West Virginia was admitted to theUnion on June 20, 1863, and was a keyborder state duringthe American Civil War. It separated fromVirginia and was one of two states (along withNevada) admitted to the Union during the Civil War. Some of its residents held slaves, but most were propertied farmers, and the delegates provided for the gradual abolition of slavery in the new state constitution. The state legislature abolished slavery in the state, and at the same time ratified the13th Amendment abolishing slavery nationally on February 3, 1865.
Many ancient manmade earthen mounds from various prehistoricmound builder cultures survive in West Virginia, especially in the areas of present-dayMoundsville,South Charleston, andRomney. Artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of village societies with a tribal trade system culture that craftedcold-workedcopper pieces.
In the 1670s, during theBeaver Wars, the powerfulIroquois, five allied nations based in present-day New York and Pennsylvania, drove out other Native American tribes from the region to reserve the upperOhio Valley as a hunting ground.Siouan language tribes, such as theMoneton, had previously been among the earliest recorded in the area. Conflicts with European settlers resulted in various displaced Native tribes settling in West Virginia, where they were known asMingo, meaning "remote affiliates of the Iroquois Confederacy".[15]
The area now identified as West Virginia was contested territory among Anglo-Americans as well, with the colonies ofPennsylvania andVirginia claiming territorial rights under their colonial charters to this area before theAmerican Revolutionary War. Some speculative land companies, such as theVandalia Company,[16] theOhio Company and theIndiana Company, tried but failed to legitimize their claims to land in parts of West Virginia and present-dayKentucky. This rivalry resulted in some settlers petitioning the Continental Congress to create a new territory calledWestsylvania. With the federal settlement of thePennsylvania and Virginia border dispute, creatingKentucky County, Virginia, Kentuckians "were satisfied [...] and the inhabitants of a large part of West Virginia were grateful."[17]
TheBritish Crown considered the area of West Virginia part of itsVirginia Colony from 1607 to 1776. The United States considered this area the western part of the state ofVirginia (commonly calledTrans-Allegheny Virginia) from 1776 to 1863, before West Virginia's formation. Its residents were discontented for years with their position in Virginia, as the government was dominated by theplanter elite of theTidewater andPiedmont areas. The legislature had electoral malapportionment, based on the counting of slaves toward regional populations, and western white residents were underrepresented in the state legislature. More subsistence and established farmers lived in the west, and they were generally less supportive of slavery, although many counties were divided on their support. Residents of that area became more sharply divided after the planter elite of eastern Virginia voted to secede from theUnion during the Civil War.
Residents of the western and northern counties set up a separate government underFrancis Pierpont in 1861, which they called theRestored Government. Most voted to separate from Virginia, and the new state was admitted to the Union in 1863. In 1864 a state constitutional convention drafted a constitution, which was ratified by the legislature without putting it to popular vote. West Virginia abolishedslavery by a gradual process and temporarilydisenfranchised those who had fought for theConfederacy or held Confederate office.
West Virginia's history has been profoundly affected by its mountainous terrain, numerous and vast river valleys, and rich natural resources. These were all factors driving its economy and the lifestyles of its residents, who tended to live in many small, relatively isolated communities in the mountain valleys.
A 2010 analysis of a localstalagmite revealed that Native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100BCE.[18] Some regional late-prehistoricEastern Woodland tribes were more involved in hunting and fishing, practicing theEastern Agricultural Complex gardening method which used fire to clear out underbrush from certain wooded areas. Another group progressed to the more time-consuming, advanced companion crop fields method of gardening. Also continuing from the ancientIndigenous people of the state, they cultivatedtobacco through to early historic times. It was used in numerous social and religious rituals.
"Maize (corn) did not make a substantial contribution to the diet until after 1150BP", to quote Mills (OSU 2003).[full citation needed] Eventually, tribal villages began depending on corn to feed theirturkey flocks, as Kanawha Fort Ancients practiced birdhusbandry. The local Natives made cornbread and a flat rye bread called "bannock" as they emerged from the protohistoric era. A horizon extending from a little before the early 18th century is sometimes called the acculturatingFireside Cabin culture. Trading posts were established by European traders along thePotomac andJames rivers.
Tribes that inhabited West Virginia as of 1600 were the SiouanMonongahela Culture to the north, theFort Ancient culture along the Ohio River from the Monongahela to Kentucky and extending an unknown distance inland,[19] and the Eastern SiouanTutelo andMoneton tribes in the southeast. There was also the IroquoianSusquehannock in the region approximately east of the Monongahela River and north of the Monongahela National Forest, a possible tribe called the Senandoa, or Shenandoah, in the Shenandoah Valley and the easternmost tip of the state may have been home to theManahoac people. The Monongahela may have been the same as a people known as the Calicua, or Cali.[citation needed] The following may have also all been the same tribe—Moneton, Moheton, Senandoa, Tomahitan.
During the Beaver Wars, other tribes moved into the region. The Iroquoian Tiontatecaga (also Little Mingo, Guyandotte)[20] seem to have split off from the Petun after they were defeated by the Iroquois. They eventually settled somewhere between the Kanawha and Little Kanawha Rivers. During the 1750s, when the Mingo Seneca seceded from the Iroquois and returned to the Ohio River Valley, they contend that this tribe merged with them. TheShawnee arrived as well; though primarily stationed within former Monongahela territory approximately until 1750, they extended their influence throughout the Ohio River region. They were West Virginia's last Native tribe and were driven out by the United States during the Shawnee Wars (1811–1813). The Erie, who were chased out of Ohio around 1655, are now believed to be the same as theWesto, who invaded as far as South Carolina before being destroyed in the 1680s. If so, their path would have brought them through West Virginia. The historical movement of the Tutelo[21] and carbon dating of the Fort Ancients seem to correspond with the given period of 1655–1670 as the time of their removal.[19] The Susquehannocks were original participants in the Beaver Wars but were cut off from the Ohio River by the Iroquois around 1630 and found themselves in dire straits. Suffering from disease and constant warfare and unable to provide for themselves financially, they began to collapse and moved further and further east, to the Susquehanna River of Eastern Pennsylvania.[22] The Manahoac were probably forced out in the 1680s when the Iroquois began to invade Virginia.[23] The Siouan tribes there moved intoNorth Carolina and later returned as one tribe, known as the Eastern Blackfoot, or Christannas.[24]
The Westo did not secure the territory they conquered. Even before they were gone, displaced natives from the south flooded into freshly conquered regions and took them over.[25] These became known as the Shattaras, or West Virginia Cherokees. They took in and merged with the Monetons, who began to call themselves the Mohetons. The Calicua also began to call themselves Cherokees soon after, showing an apparent further merger. These Shattaras were closely related to the tribes that formed to the south in the aftermath of the Westo—the Yuchi and Cherokee. From 1715 to 1717, the Yamasee War sprang up. The Senandoa allegedly sided with the Yuchi and were destroyed by Yamasee allies.[26] Therefore, if the Senandoa were the same tribe as the Moneton, this would mean the collapse of Shattara-Moneton culture. Another tribe that appeared in the region was the Canaragay, or Kanawha.[27] It later migrated to Maryland and merged into colonial culture.
In 1671, GeneralAbraham Wood, at the direction of Royal GovernorWilliam Berkeley of theVirginia Colony, sent a party fromFort Henry led by Thomas Batts and Robert Fallam to survey this territory. They were the first Europeans recorded as discoveringKanawha Falls. Some sources state that GovernorAlexander Spotswood's 1716Knights of the Golden Horseshoe Expedition (for which the state's Golden Horseshoe Competition for 8th graders is named) had penetrated as far asPendleton County, but modern historians interpret the original accounts of the excursion as suggesting that none of the expedition's horsemen ventured much farther west of theBlue Ridge Mountains thanHarrisonburg, Virginia. John Van Metre, a Native trader, penetrated into the northern portion in 1725. The same year,German settlers from Pennsylvania founded New Mecklenburg, the presentShepherdstown, on thePotomac River, and others followed.[28]
Christopher Gist, a surveyor in the employ of the firstOhio Company, which was composed chiefly of Virginians, explored the country along theOhio River north of the mouth of theKanawha River between 1751 and 1752. The company sought to have a 14th colony established with the name "Vandalia". Many settlers crossed the mountains after 1750, though they were hindered by Native American resistance. Few Native Americans lived permanently within the state's present limits, but the region was a common hunting ground, crossed by many trails. During theFrench and Indian War (the North American front of the Seven Years' War in Europe),Native allies of the French nearly destroyed the scattered British settlements.[30]
State of Westsylvania proposed to the U.S. Congress
Social conditions in western Virginia were entirely unlike those in the eastern part. The population was not homogeneous, as a considerable part of the immigration came by way of Pennsylvania and included Germans, ProtestantScotch-Irish, and settlers from states farther north. Counties in the east and south were settled mostly by eastern Virginians. During the American Revolution, the movement to create a state beyond theAlleghenies was revived and a petition for the establishment of "Westsylvania" was presented toCongress, on the grounds that the mountains presented an almost impassable barrier to the east. The rugged terrain made slavery unprofitable, and time only increased the social, political, economic, and cultural differences (seeTuckahoes and Cohees) between Virginia's two sections.[30]
In 1829, a constitutional convention met in Richmond to consider reforms to Virginia's outdated constitution.Philip Doddridge of Brooke County championed the cause of western Virginians who sought a more democratic frame of government,[31] but western reforms were rejected by leaders from east of theAlleghenies who "clung to political power in an effort to preserve their plantation lifestyles dependent on enslaving blacks".[32] Virginia leaders maintained a property qualification forsuffrage, effectively disenfranchising poorer farmers in the west whose families did much of the farm work themselves. In addition, the1829–30 convention gave slaveholding counties the benefit of three-fifths of their slave population in apportioning the state's representation in the U.S. House of Representatives. As a result, every county west of the Alleghenies except one voted to reject the constitution, which nevertheless passed because of eastern support.[30] The eastern planter elite's failure to make constitutional reforms exacerbated existing east–west sectionalism in Virginia and contributed to its division.[33]
TheVirginia Constitutional Convention of 1850–51, the Reform Convention, addressed a number of issues important to western Virginians. It extended the vote to all white males 21 years or older. The governor, lieutenant governor, the judiciary, sheriffs, and other county officers were to be elected by public vote. The General Assembly's composition was changed. Representation in the House of Delegates was apportioned based on the census of 1850, counting whites only. The Senate representation was arbitrarily fixed at 50 seats, with the west receiving 20 senators and the east 30. This was made acceptable to the west by a provision that required the General Assembly to reapportion representation based on the white population in 1865, or else put the matter to a public referendum. But the east also gave itself a tax advantage in requiring a property tax at true and actual value, except for slaves. Slaves under age 12 were not taxed and slaves over that age were taxed at only $300, a fraction of their true value, but small farmers had all their assets, animals, and land taxed at full value. Despite this tax and the lack ofinternal improvements in the west, the vote was 75,748 for and 11,063 against the new constitution. Most of the opposition came from delegates from eastern counties, who did not like the compromises made for the west.[34]
Given these differences, many in the west had long contemplated a separate state. In particular, men such as lawyerFrancis H. Pierpont from Fairmont had long chafed under the Tidewater and Piedmont slaveholders' political dominance. In addition to differences over slavery, he and allies felt the Virginia government ignored and refused to spend funds on needed internal improvements in the west, such as turnpikes and railroads.[35]
Map of Virginia dated June 13, 1861, featuring the percentage of slave population within each county at the 1860 census and the proposed state of KanawhaHarpers Ferry alternated between Confederate and Union rule eight times during theAmerican Civil War, and was finally annexed by West Virginia.[36]Votes by county in the October 1861 statehood vote
West Virginia was the only state in the Union to separate from a Confederate state (Virginia) during the Civil War.[37] In Richmond on April 17, 1861, theVirginia Secession Convention of 1861 voted to secede from the Union, but of the 49 delegates from the northwestern corner (which ultimately became West Virginia) only 17 voted in favor of theOrdinance of Secession, while 30 voted against[38] (with two abstentions).[39] Almost immediately after that vote, a mass meeting atClarksburg recommended that each county in northwestern Virginia send delegates to a convention to meet inWheeling on May 13, 1861. When this FirstWheeling Convention met, 425 delegates from 25 counties were present, though more than one-third of the delegates were from the northern panhandle area.[40] Soon there was a division of sentiment.[30]
Some delegates led by pro-Union slaveownerJohn S. Carlile favored the immediate formation of a new state, while others led byWaitman Willey argued that, as Virginia's secession had not yet been passed by the required referendum (as happened on May 23), such action would constitute revolution against the United States.[note 3] The convention decided that if Virginians adopted the secession ordinance (of which there was little doubt), another convention including the members-elect of the legislature would meet in Wheeling in June 1861. On May 23, 1861, secession was ratified by a large majority in Virginia as a whole, but in the western counties 34,677 voted against and 19,121 voted for the ordinance.[41]
The Second Wheeling Convention met as agreed on June 11 and declared that, since the Secession Convention had been called without popular consent, all its acts were void and all who adhered to it had vacated their offices.[30] The Wheeling Conventions, and the delegates themselves, were never actually elected by public ballot to act on behalf of western Virginia.[42] Of its 103 members, 33 had been elected to the Virginia General Assembly[43] on May 23. This included some hold-over state senators whose four-year terms had begun in 1859, and some who vacated their offices to convene in Wheeling. Other members "were chosen even more irregularly—some in mass meetings, others by county committee, and still others were seemingly self-appointed".[44] An act for the reorganization of the government was passed on June 19. The next day, convention delegates choseFrancis H. Pierpont as governor of Virginia and elected other officers to a rival state government and two U.S. senators (Willey and Carlile) to replace secessionists before adjourning. The federal government promptly recognized the new government and seated the two new senators. Thus there were two state governments in Virginia: one pledging allegiance to the United States and one to theConfederacy.[30]
The second Wheeling Convention had recessed until August 6, then reassembled on August 20 and called for a popular vote on the formation of a new state and for a convention to frame a constitution if the vote were favorable. In the October 24, 1861, election, 18,408 votes were cast for the new state and 781 against.[30] The election results were questioned since the Union army then occupied the area and Union troops were stationed at many of the polls to prevent Confederate sympathizers from voting.[45] This was also election day for local offices, and elections were also held in camps of Confederate soldiers, who elected rival state officials, such asRobert E. Cowan. Most pro-statehood votes came from 16 counties around the northern panhandle.[46] Over 50,000 votes had been cast on the Ordinance of Secession, yet the vote on statehood garnered little more than 19,000.[47] In Ohio County, home to Wheeling, only about a fourth of the registered voters cast votes.[48] In most of what would become West Virginia, there was no vote at all, as two-thirds of the territory of West Virginia had voted for secession, and county officers remained loyal to Richmond. Votes recorded from pro-secession counties were mostly cast elsewhere by Unionist refugees from these counties.[49]
Despite that controversy, delegates (including many Methodist ministers) met to write a constitution for the new state, beginning on November 26, 1861. During that constitutional convention, a Mr. Lamb of Ohio County and a Mr. Carskadon claimed that in Hampshire County, out of 195 votes only 39 were cast by citizens of the state; the rest were cast illegally by Union soldiers.[50] One of the key figures wasGordon Battelle, who also represented Ohio County, and who proposed resolutions to establish public schools, as well as to limit the movement of slaves into the new state, and to gradually abolish slavery. The education proposal succeeded, but the convention tabled the slavery proposals before finishing its work on February 18, 1862. The new constitution was more closely modeled on Ohio's than Virginia's, adopting a township model of government rather than the "courthouse cliques" of Virginia which Carlile criticized, and a compromise demanded by the Kanawha region (Charleston lawyers Benjamin Smith and Brown) allowed counties and municipalities to vote subsidies for railroads or other improvement organizations.[51] The resulting instrument was ratified (18,162 for and 514 against) on April 11, 1862.
On May 13, 1862, the state legislature of the reorganized government approved the formation of the new state. An application for admission to the Union was made to Congress, introduced by SenatorWaitman Willey of the Restored Government of Virginia. Carlile sought to sabotage the bill, first trying to expand the new state's boundaries to include the Shenandoah Valley, and then to defeat the Willey amendment at home.[52] On December 31, 1862, PresidentAbraham Lincoln approved an enabling act admitting West Virginia on the condition that a provision for the gradual abolition of slavery be inserted in its constitution[30] (as Battelle had urged in theWheeling Intelligencer and also written to Lincoln). While many felt West Virginia's admission as a state was both illegal and unconstitutional, Lincoln issued hisOpinion on the Admission of West Virginia finding that "the body which consents to the admission of West Virginia is the Legislature of Virginia", and that its admission was therefore both constitutional and expedient.[53]
A slave woman tending to a white baby in West Virginia, 1865
The convention was reconvened on February 12, 1863, and the abolition demand of the federal enabling act was met. The revised constitution was adopted on March 26, 1863, and on April 20, 1863, Lincoln issued a proclamation admitting the state 60 days later on June 20, 1863. Meanwhile, officers for the new state were chosen, while Pierpont moved his pro-Union Virginia capital to Union-occupiedAlexandria, where he asserted and exercised jurisdiction over all the remaining Virginia counties within the federal lines.[30]
The question of the constitutionality of the formation of the new state was later brought before theSupreme Court of the United States inVirginia v. West Virginia.Berkeley andJefferson counties, lying on the Potomac east of the mountains, voted in favor of annexation to West Virginia in 1863, with the consent of Virginia's reorganized government.[30]
Many voters of the strongly pro-secessionist counties were absent in the Confederate Army when the vote was taken and refused to acknowledge the transfer when they returned. TheVirginia General Assembly repealed the act of secession and in 1866 brought suit against West Virginia asking the court to declare the counties part of Virginia, which would have made West Virginia's admission as a state unconstitutional. Meanwhile, on March 10, 1866, Congress passed a joint resolution recognizing the transfer.[30] The Supreme Court decided in West Virginia's favor in 1870.[54]
The original charters for Maryland and Virginia were silent as to which branch of the upper Potomac was the boundary. This was settled by the 1785Mount Vernon Conference. Nevertheless, when West Virginia seceded from Virginia, Maryland claimed West Virginia land north of the South Branch (all ofMineral andGrant Counties and parts ofHampshire,Hardy,Tucker andPendleton Counties). The Supreme Court rejected these claims in two separate decisions in 1910.[55][56]
During the Civil War, Union GeneralGeorge B. McClellan's forces gained possession of the greater part of the territory in the summer of 1861, culminating at theBattle of Rich Mountain, and Union control was never again seriously threatened. In 1863, GeneralJohn D. Imboden, with 5,000 Confederates, raided a considerable portion of the state and burned Pierpont's library, although Willey escaped their grasp. Bands of guerrillas burned and plundered in some sections, and were not entirely suppressed until the war ended.[30] The eastern panhandle counties were more affected by the war, with military control of the area repeatedly changing hands.
The area that became West Virginia actually furnished about an equal number of soldiers to the Union and Confederate armies,[57] about 22,000–25,000 each. In 1865, the Wheeling government found it necessary to strip voting rights from returning Confederates in order to retain control. James Ferguson, who proposed the law, said if it was not enacted he would lose the election by 500 votes.[58] Confederates' property might also be confiscated, and in 1866 a constitutional amendment disfranchising all who had given aid and comfort to the Confederacy was adopted. The addition of theFourteenth andFifteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution caused a reaction. TheDemocratic party secured control in 1870, and in 1871 the constitutional amendment of 1866 was abrogated.Republicans had taken the first steps toward this change in 1870. On August 22, 1872, an entirely new constitution was adopted.[30]
Beginning inReconstruction, and for several decades thereafter, the two states disputed the new state's share of the prewar Virginia government's debts, which had mostly been incurred to finance public infrastructure improvements, such as canals, roads, and railroads under theVirginia Board of Public Works. Virginians—led by former Confederate generalWilliam Mahone—formed a political coalition based upon this: theReadjuster Party. West Virginia's first constitution provided for the assumption of a part of the Virginia debt, but negotiations opened by Virginia in 1870 were fruitless, and in 1871 Virginia funded two-thirds of the debt and arbitrarily assigned the remainder to West Virginia.[59] The issue wasfinally settled in 1915, when theSupreme Court of the United States ruled that West Virginia owed Virginia $12,393,929.50.[60] The final installment of this sum was paid in 1939.
Child laborer photographed byLewis Hine in the coal mines of West Virginia, 1908Family of a coal miner, circa 1935Saturday afternoon street scene,Welch, McDowell County, 1946
AfterReconstruction, the new 35th state benefited from the development of its mineral resources more than any other single economic activity.
Saltpeter caves had been employed throughout Appalachia for munitions; the border between West Virginia andVirginia includes the "Saltpeter Trail", a string oflimestonecaverns containing rich deposits ofcalcium nitrate which were rendered and sold to the government. The trail stretched fromPendleton County to the western terminus of the route in the town ofUnion,Monroe County. Nearly half of these caves are on the West Virginia side, includingOrgan Cave andHaynes Cave. In the late 18th century, saltpeter miners inHaynes Cave found large animal bones in the deposits. These were sent by a local historian and frontier soldier Colonel John Stuart toThomas Jefferson. The bones were namedMegalonyx jeffersonii, or great-claw, and became known as Jefferson's three-toed sloth. It was declared the officialstate fossil of West Virginia in 2008. The West Virginia officialstate rock isbituminous coal,[61] and the officialstate gemstone is silicified Mississippian fossil Lithostrotionella coral.[62]
The limestone also produced a usefulquarry industry. Usually small, and softer, high-calcium seams were burned to produce industrial lime. This lime was used for agricultural and construction purposes; for many years a specific portion of theC & O Railroad carried limestone rock toClifton Forge, Virginia as an industrial flux.
Salt mining had been underway since the 18th century, though it had largely played out by the time of the American Civil War, when the red salt ofKanawha County was a valued commodity of first Confederate, and later Union, forces. In the years following, more sophisticated mining methods would restore West Virginia's role as a major producer of salt.
However, in the second half of the 19th century, there was an even greater treasure not yet developed:bituminous coal. It would fuel much of theIndustrial Revolution in the U.S. and the steamships of many of the world's navies.
The residents (both Native Americans and early European settlers) had long known of the underlying coal, and that it could be used for heating and fuel. However, for a long time, "personal" orartisanal mining was the only practical development. After the War, with the newrailroads came a practical method to transport large quantities of coal to expanding U.S. and export markets. As theanthracite mines of northwestern New Jersey and Pennsylvania began to play out during this same time period, investors and industrialists focused new interest in West Virginia.Geologists such as Dr.David T. Ansted surveyed potential coal fields and invested in land and early mining projects.
The completion of theChesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) across the state to the new city ofHuntington on theOhio River in 1872 opened access to theNew River Coal Field. Soon, the C&O was building its hugecoal pier atNewport News, Virginia, on the large harbor ofHampton Roads. In 1881, the new Philadelphia-based owners of the formerAtlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad (AM&O), which stretched across Virginia's southern tier fromNorfolk, had sights clearly set on West Virginia, where the owners had large landholdings. Their railroad was renamedNorfolk and Western (N&W), and a new railroad city was developed atRoanoke to handle planned expansion. After its new presidentFrederick J. Kimball and a small party journeyed by horseback and saw firsthand the rich bituminous coal seam, which Kimball's wife namedPocahontas, the N&W redirected its planned westward expansion to reach it. Soon, the N&W was also shipping from new coal piers at Hampton Roads.
In 1889, in the southern part of the state, along the Norfolk and Western rail lines, the important coal center ofBluefield, West Virginia, was founded. The "capital" of thePocahontas coalfield, this city would remain the largest city in the southern portion of the state for several decades. It shares its name with a sister city,Bluefield, in Virginia.
Particularly notable was a latecomer, theVirginian Railway (VGN). By 1900, only the most rugged terrain of southern West Virginia was any distance from the existing railroads and mining activity. Within this area west of the New River Coalfield in Raleigh and Wyoming counties lay theWinding Gulf Coalfield, later promoted as the "Billion Dollar Coalfield".
A protégé of Dr. Ansted wasWilliam Nelson Page (1854–1932), acivil engineer and mining manager inFayette County. Former West Virginia governorWilliam A. MacCorkle described him as a man who knew the land "as a farmer knows a field". Beginning in 1898, Page teamed with northern and European-based investors to take advantage of the undeveloped area. They acquired large tracts of land in the area, and Page began theDeepwater Railway, ashort-line railroad chartered to stretch between the C&O at its line along theKanawha River and the N&W atMatoaka—a distance of about 80 miles (130 km).
Although the Deepwater plan should have provided a competitive shipping market via either railroad, leaders of the two large railroads did not appreciate the scheme. In secret collusion, each declined to negotiate favorable rates with Page, nor did they offer to purchase his railroad, as they had many other short-lines. However, if the C&O and N&W presidents thought they could thus kill the Page project, they were to be proved mistaken. One of thesilent partner investors Page had enlisted was millionaire industrialistHenry Huttleston Rogers, a principal inJohn D. Rockefeller'sStandard Oil Trust and an old hand at developing natural resources and transportation. A master at competitive "warfare", Henry Rogers did not like to lose in his endeavors and also had"deep pockets".
Instead of giving up, Page (and Rogers) quietly planned and then built their tracks all the way east across Virginia, using Rogers' private fortune to finance the $40 million cost. When the renamedVirginian Railway (VGN) was completed in 1909, no fewer than three railroads were shipping ever-increasing volumes of coal to export from Hampton Roads. West Virginia coal was also in high demand atGreat Lakes ports. The VGN and the N&W ultimately became parts of the modernNorfolk Southern system, and the VGN's well-engineered 20th-century tracks continue to offer a favorable gradient to Hampton Roads.
As coal mining and related work became major employment activities in the state, there was considerable labor strife as working conditions, safety issues and economic concerns arose. Even in the 21st century, mining safety and ecological concerns are still challenging to the state whose coal continues to power electrical generating plants in many other states.
Coal is not the only valuable mineral found in West Virginia, as the state was the site of the 1928 discovery of the 34.48 carat (6.896 g)Jones Diamond.
Located in theAppalachian Mountains, West Virginia covers an area of 24,229.76 square miles (62,754.8 km2), with 24,077.73 square miles (62,361.0 km2) of land and 152.03 square miles (393.8 km2) of water, making it the 41st-largest state in the United States.[63] West Virginia bordersPennsylvania andMaryland in the northeast,Virginia in the southeast,Ohio in the northwest, andKentucky in the southwest. Its longest border is with Virginia at 381 miles (613 km), followed by Ohio at 243 miles (391 km), Maryland at 174 miles (280 km), Pennsylvania at 118 miles (190 km), and Kentucky at 79 miles (127 km).[64]
West Virginia is located entirely within the Appalachian Region, and the state is almost entirely mountainous, giving the reason for the nicknameThe Mountain State and the mottoMontani Semper Liberi ("Mountaineers are always free"). The elevations and ruggedness drop near large rivers like the Ohio River orShenandoah River. About 75% of the state is within theCumberland Plateau andAllegheny Plateau regions. Though the relief is not high, the plateau region is extremely rugged in most areas. The average elevation of West Virginia is approximately 1,500 feet (460 m) above sea level, which is the highest of any U.S. state east of the Mississippi River.
The underlying rock strata arePaleozoic Erasandstones,shales,bituminous coal beds, andlimestones laid down in near-shore environments. The sandstones and shales were derived fromsediments eroded from former mountains to the east, then deposited in a shallow inland sea to the west. The limestones were derived from biomineralizing marine organisms such as calcareous algae, brachiopods, and crinoids. Coals were formed in coastal swamp environments, and deltaic environments formed near the mouths of ancient rivers. Sea level rose and fell many times during theCarboniferous Period (Mississippian andPennsylvanian Subperiods), yielding a variety of rockstrata that dominate the bedrock today. TheAppalachian Mountains, which are a major influence on the present-day geography of West Virginia, formed more than three hundred million years ago.[67]
The State Fossil of West Virginia is the giant ground slothMegalonyx jeffersonii, which lived during thePleistocene Epoch (the most recent "Ice Age"). The genus was described byThomas Jefferson in 1799 from remains collected in Haynes Cave, Monroe County, West Virginia.[68][69] In 1799, that area was considered to belong to the western part of the State of Virginia.Megalonyx was the first genus of fossil vertebrate animal named from the United States.[68]
The climate of West Virginia is generally ahumid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classificationCfa, exceptDfb at the higher elevations) with warm to hot, humid summers and chilly winters, increasing in severity with elevation. Some southern highland areas also have a mountain temperate climate (KöppenCfb) where winter temperatures are more moderate and summer temperatures are somewhat cooler. However, the weather is subject in all parts of the state to change. Thehardiness zones range from zone 5b in the central Appalachian Mountains to zone 7a in the warmest parts of the lowest elevations.[71]
Average January temperatures range from around 26 °F (−4 °C) near theCheat River to 41 °F (5 °C) along sections of the border with Kentucky. July averages range from 67 °F (19 °C) along theNorth Branch Potomac River to 76 °F (24 °C) in the western part of the state. It is cooler in the mountains than in the lower sections of the state.[72] The highest recorded temperature in the state is 112 °F (44 °C) atMartinsburg on July 10, 1936, and the lowest recorded temperature in the state is −37 °F (−38 °C) atLewisburg on December 30, 1917.
Annual precipitation ranges from less than 32 inches (810 mm) in the lower eastern section to more than 56 inches (1,400 mm) in higher parts of the Allegheny Front. Valleys in the east have lower rainfall because the Allegheny mountain ridges to the west create a partialrain shadow. Slightly more than half the rainfall occurs from April to September. Dense fogs are common in many valleys of theKanawha section, especially theTygart Valley. West Virginia is also one of the cloudiest states in the nation, with the cities ofElkins andBeckley ranking 9th and 10th in the U.S. respectively for the number of cloudy days per year (over 210). In addition to persistent cloudy skies caused by the damming of moisture by the Alleghenies, West Virginia also experiences some of the most frequent precipitation in the nation, withSnowshoe averaging nearly 200 days a year with either rain or snow. Snow usually lasts only a few days in the lower sections but may persist for weeks in the higher mountain areas. An average of 34 inches (860 mm) of snow falls annually in Charleston, although during the winter of 1995–1996 more than three times that amount fell as several cities in the state established new records for snowfall. Average snowfall in the Allegheny Highlands can range up to 180 inches (4,600 mm) per year. Severe weather is somewhat less prevalent in West Virginia than in most other eastern states, and it ranks among the least tornado-prone states east of the Rockies.
Originally, the state capital was located in Wheeling, from 1863 to 1870. It was then moved to Charleston, a more central city, from 1870 to 1875, when it returned to Wheeling. In 1885, the capitol burned down and it was moved back to Charleston that year, where a vote was held to determine the permanent capital between Charleston,Clarksburg, andMartinsburg. Charleston was selected, and it has remained the capital since.[74]
As of 2019, West Virginia has an estimated population of 1,792,147, which is a decrease of 10,025 (0.55%) from the prior year and a decrease of 47,162 (2.55%) since the previous census.[87] This includes a natural decrease of 3,296 (108,292 births minus 111,588 deaths) and an increase from netmigration of 14,209 into the state. West Virginia is the least populoussoutheastern state.Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 3,691, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 10,518.
In 2018, the top countries of origin for West Virginia's immigrants wereMexico,China,India, thePhilippines andGermany. Only 1.6% of the state's residents were foreign-born, placing West Virginia last among the 50 states in that statistic. It also has the lowest percentage of residents who speak a language other than English at home (2.6%).[88]
The five largest ancestry groups in West Virginia according to the American Community Survey are: 22%American, 17%English, 13%German, 10%Irish, and 4%Italian.[89]
Large numbers of people ofGerman ancestry are present in the northeastern counties of the state. People ofEnglish ancestry are present throughout the entire state. Many West Virginians who self-identify asIrish are actuallyScots-Irish Protestants.African Americans are concentrated in Metro Valley in the vicinity of Charleston and Huntington. African Americans also live in the New River/Greenbrier Valley.[90] The state also has a significantSerbian population. Most of the Serbs came to West Virginia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to work in thecoal mines.[91][92] There are also small numbers of Hispanics, Asians, Pacific Islanders, and Native Americans in West Virginia.[93] There is also aRomani community in West Virginia.[94] There are alsoMelungeons in the state.[95]
Packed circles diagram showing estimates of the ethnic origins of people in West Virginia in 2021.
As of the 2010 census, 16% of West Virginia's residents are 65 or older, ranking second in the country, only behind Florida, which sits at 17%.[96]
Racial plurality in West Virginia by county, per the 2020 U.S. census
Legend
Non-Hispanic White
70–80%
80–90%
90%+
There were 20,928 births in 2006. Of these, 19,757 (94.40% of the births, 95.19% of the population) were to non-Hispanic whites. There were 22 births to Native American (0.11% of the births and 0.54% of the population), 177 births to Asians (0.85% of the births and 0.68% of the population), 219 births to Hispanics (1.05% of the births and 0.88% of the population) and 753 births to blacks and others (3.60% of the births and 3.56% of the population).[97] The county with the highest percentage of residents under 18 isBerkeley County with 23.5% andGilmer County with the lowest percentage at 15.3%.[98]
Birth data
Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number. Since 2016, data for births ofWhite Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one Hispanic group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
In 2010 97.67% (1,697,042) of West Virginia residents aged 5 years or older spoke English as their primary language. 2.33% of residents spoke a native language other than English.[111]
Several surveys of West Virginians' religious affiliation have been made in recent years, including in 2008 by the American Religion Identity Survey,[114] and in 2010 by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life.[115] The Pew survey results admit to a 6.5% margin of error, while the ARIS survey says "estimates are subject to larger sampling errors in states with small populations." A characteristic of religion in Appalachian communities is the abundance of independent, non-affiliated churches, which "remain unnoted and uncounted in any census of church life in the United States". This sometimes leads to the belief that these communities are "unchurched".[116]
A 2015 survey by thePew Research Center found that West Virginia was the seventh-most "highly religious" state in the nation.[119] A 2020 survey by thePublic Religion Research Institute found that 69% of the adult population was Christian, reflecting a slight decrease since the Pew Research Center's 2015 survey.[120] In 2020, a survey of nearly 1,900 West Virginians reported that 78.6% were Christian and 16.2% were unaffiliated.[121] In 2022, the Public Religion Research Institute estimated 67% of the state was Christian (53% Protestant, 11% Catholic, 2% Jehovah's Witness, and 1% Mormon), 28% unaffiliated, 3%New Age, and 2%Buddhist.
According to the World Bank, West Virginia's economy would nominally be the world's 69th-largest, behindLuxembourg and ahead ofBulgaria.[122][failed verification] The state has a projected nominal GDP of $85.434 billion in 2009 according to theBureau of Economic Analysis report as of 2021, and a real GDP of $71.343 billion. The state's real GDP growth of 1.3% in 2021 was the 8th-best in the country.[123]
While per capita income fell 2.6% nationally in 2009, West Virginia's grew at 1.8%.[124] Through the first half of 2010, exports from West Virginia topped $3 billion, growing 39.5% over the same period from the previous year and ahead of the national average by 15.7%.[124]
Forbes rankedMorgantown as the 10th-best small city in the nation to conduct business in 2010. The city is also home toWest Virginia University, the 95th-best public university, according toU.S. News & World Report in 2011.[125] The proportion of West Virginia's adult population with abachelor's degree is the lowest in the U.S., at 17.3%.[126]
The net corporate income tax rate is 6.5% while business costs are 13% below the national average.[127][128]
The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis reported that in 2014 West Virginia's economy grew twice as fast as the next fastest-growing state east of the Mississippi River, ranking third alongside Wyoming and just behind North Dakota and Texas among the fastest-growing states.[129]
Tourism contributed $4.27 billion to the state's economy and employed 44,400 people in 2010, making it one of the state's largest industries.[130] Many tourists, especially in the eastern mountains, are drawn to the region's notable opportunities for outdoor recreation.Canaan Valley is popular for winter sports,Seneca Rocks is one of the premier rock climbing destinations in the eastern U.S., theNew River Gorge/Fayetteville area draws rock climbers as well aswhitewater rafting enthusiasts, and theMonongahela National Forest is popular with hikers, backpackers, hunters, and anglers.
Also drawing tourism to the state is theWest Virginia State Park &State Forest system, which comprises 45 units covering 164,000 acres. In 2021, over 9 million people visited a West Virginia State Park, the highest number on record. This is partly due to a recent $151 million improvement project that has seen improvements at every park and forest.[131]
In addition to such outdoor recreation opportunities, the state offers a number of historic and cultural attractions.Harpers Ferry National Historical Park is a historic town situated at the confluence of the Shenandoah and Potomac rivers.Harpers Ferry was the site ofJohn Brown's 1859raid on the U.S. Armory and Arsenal. Located at the approximate midpoint of theAppalachian Trail, Harpers Ferry is the base of theAppalachian Trail Conservancy.
The Greenbrier hotel andresort, originally built in 1778, has long been considered a premier hotel, frequented by numerous world leaders and U.S. presidents over the years.
West Virginia is the site of theNational Radio Astronomy Observatory, which features theGreen Bank Telescope. For the 1963 Centennial of the State, it hosted two high school graduate delegates from each of the 50 States at theNational Youth Science Camp near Bartow, and has continued this tradition ever since. The main building ofWeston State Hospital is the largest hand-cut sandstone building in the western hemisphere, second worldwide only to the Kremlin in Moscow. Tours of the building, which is aNational Historic Landmark and part of theNational Civil War Trail, are offered seasonally and by appointment year-round. West Virginia has numerous popular festivals throughout the year.
Bituminous coal seam in southwestern West Virginia
One of the major resources in West Virginia's economy iscoal. According to theEnergy Information Administration, West Virginia is a top coal producer in the United States, second only to Wyoming. West Virginia is located in the heart of the Marcellus Shale Natural Gas Bed, which stretches from Tennessee north to New York in the middle of Appalachia.
As of 2017, the coal industry accounted for 2% of state employment.[132] Nearly all the electricity generated in West Virginia is from coal-fired power plants. West Virginia produces a surplus of electricity and leads the nation in net interstate electricity exports.[133] Farming is also practiced in West Virginia, but on a limited basis because of the mountainous terrain over much of the state.
An assessment from 2012 estimated that West Virginia had the potential to generate 8,627 GWh/year from 2,772 MW of 100-meterwind turbines, and 60,000 GWh from 40,000 MW of photovoltaics, including 3,810 MW of rooftopphotovoltaics.[134] This was based on then-existing technologies and apparently was based on some assumed requirements for the economic performance of the respective resources.
West Virginia personalincome tax is based on federal adjusted gross income (not taxable income), as modified by specific items in West Virginia law. Citizens are taxed within five income brackets, which range from 3.0% to 6.5%. The state's consumersales tax is levied at 6% on most products except for non-prepared foods.[140]
West Virginia counties administer and collectproperty taxes, although property tax rates reflect levies for state government, county governments, county boards of education and municipalities. Counties may also impose a hotel occupancy tax on lodging places not located within the city limits of any municipality that levies such a tax. Municipalities may levy license andgross receipts taxes on businesses located within the city limits and a hotel occupancy tax on lodging places in the city. Although the Department of Tax and Revenue plays a major role in the administration of this tax, less than half of one percent of the property tax collected goes to state government.
The primary beneficiaries of the property tax are county boards of education. Property taxes are paid to thesheriff of each of the state's 55 counties. Each county and municipality can impose its own rates of property taxation within the limits set by the West Virginia Constitution. The West Virginia legislature sets the rate of tax of county boards of education. This rate is used by all county boards of education statewide. However, the total tax rate for county boards of education may differ from county to county because of excess levies. The Department of Tax and Revenue supervises and otherwise assists counties and municipalities in their work of assessment and tax rate determination. The total tax rate is a combination of the tax levies from four state taxing authorities: state, county, schools and municipal. This total tax rate varies for each of the four classes of property, which consists of personal, real and intangible properties. Property is assessed according to its use, location and value as of July 1. WV Assessments has a free searchable database of West Virginia real estate tax assessments, covering current and past years. All property is reappraised every three years; annual adjustments are made to assessments for property with a change of value. West Virginia does not impose aninheritance tax. Because of the phase-out of the federalestate tax credit, West Virginia's estate tax is not imposed on estates of persons who died on or after January 1, 2005.[141]
West Virginia coal exports declined 40% in 2013—a loss of $2.9 billion and overall total exports declined 26%.[144] West Virginia ranked last in theGallup Economic Index for the fourth year running. West Virginia's score was −44, or a full 17 points lower than the average of −27 for the other states in the bottom ten.[11] West Virginia ranked 48th in the CNBC "Top States for Business 2013" based on measures of competitiveness such as economy, workforce and cost of living—ranking among the bottom five states for the last six years running.[145] West Virginia ranked 49th in the 2014 State New Economy Index and has ranked in the bottom three states since 1999. West Virginia ranked last or next-to-last in critical indicators such as Workforce Education, Entrepreneurial Activity, High-Tech Jobs, and Scientists and Engineers.[146]
In 2012, West Virginia'sgross domestic product (GDP) grew by 3.3%.[147] The state issued a report highlighting the state's GDP as indicating a fast-growing economy, but did not address employment indicators.[148] In 2009–2013, the U.S. real GDP increased 9.6% and total employment increased 3.9%. In West Virginia during the same time period, its real GDP increased about 11%, while total employment decreased by 1,000 jobs from 746,000 to 745,000.
In 2013, West Virginia ranked last in the nation with anemployment-to-population ratio of only 50%, compared to the national average of 59%.[149] The state lost 5,600 jobs in its labor force in four critical economic sectors: construction (1,900), manufacturing (1,100), retail (1,800), and education (800), while gaining just 400 in mining and logging.[150] The state's Civilian Labor Force dropped by 15,100.[151]
Personal income growth in West Virginia during 2013 was only 1.5%—the lowest in the nation—and about half the national average (2.6%).[12] Overall income growth in West Virginia in the last thirty years has been only 13%—about a third of the national average (37%). Wages of the impoverished bottom 1% income earners decreased by 3%, compared to the national average, which increased 19%.[152]
West Virginia'spoverty rate is one of the highest in the nation. 2017 estimates indicate that 19% of the state's population lives in poverty, exceeding the national average of 13%.[153]
United Van Lines 37th Annual Migration Study showed in 2013 that 60% more people moved out of West Virginia than moved in.[154] West Virginia's population is expected to decline by more than 19,000 residents by 2030, and West Virginia lost one of its three seats in the United States House of Representatives in the 2020 census.[155] West Virginia is the only state where death rates exceed birth rates. During 2010–2013, about 21,000 babies per year were born in West Virginia, but over these three years West Virginia had 3,000 more deaths than births.[156]
Gallup-Healthways annual "State of American Well-Being" rankings reports that 1,261 concerned West Virginians rated themselves as "suffering" in categories such as Quality of Life, Physical Health, and Access to Basic Needs. Overall, West Virginia citizens rated themselves as being more miserable than people in all other states—for five years running.[157] In addition, the Gallup Well-Being Index for 2013 ranked Charleston, the state capital, and Huntington last and next-to-last out of 189 U.S. Metropolitan Statistical Areas.[158]
The Annie E. Casey Foundation's National Index of Children's Progress ranked West Virginia 43rd in the nation for all kids, and last for white kids.[159] The Annie E. Casey Foundation's 2013 KIDS COUNT Data Book also ranked West Virginia's education system 47th in the nation for the second straight year.[160] Charleston, West Virginia has the worst divorce rate among 100 cities in the nation. Stephen Smith, the executive director of the West Virginia Healthy Kids and Families Coalition, said poor employment prospects are to blame: "The pressure to make a good living puts strain on a marriage, and right now it is infinitely harder to make a living here than it was 40 years ago."[161]
United Health Foundation's "America's Health Rankings" for 2013 found that Americans are making considerable progress in key health measures. West Virginia, however, ranked either last or second-to-last in twenty categories, including cancer, child immunization, diabetes, disabilities, drug deaths, teeth loss, low birth weight, missed work days due to health, prescription drug overdose, preventable hospitalizations, and senior clinical care.[13] Wisconsin Population Health Institute annual "Health Rankings" for 2012 showed West Virginia spends $9,671 per capita on health care annually. El Salvador spends just $467, yet both have the same life expectancy.[162] In 2012, according to the Census Bureau, West Virginia was the only state where death rates exceed birth rates. During 2010–2013, about 21,000 babies per year were born in West Virginia, but there were 24,000 deaths.[156] In demographics, this is called a "net mortality society".[163]
The National Center for Health Statistics says national birth rates for teenagers are at historic lows—during 2007–2010, teen birth rates fell 17% nationally. West Virginia, however, ranked last with a 3% increase in birth rates for teenagers.[164] A study by West Virginia's Marshall University showed that 19% of babies born in the state have evidence of drug or alcohol exposure.[165] This is several times the national rate, where studies show that about 5.9% of pregnant women in the U.S. use illicit drugs, and about 8.5% consume any alcohol.[166] An Institute for Health Policy Research study determined that mortality rates in Appalachia are correlated with coal production. In twenty West Virginia coal counties mining more than a million tons of coal per year and having a total population of 850,000, there are about 10,100 deaths per year, with 1,400 of those statistically attributed to deaths from heart, respiratory and kidney disease from living in an Appalachian coal county.[167]
In 2015,McDowell County had the highest rate ofdrug-induced deaths of any county in the United States, with a rate of 141 deaths per 100,000 people. Four of the five counties with the highest rates of drug-induced deaths are in West Virginia (McDowell, Wyoming, Cabell and Raleigh Counties).[168] In 2022, West Virginia had the highest drug overdose death rate of any US state, at 80.9 per 100,000 people.[169]
The residents of West Virginiahave a lower life expectancy than the national average. In 2014 life expectancy for both sexes in the state was 76.0 years compared to 79.1 years for the United States as a whole. In 2014, males in West Virginia lived an average of 73.6 years compared to a national average of 76.7 years and females lived an average of 77.5 years compared to a national average of 81.5 years. Male life expectancy in West Virginia between 1980 and 2014 increased by 4.7 years, compared to a national average of a 6.7-year increase. Life expectancy for females in West Virginia between 1980 and 2014 increased by 1.7 years, compared to a national average of a 4.0-year increase. Life expectancy for both sexes is among the lowest of all states.[10]
Life expectancies in 2014 for both sexes in West Virginia counties ranged from a low of 70.3 years inMcDowell County to a high of 79.3 years inPendleton County. McDowell and several other West Virginia counties are among the counties in the U.S. with the lowest life expectancies.[10]
TheWest Virginia Legislature isbicameral. It consists of theHouse of Delegates and theSenate, both housed in theWest Virginia State Capitol. It is a citizen's legislature, meaning that legislative office is not a full-time occupation, but rather a part-time position. Consequently, the legislators often hold full-time jobs in their community of residence.
Typically, the legislature is in session for 60 days between January and early April. The final day of the regular session ends in a bewildering fury of last-minute legislation to meet a constitutionally imposed midnight deadline. During the remainder of the year, monthly interim sessions are held in preparation for the regular session. Legislators also gather periodically for 'special' sessions when called by the governor.
Thegovernor, elected every four years on the same day as the U.S. presidential election, is sworn in during the following January. Governors of West Virginia can serve two consecutive terms but must sit out a term before serving a third term in office. The title ofLieutenant Governor is assigned by statute to thesenate president. West Virginia's current governor isPatrick Morrisey.
West Virginia's highest court is theSupreme Court of Appeals. The Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia is the busiest appellate court of its type in the United States. West Virginia is one of 11 states with a single appellate court. The state constitution allows for the creation of an intermediate court of appeals, but the Legislature has never created one. The Supreme Court is made up of five justices, elected in nonpartisan elections to 12-year terms. For the purpose of courts of general jurisdiction, the state is divided into 31 judicial circuits. Each circuit is made up of one or more counties. Circuit judges are elected in non-partisan elections to serve eight-year terms.
West Virginia is analcoholic beverage control state, but unlike most such states, it does not operate retail outlets, having exited that business in 1990. It retains a monopoly on wholesaling ofdistilled spirits only. West Virginia is one of 27 states that do not have adeath penalty, and it was the only state in the southeastern United States to have abolished it until 2021, whenVirginia did so as well.
West Virginia is regarded as a heavily Republican,"deep red" state at the federal level.[9][172] Since2000, West Virginians have supported the Republican candidate in every presidential election, nearly always by increasing margins. The2008 presidential election was the last to date in which the Democratic nominee won any of the state's counties.
In the2024 presidential election, RepublicanDonald Trump won all of the state's counties and 69.97% of the vote, the highest percentage any party has won in the state's history.[173] West Virginia was Trump's best performance in 2016.[174]
At the state level, West Virginia's politics were largely dominated by theDemocratic Party from theGreat Depression through the 2000s. This was a legacy of West Virginia's very strong tradition of union membership.[9] After the 2014 midterm elections Democrats controlled the governorship, the majority of statewide offices, and one U.S. Senate seat, while Republicans held one U.S. Senate seat, all three of the state'sU.S. House seats, and a majority in both houses of theWest Virginia Legislature. In the 2016 elections, the Republicans held on to their seats and made gains in the State Senate and gained three statewide offices.[175][176]
Evangelical Christians comprised 52% of the state's voters in 2008.[177] A poll in 2005 showed that 53% of West Virginia voters areanti-abortion, the seventh highest in the country.[178] A 2014 poll by Pew Research found that 35% of West Virginians supported legal abortion in "all or most cases" while 58% wanted it to be banned "in all or most cases".[179]
A September 2011Public Policy Polling survey found that 19% of West Virginia voters thoughtsame-sex marriage should be legal, while 71% thought it should be illegal and 10% were not sure. A separate question on the same survey found that 43% of West Virginia voters supported the legal recognition of same-sex couples, with 17% supporting same-sex marriage, 26% supporting civil unions but not marriage, 54% favoring no legal recognition and 3% not sure.[180] In 2008, 58% favored troop withdrawal from Iraq while just 32% wanted troops to remain.[181] On fiscal policy in 2008, 52% said raising taxes on the wealthier individuals would benefit the economy, while 45% disagreed.[182]
In a 2020 study, West Virginia was ranked as the 16th hardest state for citizens to vote in.[183]
Highways form the backbone of transportation systems in West Virginia, with over 37,300 miles (60,000 km) of public roads in the state.[184] Airports, railroads, and rivers complete the commercial transportation modes for West Virginia. Commercial air travel is facilitated by airports in Charleston, Huntington, Morgantown, Beckley, Lewisburg, Clarksburg, and Parkersburg. All but Charleston and Huntington are subsidized by the federalDepartment of Transportation'sEssential Air Service program. The cities of Charleston, Huntington, Beckley, Wheeling, Morgantown, Clarksburg, Parkersburg and Fairmont have bus-based public transit systems.
Rail lines in the state used to be more prevalent, but many lines have been discontinued because of increased automobile traffic. Many old tracks have been converted torail trails for recreational use, although the coal-producing areas still have railroads running at near capacity.Amtrak'sCardinal roughly parallels I-64's path through the state.MARC trains serve commuters toWashington, D.C. in the eastern panhandle. In 2006Norfolk Southern along with the West Virginia and U.S. Government approved a plan to modify many of the rail tunnels in West Virginia, especially in the southern half of the state, to allow for double-stacked cars (seeinter-modal freight). This is expected to also help bring economic growth to the southern half of the state. An Intermodal Freight Facility is located at Prichard, just south of Huntington.
Because of the mountainous nature of the entire state, West Virginia has several notable tunnels and bridges. The most famous of these is theNew River Gorge Bridge, which was at a time the longest steel single-arch bridge in the world with a 3,031-foot (924 m) span. The bridge is also pictured on the West VirginiaState quarter. The Fort Steuben Bridge (Weirton-Steubenville Bridge) was at the time of its construction one of only three cable-stayed steel girder trusses in the United States. "The Veterans Memorial Bridge was designed to handle traffic from the Fort Steuben Bridge as well as its own traffic load", to quote theWeirton Daily Times newspaper.[191] The 80-year-old Fort Steuben Bridge (Weirton-Steubenville Bridge) was permanently closed on January 8, 2009. TheWheeling Suspension Bridge was the first bridge built across theOhio River in 1849 and for a time was the longest suspension bridge in the world. It is still the oldest vehicular suspension bridge in the United States still in use.
West Virginia is crossed by sevenInterstate Highways.I-64 enters the state nearWhite Sulphur Springs in the mountainous east, and exits forKentucky in the west, nearHuntington.I-77 enters fromVirginia in the south, nearBluefield. It runs north pastParkersburg before it crosses intoOhio.I-64 andI-77 between Charleston and Beckley are merged as toll road known as theWest Virginia Turnpike, which continues as I-77 alone from Beckley to Princeton. It was constructed beginning in 1952 as a two-lane road, but rebuilt beginning in 1974 to Interstate standards. Today almost nothing of the original construction remains.I-68's western terminus is inMorgantown. From there it runs east intoMaryland. At theI-68 terminus in Morgantown, it meetsI-79, which enters from Pennsylvania and runs through the state to its southern terminus inCharleston.I-70 briefly runs through West Virginia, crossing the northern panhandle throughWheeling, whileI-470 is a bypass of Wheeling (making Wheeling among the smallest cities with an interstate bypass).I-81 also briefly runs in West Virginia through theeastern panhandle where it goes throughMartinsburg.
The interstates are supplemented by roads constructed under the Appalachian Corridor system. Four Corridors are complete. Corridor D, carrying US 50, runs from the Ohio River, and I-77, at Parkersburg to I-79 at Clarksburg. Corridor G, carrying US 119, runs from Charleston to the Kentucky border at Williamson. Corridor L, carrying US 19, runs from the Turnpike at Beckley to I-79 near Sutton (and provides a shortcut of about 40 miles (64 km) and bypasses Charleston's urban traffic for travelers heading to and from Florida). Corridor Q, carrying US 460, runs through Mercer County, entering the state fromGiles County, Virginia and then reentering Virginia atTazewell County.
Work continues on the long-delayed Corridor H, which will carry US 48 from Weston to the Virginia line near Wardensville. As of 2018, a section from Weston to Kerens just past Elkins, and another section from Wardensville to Davis are complete. Other projects under development are a four-lane upgrade of US 35 from Scott Depot to the Ohio River at Point Pleasant, which is about two-thirds complete; a four-lane upgrade of WV 10 from Logan to Man and then of WV 80 from Man to Gilbert, which is about half completed; and four-lane upgrades to US 52 from Bluefield to Williamson, known as the "King Coal Highway" and from Williamson to Huntington, known as the "Tolsia Highway" which are many years from completion. A project known as the "Coalfields Expressway" is also ongoing, and will carry US 121 from Beckley west across Raleigh, Wyoming, and McDowell counties, entering Virginia near Bishop.
West Virginia is one of the lowest-scoring U.S. states foreducation. According toThe National Assessment of Educational Progress, it is significantly below the national average in mathematics, reading, writing, and science. The surrounding states of Virginia, Maryland, Kentucky, Ohio, and Pennsylvania score higher than or equal to the national average.[192]
West Virginia is often called "West 'by God' Virginia." The term first appeared on online-accessible publications in 1926, when students at theUniversity of Virginia wrote an article in the Virginia Spectator claiming that West "by God" Virginia women could consume corn liquor on its own, without having to mix it with other liquids. A 1939 academic article byHarold Wentworth of theWVU History department had a footnote claiming that the term originated from when a native West Virginian, annoyed at being called a Virginian, claimed that he instead hailed from "West 'by God' Virginia."[193]
West Virginia is home to college sports teams from two schools—West Virginia and Marshall—that play in NCAA DivisionI. West Virginia is also home to several professional minor league baseball, football, hockey, and other sports teams.
West Virginia's folk heritage is a part of theAppalachian folk music tradition, and includes styles offiddling, ballad singing, and other styles that draw onScots-Irish music. Camp Washington-Carver, a Mountain Cultural Arts Center located atClifftop inFayette County, hosts an annual Appalachian String Band Festival.[196] The Capitol Complex in Charleston hosts The Vandalia Gathering, where traditional Appalachian musicians compete in contests and play in impromptu jam sessions and evening concerts over the weekend.[197] The Augusta Heritage Center sponsored by Davis & Elkins College inElkins inRandolph County produces the annualAugusta Heritage Festival, which includes intensive week-long workshops in the summer that help preserve Appalachian heritage and traditions.[198]
The West Virginia Symphony Orchestra was founded in 1939, as theCharleston Civic Orchestra, before becoming theCharleston Symphony Orchestra in 1943. The first conductor was William R. Wiant, followed by the conductor Antonio Modarelli, who was written about in the November 7, 1949Time Magazine for his composition of theRiver Saga, a six-section program piece about the Kanawha River according to theCharleston Gazette's November 6, 1999, photo essay, "Snapshots of the 20th Century".[199] Before coming to Charleston, Modarelli had conducted theWheeling Symphony Orchestra and thePhiladelphia Orchestra, according to the orchestra's website.[200]
ThePulitzer Prize-winning 20th-century composerGeorge Crumb was born in Charleston and earned his bachelor's degree there before moving outside the state. There had also been a series of operatic-style concerts performed in Wheeling during mid-century as well.
The West Virginia Cultural Center in Charleston[201] is home to the West Virginia Department of Arts, Culture and History,[202] which helps underwrite and coordinate a large number of musical activities. The center is also home toMountain Stage, an internationally broadcast live-performance music radio program established in 1983 which is carried by many affiliates ofNational Public Radio.[203] The program also travels to other venues in the state such as theWest Virginia University Creative Arts Center in Morgantown.[204]
The center hosts concerts sponsored by the Friends of Old Time Music and Dance, which brings an assortment of acoustic roots music to West Virginians.[205] The center also hosts the West Virginia Dance Festival, which features classical and modern dance.[206]
Huntington's historicKeith-Albee Theatre, built by brothers A.B. and S.J. Hyman, was originally opened to the public on May 7, 1928, and hosts a variety of performing arts and music attractions. The theatre was eventually gifted toMarshall University and is currently going through renovation to restore it to its original splendor.
Every summerElkins hosts the Augusta Heritage Festival, which brings folk musicians from around the world.[207] The town ofGlenville has long been home to the annual West Virginia State Folk Festival.[208]
The Mountaineer Opera House inMilton hosts a variety of musical acts.
John Denver's hit song "Take Me Home, Country Roads" describes the experience of driving through West Virginia. The song mentions theShenandoah River and theBlue Ridge Mountains, both features traversing the easternmost extremity of the state's "eastern panhandle", inJefferson County. On March 8, 2014, West Virginia Governor Earl Ray Tomblin signed House Concurrent Resolution 40 naming "Take Me Home, Country Roads" the fourth official state song of West Virginia.
Symphony Sunday is an annual event hosted by theWest Virginia Symphony Orchestra held in June. It is a day full of music by community groups, food, and family fun, culminating in a free performance by the West Virginia Symphony Orchestra with a fireworks display following. The event began in 1982 and is held on the front lawn of theUniversity of Charleston.
^abcWoodruff, Betsy (October 29, 2014)."Goodbye West Virginia".Slate.Archived from the original on July 21, 2017.But by 2000, tectonic changes in the state's politics were underway. West Virginians tended to be economically liberal but socially conservative, and as social issues like abortion came to the forefront in national politics, the state started looking better for Republicans. The leftward tilt of the national Democratic Party helped matters, too.
^abc"US Health Map".Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation. University of Washington. RetrievedDecember 27, 2020.
^Jennings, Francis (December 1993). "Review ofA Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774 by Michael N. McConnell".The Journal of American History.80 (3): 1056.doi:10.2307/2080440.ISSN0021-8723.JSTOR2080440.
^A detailed list of delegate names and votes are located in Virgil Lewis'How West Virginia Was Made, p. 30, and also Charles Ambler'sA History of West Virginia, 1933, p. 309. Missing from both lists, however, are the delegates for McDowell County, William P. Cecil and Samuel L. Graham, who also represented Tazewell and Buchanan counties, which are still part of Virginia. Both Cecil and Graham voted in favor of the Ordinance. See Pendleton, William C.History of Tazewell County and Southwest Virginia, 1748–1920, Richmond, 1920, pp. 600, 603.
^Those not voting were Thomas Maslin of Hardy County and Benjamin Wilson of Harrison County. Ambler, Charles H.A History of West Virginia, p. 309, footnote 32.
^J. McGregor "The Disruption of Virginia", p. 193.
^"FS.fed.us". FS.fed.us.Archived from the original on October 1, 2009. RetrievedJuly 31, 2010.
^Coney, Peter J (1970). "The Geotectonic Cycle and the New Global Tectonics".Geological Society of America Bulletin.81 (3):739–748.Bibcode:1970GSAB...81..739C.doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1970)81[739:tgcatn]2.0.co;2. Abstract: "Mountain complexes result from irregular successions of tectonic responses due to sea-floor spreading, shifting lithosphere plates, transform faults, and colliding, coupled, and uncoupled continental margins."
^"Births: Final Data for 2016"(PDF).National Vital Statistics Reports.67 (1). January 31, 2018.Archived(PDF) from the original on June 3, 2018. RetrievedMay 7, 2018.
^"Births: Final Data for 2017"(PDF).National Vital Statistics Reports.67 (8). November 7, 2018.Archived(PDF) from the original on February 1, 2019. RetrievedFebruary 22, 2019.
^"Darden Restaurants Form 10-K". July 23, 2021. RetrievedMarch 14, 2022.Darden Restaurants, Inc. is a Florida corporation incorporated in March 1995, and is the parent company of GMRI, Inc., also a Florida corporation. GMRI, Inc. and certain other of our subsidiaries own and operate our restaurants. [...] We were acquired by General Mills, Inc. in 1970 and became a separate publicly held company in 1995[...]
^"Views about abortion by state".2014 U.S. Religious Landscape Study. Pew Research Center.Archived from the original on October 12, 2018. RetrievedOctober 11, 2018.
^In 2001, Mountain Stage debuted a television show featuring many of the radio program's guests.Mountain StageArchived October 30, 2009, at theWayback Machine. Retrieved January 20, 2006.
Elizabeth Cometti, and Festus P. Summers.The Thirty-fifth State: A Documentary History of West Virginia. Morgantown: West Virginia University Library, 1966.
Richard Orr Curry,A House Divided: A Study of Statehood Politics and Copperhead Movement in West Virginia (1964)
Donald Edward Davis.Where There Are Mountains: An Environmental History of the Southern Appalachians 2000.
Ronald D, Eller.Miners, Millhands, and Mountaineers: Industrialization of the Appalachian South, 1880–1930 1982.
Carl E. Feather,Mountain People in a Flat Land: A Popular History of Appalachian Migration to Northeast Ohio, 1940–1965. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1998.
Thomas R. Ford ed.The Southern Appalachian Region: A Survey. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1967.
Horace Kephart,Our Southern Highlanders. Rev. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1922. Reprinted asOur Southern Highlanders: A Narrative of Adventure in the Southern Appalachians and a Study of Life among the Mountaineers. With an Introduction by George Ellison. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976.
Gerald Milnes,Play of a Fiddle: Traditional Music, Dance, and Folklore in West Virginia. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1999.
Otis K. Rice,The Allegheny Frontier: West Virginia Beginnings, 1730–1830 (1970),
Otis K. Rice and Stephen W. Brown,West Virginia: A History, 2d ed. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993), standard
Curtis Seltzer,Fire in the Hole: Miners and Managers in the American Coal Industry (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1985), conflict in the coal industry to the 1980s.
John E. Stealey III,West Virginia's Civil War-Era Constitution: Loyal Revolution, Confederate Counter-Revolution, and the Convention of 1872. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2013.
Joe William Trotter Jr.,Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915–32 (1990)
John Alexander Williams,West Virginia: A History for Beginners. 2nd ed. Charleston, W.Virginia: Appalachian Editions, 1997.
John Alexander Williams.West Virginia: A Bicentennial History (1976)
John Alexander Williams.West Virginia and the Captains of Industry 1976.
John Alexander Williams.Appalachia: A History (2002)
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