Following his 1906 retirement from academic life, Ostwald became much involved in philosophy, art, and politics. He made significant contributions to each of these fields.[3] He has been described as apolymath.[4]
Ostwald was born ethnicallyBaltic German inRiga, Russian Empire (nowLatvia) tomaster-cooper Gottfried Wilhelm Ostwald and Elisabeth Leuckel. He was the middle child of three, born after Eugen and before Gottfried.[5] Ostwald developed an interest in science as a child and conducted experiments at his home, particularly related to fireworks and photography.[4]
Ostwald entered theImperial University of Dorpat (now the University of Tartu, Estonia) in 1872. He completed hisKandidatenschrift examinations there in 1875.[2][3] During his time at Dorpat, Ostwald had significant exposure to thehumanities, the arts, and philosophy, which became a focus of his endeavors after his 1906 retirement fromacademia.[3]
Ostwald began his career as an independent unpaid investigator at the University of Dorpat in 1875. He worked in the laboratory ofCarl Schmidt, along with his contemporary Johann Lemberg. Lemberg taught Ostwald many of the basics of theanalysis of inorganic compounds and measurements ofequilibria and chemicalreaction rates. Lemberg also taught Ostwald the chemical basis of many geologic phenomena. These endeavors formed part of the subjects of Ostwald's later research efforts.[3] In addition to his work in Carl Schmidt's laboratory, Ostwald also studied in the university's physics institute withArthur von Oettingen.[2]
Around 1877, still continuing his work as an unpaid investigator in the Chemistry Laboratory at the University of Dorpat, Ostwald became a paid assistant in the Physics Institute, after Oettingen's assistant moved to Riga.[3][6] He also supported himself for a time by teaching mathematics and science at a Dorpat high school.[7]
Ostwald was deeply interested in questions ofchemical affinity and the reactions that formedchemical compounds. This was the central theoretical question facing chemists at the time. As part of his early work, Ostwald developed a three-dimensional affinity table that took into account the effects of temperature as well as the affinity constants ofacids andbases.[3] Ostwald also investigatedmass action,electrochemistry, andchemical dynamics.[2]
Ostwald completed his Magisterial degree at the University of Dorpat in 1877, enabling him to give lectures and charge for teaching.[8] Ostwald published hisdoctoral dissertation at the University of Dorpat in 1878, with Carl Schmidt as histhesis advisor. Hisdoctoral thesis was entitledVolumchemische und Optisch-Chemische Studien ("Volumetric and Optical-Chemical Studies").[4] In 1879, he became a paid assistant to Carl Schmidt.[9]
In 1881, Ostwald became aProfessor of Chemistry at theRiga Polytechnicum (now Riga Technical University). In 1887, he moved toLeipzig University where he became Professor of Physical Chemistry.[5] Ostwald remained on the faculty at Leipzig University until his retirement in 1906.
In 1901,Albert Einstein applied for a research position in Ostwald's laboratory. This was four years before Einstein's publication onspecial relativity. Ostwald rejected Einstein's application, although later the two developed strong mutual respect.[12] Subsequently, Ostwald nominated Einstein for theNobel Prize in 1910 and again in 1913.[13]
Following his 1906 retirement, Ostwald became active in philosophy, politics, and other humanities.[2]
During the course of his academic career, Ostwald published more than 500 original research papers for thescientific literature and approximately 45 books.[9]
Ostwald invented a process for the inexpensive manufacture ofnitric acid byoxidation ofammonia. He was awarded patents for this process.[14] Ostwald's patent made use of acatalyst and described conditions under which the yield of nitric acid was near thetheoretical limit. Aspects of the basic process had also been patented some 64 years earlier byKuhlmann.[15] Kuhlmann's process did not become industrially significant, likely due to the lack of an inexpensive source of ammonia. Shortly after Ostwald's finding, inexpensive ammonia became available as a result ofHaber andBosch's invention of a process fornitrogen fixingprocess (completed by 1911 or 1913) for ammonia synthesis. The combination of these two breakthroughs soon led to more economical and larger-scale production offertilizers andexplosives, of which Germany was in short supply duringWorld War I.[16][17] The process is often referred to as theOstwald Process.[17] The process remains in widespread use in contemporary times for manufacture of nitric acid.[18]
Ostwald also conducted significant research on dilution theory leading to his conceptualization of thelaw of dilution which at times is referred to as "Ostwald's Dilution Law". This theory holds that the behavior of aweak electrolyte follows theprinciples of mass action, being extensively dissociated at infinite dilution. This characteristic of weak electrolytes can be observed experimentally, such as byelectrochemical determinations.[19]
Through his research on chemical reaction rates and velocities and his studies of acids and bases, Ostwald found that the concentration of acid or the concentration of base in a solution of certain chemical reactants can have a strong influence of the rate of chemical processes. He realized that this is manifestation of the concept of chemical catalysis first articulated byBerzelius. Ostwald articulated the idea that a catalyst is a substance that accelerates the rate of a chemical reaction without being a part of either the reactants or the products. Ostwald's advances in the understanding of chemical catalysis were widely applicable in biological processes such as enzymatic catalysis and also in many industrial processes. A catalyst is used in the nitric acid process that Ostwald invented.[18]
Ostwald studied thecrystallization behavior of solids, especially those solids that are capable of crystallizing in different forms, in the phenomenon known aspolymorphism. He discovered that solids do not necessarily crystallize in their most thermodynamically stable form but instead sometimes crystallize preferentially in other forms dependent on the relative rates of crystallization of each polymorphic form. Ostwald found that the relative rates were dependent on the surface tension between the solid polymorph and the liquid form. Many common materials exhibit this type of behavior, includingminerals and variousorganic compounds. This finding came to be known asOstwald's rule.[20]
Ostwald realized that solid or liquid solutions can continue to evolve over time. While the a non-thermodynamically preferred polymorph may crystallize first, more thermodynamically stable forms can continue to develop as the solution ages. Often this results in large crystals forming, since they are more thermodynamically stable than are large numbers of small crystals. This phenomenon came to be known as Ostwald Ripening and is observed in many situations. An everyday example is the gritty texture that ice cream develops as it ages. On ageologic timescale, manyminerals exhibit Ostwald Ripening as their crystal forms evolve as the mineral ages.[21]
Related to solubility and crystallization was Ostwald's finding that dissolution of a solid depends on the size of the crystal. When the crystals are small, typically less than amicron, the solubility of the solid in the solution phase is increased. Ostwald quantified this effect mathematically in a relationship that became known as theOstwald-Freundlich equation. Ostwald first published his finding in 1900, and his mathematical equation was refined by German chemistHerbert Freundlich in 1909. This mathematical relationship also applies to the partial pressure of substance in the system. The Ostwald-Freundlich equation takes into account the surface tension of the particle in the system, in addition to curvature and temperature. The size dependence of solubility is sometimes utilized in the formulation ofpharmaceuticals that have low solubility so as to enhance their uptake by the patient. The size dependence also has a role in Ostwald Ripening.[22]
Collaborating with German chemistRaphael E. Liesegang, Ostwald recognized that substances can crystallize in a periodic fashion wherein the crystallization behavior follows a spatial or temporal pattern. In certain circumstances, the result of this periodic crystallization behavior is easily visually observed, for example, in variousgeologic formations. Liesegang had previously investigated this phenomenon in specific laboratory experiments, showing his results to Ostwald. Ostwald then developed a mathematical model for the phenomenon that served to explain the observations and realized how widespread is the periodic crystallization behavior. These observations came to be known asLiesegang rings.[23]
Ostwald introduced the wordmole into thelexicon of chemistry around 1900. He defined one mole as themolecular weight of a substance in units of mass grams. The concept was linked to theideal gas, according to Ostwald. Ironically, Ostwald's development of the mole concept was directly related to his theory ofenergeticism, in philosophical opposition toatomic theory, against which he (along withErnst Mach) was one of the last holdouts. He explained in a conversation withArnold Sommerfeld that he was convinced byJean Perrin's experiments onBrownian motion.[24][25]
In 1906 Ostwald was elected a member of theInternational Committee on Atomic Weights. As a consequence ofWorld War I, this membership ended in 1917 and was not resumed after the war. The 1917 Annual Report of the committee ended with the unusual note: "Because of the European war the Committee has had much difficulty in the way of correspondence. The German member, Professor Ostwald, has not been heard from in connection with this report. Possibly the censorship of letters, either in Germany or en route, has led to a miscarriage".[26]
As part of Ostwald's investigations in tochemical equilibria,chemical affinity, andacid-base interactions, he recognized that many establishedanalytical methods disturb the chemical systems under investigation. He therefore turned to physical measurements as surrogate methods to understand these important basic phenomena. One such physical measurement is the measurement of theviscosity, or resistance to flow, of a liquid. Ostwald invented a device for this purpose consisting of bulbs that act as reservoirs for a liquid with a capillary, or thin tube, in between the reservoirs. The time that it takes for the liquid to flow through the capillary from one reservoir to the other is an indication of the viscosity of the liquid. Using a reference solution, the viscosity of the liquid can be quantified. Ostwald typically used this device to study the behavior ofsolutes in water solutions. These devices came to be known asOstwald viscometers and are in widespread use in contemporary times for research andquality control purposes.[27]
Ostwald designed a pipette that could be used to transfer and measure liquids, especiallyserous fluids. This design was later improved byOtto Folin. This type of pipette has a bulb at the lower end as a particular design feature. It became known as theOstwald-Folin pipette and is widely used in contemporary times.[28]
Following his 1906 retirement from academia, Ostwald became interested in the systematization ofcolors, which could be useful both scientifically and in the arts. He publishedThe Color Primer and alsoThe Color Atlas during the period of 1916–8. These publications established relationships between the various visual colors.[4]
The Color Primer, page 33
The Color Primer, page 44
The Color Primer, page 50
The Color Primer, page 56
Ostwald represented these as a three dimensional representation ofcolor space that is atopological solid consisting of two cones. One apex of the cone is pure white while the other is pure black. The eight primary colors are represented along the circumference or curved surfaces of the two cones. In this representation, each color is a mixture of white, black, and the eight primary colors. In this way, there are threedegrees of freedom that represent each color.[29]
Ostwald color solid
This representation of colors was an important early step toward their systematization, replacing color perception by the human eye with an objective system.[29] Much of Ostwald's work on systematization of color was done in collaboration withDeutscher Werkbund, which was an association of painters and architects.[3]
In 1887, Ostwald founded thepeer-reviewed scientific journalZeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie, specializing in original research in the field of physical chemistry.[7][30] He served as its editor-in-chief until 1922. In 1894, Ostwald formed the German Electrochemical Society which ultimately became the Deutsche Bunsen-Gesellschaft für angewandte physikalische Chemie [German Bunsen-Society for Applied Physical Chemistry]. He created the journalKlassiker der exakten Wissenschaften in 1889, of which more than 250 volumes have been published.[2]
As part of his interest in philosophy, in 1902 Ostwald started the journalAnnalen der Naturphilosophie (Annales of Natural Philosophy), today remembered also for having published in 1921 for the first time, in german, the then unknownWittgenstein'sTractatus logico-philosophicus.[31]
In 1927, he initiated the journalDie Farbe (Colour).[4]
Ostwald was one of the directors of theDie Brücke institute in Munich, and he played a role in its founding in 1911. The institute was sponsored, significantly, from Ostwald's Nobel Prize money. Through the institute, Ostwald's intention was to develop a standardized system for scholarly publications.[32] In 1911, Ostwald founded the Association of Chemical Societies, which sought to organize and improve the efficiency of various chemical societies. The association is an example of ascientific society. Ostwald served as the first president of the Association of Chemical Societies.[3][33]
Scholarly contributions to humanities and politics
In addition to his research in chemistry, Wilhelm Ostwald was productive in a broad range of fields. His published work, which includes numerous philosophical writings, contains about forty thousand pages. Ostwald was also engaged in thepeace movement ofBerta von Suttner.[34]
Among his other interests, Ostwald was a passionate amateur painter who made his own pigments.[35] He left more than 1,000 paintings along with 3,000 pastels and color studies.[36] For Ostwald, science and the arts were mutually supportive areas of engagement.[36]
"Poetry, music and painting have given me refreshment and new courage, when exhausted by scientific work I have been obliged to lay my tools aside."–Ostwald[36]
Ostwald regarded science and the arts as having a common aim, that of "coping with the infinite diversity of appearances through the formation of appropriate concepts"[36]... Towards this aim, science builds "intellectual ideas; art constructs visual ones."[36]
Ostwald developed a strong interest incolor theory in the later decades of his life. He wrote several publications in the field, such as hisMalerbriefe (Letters to a Painter, 1904) andDie Farbenfibel (The Color Primer, 1916). His work in color theory was influenced by that ofAlbert Henry Munsell, and in turn influencedPiet Mondrian and other members ofDe Stijl[37] andPaul Klee and other members of theBauhaus school.[35] Ostwald's theories also influenced AmericansFaber Birren andEgbert Jacobson.[36]
One of Ostwald's continuing interests was unification through systematization. In particular, Ostwald perceived thatenergy efficiency was a unifying theme in all facets of society and culture. In political matters, Ostwald's interest in energy efficiency extended to such political matters as the need for organization of labor.[3]
Ostwald's interest in unification through systematization led to his adaptation of the philosophy ofMonism.[43] Initially, Monism was liberal, pacifist, and international, seeking in science a basis of values to support social and political reforms. Ostwald himself developed a system of ethics based on science, around the core idea that one should "not waste energy, but convert it into its most useful form."[44][45]
in 1911, Ostwald became President of theDeutscher Monistenbund (Monist Association), founded byErnst Haeckel.[46] Ostwald (and other Monists) promotedeugenics andeuthanasia, but only as voluntary choices with the intention of preventing suffering. Monist promotion of such ideas is suggested to have indirectly facilitated acceptance of the laterSocial Darwinism of theNational Socialists. Ostwald died before the Nazis adopted and enforced the use of eugenics and euthanasia as involuntary government policies, to support their racist ideological positions.[44][3] Ostwald's Monism also influencedCarl G. Jung's identification of psychological types.[47]
Ostwald, during his time in Leipzig was elected to honorary membership of theManchester Literary and Philosophical Society, in 1894.[48] He was elected an International Honorary Member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1905 and an International Member of the United StatesNational Academy of Sciences in 1906.[49][50] He received the 1909 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his contributions to understanding catalysis and for his investigations of the fundamental principles underlying chemical equilibria and reaction rates. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize 20 times, beginning in 1904, and submitted nine nominations for other scientists for the Nobel Prize following his own award. This included two nominations of Albert Einstein.[13] Ostwald donated more than US$40,000 of his Nobel Prize award money to advance the cause of the Ido language.[51] He was elected an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Society in 1912.[52]
In 1904 he was elected a foreign member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[54] He became an honorary member of scientific societies in Germany, Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Russia, Great Britain, and the United States. Ostwald received honorary doctorates from various universities in Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In 1899, he was made aGeheimrat by theKing of Saxony, which by that time was a recognition of Ostwald's scholarly contributions.[2]
There is a Wilhelm Ostwald Park and Museum inGrimma, Germany, at the site of Ostwald's vacation home. This institution also houses many of Ostwald's scholarly works.[4][55]
On 24 April 1880 Ostwald married Helene von Reyher (1854–1946), with whom he had five children. These were: Grete, (1882–1960) born in Riga and died inGroßbothen;Wolfgang (1883–1943) born 1883 in Riga and died inDresden; Elisabeth (1884– 1968) born in Riga and died in Großbothen; Walter (1886–1958) born in Riga and died inFreiburg im Breisgau; and Carl Otto (1890–1958) born in Leipzig and died in Leipzig. Wolfgang Ostwald became a notable scientist in the area ofcolloid chemistry.[57][58][59]
In 1887, he moved toLeipzig where he worked for the rest of his life. At the time of his retirement, he moved to a country estate near Groβbothen, Saxony, which he named "Landhaus Energie". He lived at the country estate for most of the remainder of his life.[8]
On his religious views, Ostwald was an atheist.[62] Ostwald died in a hospital in Leipzig on 4 April 1932,[2] and was buried at his country estate inGroßbothen, near Leipzig[63]
The color primer: A basic treatise on the color system of Wilhelm Ostwald, New York, N.Y.: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969.OCLC760593331
Electrochemistry: History and theory : Elektrochemie: Ihre Geschichte und Lehre. New Delhi: Amerind Publishing Co. 1980.OCLC702695546
Lebenslinien. Eine Selbstbiographie von Wilhelm Ostwald. Zweiter Teil, Leipzig 1887–1905 (3 vols). (Klasing & Co., g.m.b.H., Berlin 1927.)[30] Translated asWilhelm Ostwald: The Autobiography by Robert Jack. Springer, 2017.[66]
^abDeltete, R. J. (1 March 2007). "Wilhelm Ostwald's Energetics 1: Origins and Motivations".Foundations of Chemistry.9 (1):3–56.doi:10.1007/s10698-005-6707-5.S2CID95249997.
^abStewart, Doug."Wilhelm Ostwald".famousscientists.org. Retrieved14 August 2020.
Frédéric Kuhlmann, "Pour la fabrication de l'acide nitrique et des nitrates," French patent no. 11,331 (filed: October 1838; issued: 22 December 1838). Supplemental patent issued: 7 June 1839. See:Description des machines et procédés consignés dans les brevets d'invention, ... [Description of machines and methods recorded in the patents of invention, ... ] (Paris, France: Madame Veuve Bouchard-Huzard, 1854),82 :160.
Fréd. Kuhlmann (1838)"Note sur plusieurs réactions nouvelles déterminées par l'éponge de platine, et considérations sur les services que cette substance est appelée à rendre à la science" (Note on several new reactions caused by platinum sponge, and reflections on the services that this substance is called to render to science),Comptes rendus,7 : 1107–1110. From page 1109:"1°. L'ammoniaque mêlé d'air, en passant à une température de 300° environ sur de l'éponge de platine, est décomposé, et l'azote qu'il renferme est complètement transformé en acide nitrique, aux dépens de l'oxygène de l'air." (1. Ammonia mixed with air, upon passing at a temperature of about 300° over platinum sponge, is decomposed and the nitrogen that it contains is completely transformed into nitric acid, at the expense of the oxygen of the air.)
John Graham Smith (1988) "Frédéric Kuhlmann: Pioneer of platinum as an industrial catalyst,"Platinum Metals Review,32 (2): 84–90.
^abSutton, Mike."Chemists at War".chemistryworld.org. Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved16 June 2020.
^abVan Houten, J. (2002). "A Century of Chemical Dynamics Traced through the Nobel Prizes".Journal of Chemical Education.79 (2): 146.doi:10.1021/ed079p146.
^Nye, M., 1972, Molecular Reality: A Perspective on the Scientific Work of Jean Perrin, London: MacDonald.
^Gorin, George (February 1994). "Mole and Chemical Amount: A Discussion of the Fundamental Measurements of Chemistry".Journal of Chemical Education.71 (2): 114.Bibcode:1994JChEd..71..114G.doi:10.1021/ed071p114.
^Chickering, Roger (January 1973). "A Voice of Moderation in Imperial Germany: The "Verband fur internationale Verstandigung" 1911–1914".Journal of Contemporary History.8 (1):147–164.doi:10.1177/002200947300800108.JSTOR260073.S2CID162389916.
^Gordin, Michael D. (2015).Scientific Babel: How Science Was Done Before and After Global English. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.ISBN9780226000299.
^abHolt, Niles R. (April 1975). "Monists & Nazis: A Question of Scientific Responsibility".The Hastings Center Report.5 (2):37–43.doi:10.2307/3560820.JSTOR3560820.
^Andreas W. Daum,Wissenschaftspopularisierung im 19. Jahrhundert: Bürgerliche Kultur, naturwissenschaftliche Bildung und die deutsche Öffentlichkeit, 1848–1914. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1998, pp. 218, 505.
^Noll, Richard, The Jung Cult. Princeton University Press, 1994, p. 50
^Memoirs and proceedings of the Manchester Literary & Philosophical Society Fourth Series Eighth Volume 1894
^"Wilhelm Ostwald".American Academy of Arts & Sciences. 9 February 2023. Retrieved22 November 2023.
^Gordin, Michael D. (2015).Scientific Babel: How Science Was Done Before and After Global English. University of Chicago Press. p. 151.ISBN9780226000329.
