik tot in den dood. Een Prinse van Oranje ben ik, vrij onverveerd, den Koning van Hispanje heb ik altijd geëerd.
In Godes vrees te leven heb ik altijd betracht, daarom ben ik verdreven, om land, om luid gebracht. Maar God zal mij regeren als een goed instrument, dat ik zal wederkeren in mijnen regiment.
Lijdt u, mijn onderzaten die oprecht zijt van aard, God zal u niet verlaten, al zijt gij nu bezwaard. Die vroom begeert te leven, bidt God nacht ende dag, dat Hij mij kracht wil geven, dat ik u helpen mag.
Lijf en goed al te samen heb ik u niet verschoond, mijn broeders hoog van namen hebben 't u ook vertoond: Graaf Adolf is gebleven in Friesland in de slag, zijn ziel in 't eeuwig leven verwacht de jongste dag.
Edel en hooggeboren, van keizerlijke stam, een vorst des rijks verkoren, als een vroom christenman, voor Godes woord geprezen, heb ik, vrij onversaagd, als een held zonder vreze mijn edel bloed gewaagd.
Mijn schild ende betrouwen zijt Gij, o God mijn Heer, op U zo wil ik bouwen, verlaat mij nimmermeer. Dat ik doch vroom mag blijven, uw dienaar t'aller stond, de tirannie verdrijven die mij mijn hart doorwondt.
Van al die mij bezwaren en mijn vervolgers zijn, mijn God, wil doch bewaren de trouwe dienaar dijn, dat zij mij niet verrassen in hunne boze moed, hun handen niet en wassen in mijn onschuldig bloed.
Als David moeste vluchten voor Sauel den tiran, zo heb ik moeten zuchten als menig edelman. Maar God heeft hem verheven, verlost uit alder nood, een koninkrijk gegeven in Israël zeer groot.
Na 't zuur zal ik ontvangen van God, mijn Heer, het zoet, daarnaar zo doet verlangen mijn vorstelijk gemoed: dat is, dat ik mag sterven met ere in dat veld, een eeuwig rijk verwerven als een getrouwe held.
Niets doet mij meer erbarmen in mijne wederspoed dan dat men ziet verarmen des Konings landen goed. Dat u de Spanjaards krenken, o edel Neerland zoet, als ik daaraan gedenke, mijn edel hart dat bloedt.
Als een prins opgezeten met mijner heireskracht, van de tiran vermeten heb ik de slag verwacht, die, bij Maastricht begraven, bevreesden mijn geweld; mijn ruiters zag men draven zeer moedig door dat veld.
Zo het de wil des Heren op die tijd was geweest, had ik geern willen keren van u dit zwaar tempeest. Maar de Heer van hierboven, die alle ding regeert, die men altijd moet loven, Hij heeft het niet begeerd.
Zeer christlijk was gedreven mijn prinselijk gemoed, standvastig is gebleven mijn hart in tegenspoed. De Heer heb ik gebeden uit mijnes harten grond, dat Hij mijn zaak wil redden, mijn onschuld maken kond.
Oorlof, mijn arme schapen die zijt in grote nood, uw herder zal niet slapen, al zijt gij nu verstrooid. Tot God wilt u begeven, zijn heilzaam woord neemt aan, als vrome christen leven,— 't zal hier haast zijn gedaan.
Voor God wil ik belijden en zijne grote macht, dat ik tot gene tijden de Koning heb veracht, dan dat ik God de Here, de hoogste Majesteit, heb moeten obediëren in de gerechtigheid.
William of Nassau, scion Of a German and ancient line, I dedicate undying Faith to this land of mine. A prince I am, undaunted, Of Orange, ever free, To the king of Spain I've granted A lifelong loyalty.
I've ever tried to live in The fear of God's command And therefore I've been driven From people, home, and land, But God, I trust, will rate me His willing instrument And one day reinstate me Into my government.
Let no despair betray you, My subjects true and good. The Lord will surely stay you Though now you are pursued. He who would live devoutly Must pray God day and night To throw His power about me As champion of your right.
Life and my all for others, I sacrificed, for you! And my illustrious brothers Proved their devotion too. Count Adolf, more's the pity, Fell in the Frisian fray, And in the eternal city Awaits the judgement day.
I, nobly born, descended From an imperial stock. An empire's prince, defended (Braving the battle's shock Heroically and fearless As pious Christian ought) With my life's blood the peerless Gospel of God our Lord.
A shield and my reliance, O God, Thou ever wert. I'll trust unto Thy guidance. O leave me not ungirt. That I may stay a pious Servant of Thine for aye And drive the plagues that try us And tyranny away.
My God, I pray thee, save me From all who do pursue And threaten to enslave me, Thy trusted servant true. O Father, do not sanction Their wicked, foul design, Don't let them wash their hands in This guiltless blood of mine.
O David, thou soughtest shelter From King Saul's tyranny. Even so I fled this welter And many a lord with me. But God the Lord did save him From exile and its hell And, in His mercy, gave him A realm in Israel.
Fear not 't will rain sans ceasing The clouds are bound to part. I bide that sight so pleasing Unto my princely heart, Which is that I with honour Encounter death in war, And meet in heaven my Donor, His faithful warrior.
Nothing so moves my pity As seeing through these lands, Field, village, town and city Pillaged by roving hands. O that the Spaniards rape thee, My Netherlands so sweet, The thought of that does grip me Causing my heart to bleed.
Astride on steed of mettle I've waited with my host The tyrant's call to battle, Who durst not do his boast. For, near Maastricht ensconced, He feared the force I wield. My horsemen saw one bounce it Bravely across the field.
Surely, if God had willed it, When that fierce tempest blew, My power would have stilled it, Or turned its blast from you. But He who dwells in heaven, Whence all our blessings flow, For which aye praise be given, Did not desire it so.
Steadfast my heart remaineth In my adversity My princely courage straineth All nerves to live and be. I've prayed the Lord my Master With fervid heart and tense To save me from disaster And prove my innocence.
Alas! my flock. To sever Is hard on us. Farewell. Your Shepherd wakes, wherever Dispersed you may dwell, Pray God that He may ease you. His gospel be your cure. Walk in the steps of Jesu This life will not endure.
Unto the Lord His power I do confession make That ne'er at any hour Ill of the king I spake. But unto God, the greatest Of Majesties I owe Obedience first and latest, For Justice wills it so.
^de Bruin, M. (1998). Grijp, L. P. (ed.). "Het Wilhelmus tijdens de Republiek".Nationale Hymnen. Het Wilhelmus en Zijn Buren. Volkskundig Bulletin (24):16–42,199–200, esp. p. 28 n. 65.
^Leerssen, J. (2020).National Thought in Europe: A Cultural History. Amsterdam University Press. p. 103.
^Bristow, Michael Jamieson (ed.)."Facts About National Anthems".www.national-anthems.org. The words of the Japanese anthemKimigayo date from the 9th century.
^Geoffrey Parker,Emperor, a new life of Charles V, p. 8.
^DeGrauwe, Luc (2002). "Emerging Mother-Tongue Awareness: The special case of Dutch and German in the Middle Ages and the early Modern Period".Standardisation: studies from the Germanic languages. John Benjamins. pp. 99–116.
^Schenkeveld, Maria A. (1991).Dutch literature in the age of Rembrandt: themes and ideas. John Benjamins. p. 6.
^Leerssen, J. (1999).Nationaal denken in Europa: een cultuurhistorische schets. Amsterdam University Press. p. 29.
