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Theculture ofWales encompasses theWelsh language, customs,festivals,music,art,cuisine,mythology,history, andpolitics. Wales is primarily represented by the symbol of the redWelsh Dragon, but othernational emblems include theleek and thedaffodil.
Although sharing many customs with the other nations of the United Kingdom, Wales has its own distinct traditions and culture, and from the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the "land of song", in part due to theeisteddfod tradition.
Wales has been identified as having been inhabited by humans for some 230,000 years, as evidenced by the discovery of aNeanderthal at theBontnewydd Palaeolithic site in north Wales.[1] After theRoman era of occupation,[2] a number of small kingdoms arose in what is now Wales. These early kingdoms were influenced by Ireland; however, details prior to the 8th century AD are unclear.[3] Kingdoms during that era includedGwynedd,Powys andDeheubarth.[4]WhileRhodri the Great in the 9th century was the first ruler to dominate a large portion of Wales,[5] it was not until 1055 thatGruffydd ap Llywelyn united the individual Welsh kingdoms and began to annex parts of England. Gruffydd was killed, possibly incrossfire by his own men, on 5 August 1063 whileHarold Godwinson sought to engage him in battle.[6] This was just over three years before theNorman invasion of England, which led to a drastic change of fortune for Wales. By 1070, the Normans had already seen successes in theirinvasion of Wales, withGwent fallen and Deheubarth plundered.[7] The invasion was seemingly complete by 1093.[8] However, the Welsh kingdoms were re-established and most of the land retaken from the Normans over the following decades.[9]
While Gwynedd grew in strength, Powys was broken up after the death ofLlywelyn ap Madog in the 1160s and was never reunited.[10]Llywelyn the Great rose in Gwynedd and had reunited the majority of Wales by his death in 1240.[11] After his death, KingHenry III of England intervened to preventDafydd ap Llywelyn from inheriting his father's lands outside Gwynedd, leading to war.[12] The claims of his successor,Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, conflicted with those of KingEdward I of England; this resulted inthe conquest of Wales by English forces.[13]
TheTudors of Penmynydd grew in power and influence during the 13th to 15th centuries, first owning land in north Wales,[14] but losing it afterMaredudd ap Tudur backed the uprising ofOwain Glyndŵr in 1400. Maredudd's son, Owain ap Maredudd ap Tudur, anglicised his name to becomeOwen Tudor, and was the grandfather of Henry Tudor.[15] Henry took the throne of England in 1485, at the end of theWars of the Roses, when his forces defeated those ofRichard III at theBattle of Bosworth Field.[16][17]
UnderHenry VIII, theLaws in Wales Acts 1535-1542 were passed. The distinction between thePrincipality of Wales and theMarches of Wales was ended. The law of England became the only law of Wales which was then administered by justices of the peace that were appointed in every Welsh county. Wales was then represented in parliament by 26 members.[18]
English became the only official language of courts in Wales, and people that used the Welsh language would not be eligible for public office in the territories of the king of England. Welsh was limited to the working and lower middle classes, which played a central role in the public attitude to the language.[18]
TheHouse of Tudor continued to reign through several successive monarchs until 1603, whenJames I (James VI of Scotland) took the throne for theHouse of Stuart; his great-grandmother wasMargaret Tudor.[19]
Welsh nationalism (Welsh:Cenedlaetholdeb Cymreig) emphasises the distinctiveness ofWelsh language, culture, andhistory, and calls for moreself-determination forWales, which might include moredevolved powers for theSenedd or fullindependence from theUnited Kingdom. While a sense of nationhood has existed within Wales for over 1500 years, the idea that Wales should be a modern self-determining state has only been mooted since the mid-18th century.[20]
In 1406Owain Glyndŵr set out a vision ofWelsh independence in his Pennal letter, sent to Charles VI King of France. The letter requested maintained military support from the French to fend off the English in Wales. Glyndŵr suggested that in return, he would recognise Benedict XIII of Avignon as the Pope. The letter sets out the ambitions of Glyndŵr of an independent Wales with its own parliament, led by himself as Prince of Wales. These ambitions also included the return of thetraditional law ofHywel Dda, rather than the enforced English law, establishment of an independent Welsh church as well as two universities, one in south Wales, and one in north Wales.[21]
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National symbols of Wales include thedragon, thedaffodil and theleek. A story of soldiers wearing the leek during battle to make it easier to identify them is recounted in the 17th century, attributed toSaint David.[22] The earliest certain reference of the leek as a Welsh emblem was whenPrincess Mary, daughter ofHenry VIII, was presented with a leek by the yeoman of the guard onSaint David's Day in1537.[22] The colours of the leek were used for the uniforms of soldiers underEdward I of England.[23]
The Red Dragonstandard was most likely introduced to the British Isles by Roman troops who in turn had acquired it from theDacians.[24] It may also have been a reference to the 6th century Welsh worddraig, which meant "dragon".[25] The standard was appropriated by the Normans during the 11th century, and used for theRoyal Standard of Scotland.Richard I of England took a red dragon standard with him on theThird Crusade.[26]
Both symbols were popular withTudor kings, withHenry VII of England (Henry Tudor) adding the white and green background to the red dragon standard.[26] It was largely forgotten by theHouse of Stuart, who favoured aunicorn instead.[25] By the 17th and 18th centuries, it became common practice in Great Britain for the gentry to wear leeks onSt. David's Day.[23] In 1807, a "a red dragon passant standing on a mound" was made the King's badge for Wales. Following an increase in nationalism in 1953, it was proposed to add the mottoY ddraig goch ddyry cychwyn ("the red dragon takes the lead") to the flag. This was poorly received, and six years later QueenElizabeth II intervened to put the current flag in place.[25] It has been proposed that theflag of the United Kingdom beredesigned to include a symbol representing Wales, as it is the only nation in the United Kingdom not represented in the flag.[27]
The daffodil is a more recent development, becoming popular during the 19th century. It may have been linked to the leek; the Welsh for daffodil (cenhinen Bedr) translates as "St Peter's leek". During the 20th century, the daffodil rose to rival the prominence of the leek as a symbol of Wales. Prime MinisterDavid Lloyd George ensured that the daffodil had a place in the investiture ofEdward, Prince of Wales.[23]
Thetraditional Welsh costume andWelsh hat were well known during the 19th and early 20th centuries.Princess Alexandrina Victoria (later Queen Victoria) had a hat made for her when she visited Wales in 1832. The hat was popularised bySydney Curnow Vosper's 1908 paintingSalem, but by then its use had declined.[28]
Welsh people may sometimes engage in gentle self-mockery and claim thesheep as anational emblem, due to the 3 million people in thecountry being vastly outnumbered by some 10 million sheep and the nation's reliance onsheep farming.[29][30] The importance of sheep farming led to the creation of theWelsh sheepdog.
Welsh lovespoons are traditionally crafted wooden spoons which a suitor would give to his beloved. The more intricacies of the design served a dual purpose, as it demonstrated the depth of their feelings to the beloved, and their crafting abilities (and therefore potential to generate income to look after the family) to their potential suitor's family.[31] The earliest known dated lovespoon from Wales, displayed in the St Fagans National History Museum near Cardiff.[32] It is believed to have been crafted in 1667, although the tradition is believed to date back long before that.[33]
The two main languages of Wales areWelsh andEnglish. Throughout the centuries, the Welsh language has been a central factor in the concept of Wales as a nation.[34] Figures released by the Office of National Statistics taken from the2011 census, show that Welsh is spoken by 19% of the population.[35]
Before theRoman occupation, the dominant religion in Wales was apagan one, led by thedruids. Little is known about the traditions and ceremonies, butTacitus, whose claims were sometimes exaggerated, stated that they performedhuman sacrifice: he says that in AD 61, an altar onAnglesey was found to be "drenched with the blood of their prisoners".[36]Christianity was introduced to Wales through the Romans, and after they abandoned the British Isles, it survived in South East Wales atHentland. In the 6th century, this was home toDubricius, the first Celtic saint.[37]
The largest religion in modern Wales is Christianity, with almost 58% of the population describing themselves asChristian in the 2011 census.[38] ThePresbyterian Church of Wales was for many years the largest denomination; it was born out of theWelsh Methodist revival in the 18th century and seceded from theChurch of England in 1811;[39] TheChurch in Wales had an average Sunday attendance of 32,171 in 2012.[40] It forms part of theAnglican Communion, and was also part of theChurch of England, but was disestablished by the British Government in 1920 under theWelsh Church Act 1914.[41] Non-Christian religions have relatively few followers in Wales, withMuslims making up 1.5% of the population whileHindus andBuddhists represent 0.3% each in the 2011 census. Over 32% of the population in Wales did not note a religion.[38] Research in 2007 by theTearfund organisation showed that Wales had the lowest average church attendance in the UK, with 12% of the population routinely attending.[40]
Thepatron saint of Wales isSaint David,Dewi Sant in Welsh.St. David's Day is celebrated on 1 March,[42] which some people argue should be designated a public holiday in Wales.[43] Other days which have been proposed for national public commemorations are 16 September (the day on whichOwain Glyndŵr's rebellion began)[44] and 11 December (the death ofLlywelyn ap Gruffudd).
The traditional seasonal festivals in Wales are:
Many works ofCeltic art have been found in Wales.[53] In theEarly Medieval period, theCeltic Christianity of Wales participated in theInsular art of the British Isles and a number ofilluminated manuscriptspossibly of Welsh origin survive, of which the 8th centuryHereford Gospels[54] andLichfield Gospels[55] are the most notable. The 11th centuryRicemarch Psalter (now inDublin) is certainly Welsh, made inSt David's, and shows a late Insular style[56] with unusual Viking influence.[57]
The best of the few Welsh artists of the 16th–18th centuries tended to move elsewhere to work, but in the 18th century the dominance oflandscape art inEnglish art motivated them to stay at home, and brought an influx of artists from outside to paint Welsh scenery. The Welsh painterRichard Wilson (1714–1782) is arguably the first major British landscapist, but rather more notable for Italian scenes than Welsh ones, although he did paint several on visits from London.[58]
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It remained difficult for artists relying on the Welsh market to support themselves until well into the 20th century. AnAct of Parliament in 1854 provided for the establishment of a number of art schools throughout the United Kingdom,[59] and theCardiff School of Art opened in 1865.[60] Graduates still very often had to leave Wales to work, butBetws-y-Coed became a popular centre for artists, and its artists' colony helped form theRoyal Cambrian Academy of Art in 1881.[61] The sculptor Sir WilliamGoscombe John made many works for Welsh commissions, although he had settled in London.[62]Christopher Williams, whose subjects were mostly resolutely Welsh, was also based in London.[63]Thomas E. Stephens[64] andAndrew Vicari[65] had very successful careers as portraitists, based respectively in the United States and France. SirFrank Brangwyn was Welsh by origin, but spent little time in Wales.[66]
Perhaps the most famous Welsh painters,Augustus John and his sisterGwen John, mostly lived in London and Paris;[67] however the landscapists SirKyffin Williams[68] andPeter Prendergast[69] remained living in Wales for most of their lives, though well in touch with the wider art world.Ceri Richards was very engaged in the Welsh art scene as a teacher in Cardiff, and even after moving to London; he was a figurative painter in international styles includingSurrealism.[70] Various artists have moved to Wales, includingEric Gill,[71] the London-born WelshmanDavid Jones,[72] and the sculptorJonah Jones.[73]The Kardomah Gang was an intellectual circle centred on the poetDylan Thomas and poet and artistVernon Watkins in Swansea, which also included the painterAlfred Janes.[74]
Amgueddfa Cymru houses Welsh pottery made in Swansea and Llanelli between 1764 and 1922, in addition to porcelain made at Swansea and Nantgarw between 1813 and 1826.[75] Several further sites can be identified through their place names, for example Pwllcrochan (a hamlet near Milford Haven estuary inPembrokeshire), which translates to Crock Pool, and archaeology has also revealed formerkiln sites across the country.[76] These were often located nearclay beds, for ease of resource gathering.[77]Buckley andEwenny became leading areas of pottery production in Wales during the 17th and 18th centuries; these are applied as generic terms to different potters within those areas during this period.[78] South Wales had several notablepotteries during that same period, an early exponent being theCambrian Pottery (1764–1870, also known as "Swansea pottery"). The works from Cambrian attempted to imitate those ofWedgwood.Nantgarw Pottery, near Cardiff, was in operation from 1813 to 1823 making fineporcelain.Llanelly Pottery was the last surviving major pottery works in South Wales when it closed in 1922.[79]
Theatrical performances are thought to have begun after the Roman invasion of Britain.[80] There are remains of aRoman amphitheatre atCaerleon, which would have served the nearby fortress ofIsca Augusta.[81] Between Roman and modern times, theatre in Wales was limited to performances of travelling players, sometimes in temporary structures. Welsh theatrical groups also performed in England, as did English groups in Wales. The rise of thePuritans in the 17th century and then Methodism during the 18th century caused declines in Welsh theatre as performances were seen as immoral.[80]
Despite this, performances continued on showgrounds, and with a handful of travelling groups of actors.[80] TheSavoy Theatre, Monmouth, the oldest theatre still in operation in Wales,[82] was built during the 19th century and originally operated as the Assembly Rooms.[83] Other theatres opened over the following decades, with Cardiff's Theatre Royal opening in 1827. After a fire, a replacementTheatre Royal opened in 1878.[84][85] Competition for theatres led to further buildings being constructed, such as theNew Theatre, Cardiff, which opened on 10 December 1906.[86][87]
Television in the United Kingdom started in 1936 as a public service which was free of advertising, but did not arrive in Wales until the opening of theWenvoe transmitter in August 1952.[88] Initially all programmes were in the English language, although under the leadership of Welsh director and controllerAlun Oldfield-Davies, occasional Welsh language programmes were broadcast during closed periods, replacing thetest card.[88] In 1958, responsibility for programming in Wales fell toTelevision Wales and the West, although Welsh language broadcasting was mainly served by the Manchester-basedGranada company, producing about an hour a week.[88] On 1 November 1982,S4C (Sianel Pedwar Cymru) was launched bringing together theBBC,HTV and other independent producers to provide an initial service of 22 hours of Welsh-language television.[89] The digital switchover in Wales of 2009-2010 meant that the previously bilingual Channel 4 split into S4C, broadcasting exclusively in Welsh and Channel 4 broadcasting exclusively in English.[90]
The decision byJulie Gardner, Head of Drama for BBC Wales, to film and produce the 2005 revived version ofDoctor Who in Wales is widely seen as a bellwether moment for the industry for the nation.[91] This in turn was followed by the opening of theRoath Lock production studios inCardiff. Recent English language programmes that have been filmed in Wales includeSherlock andHis Dark Materials, while other popular series, such asHinterland (Y Gwyll) andKeeping Faith (Un Bore Mercher) have been filmed in both Welsh and English.[91]
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The Cinema of Wales comprises the art of film and creative movies made in Wales or by Welsh filmmakers either locally or abroad. Welsh cinema began in the late-19th century, led by Welsh-based directorWilliam Haggar. Wales continued to produce film of varying quality throughout the 20th century, in both the Welsh and English languages, though indigenous production was curtailed through a lack of infrastructure and finance, which prevented the growth of the industry nationally. Despite this, Wales has been represented in all fields of the film making process, producing actors and directors of note.[citation needed]
Wales is often referred to as "the land of song",[92] and is notable for its harpists, male choirs, and solo artists. The principal Welsh festival of music and poetry is the annualNational Eisteddfod.[93] TheLlangollenInternational Eisteddfod echoes the National Eisteddfod but provides an opportunity for the singers and musicians of the world to perform.[94] Traditional music and dance in Wales is supported by many societies. The Welsh Folk Song Society has published a number of collections of songs and tunes.[95]
Male choirs (sometimes called male voice choirs), which emerged in the 19th century, have remained a lasting tradition in Wales. Originally these choirs were formed as the tenor and bass sections of chapel choirs, and embraced the popularsecular hymns of the day.[96] Many of the historic Welsh choirs survive, singing a mixture of traditional and popular songs.[97][98][99] Traditional instruments of Wales includetelyn deires (triple harp),[100]fiddle,[101]crwth,[102]pibgorn (hornpipe) and other instruments.[103] TheCerdd Dant Society promotes its specific singing art primarily through an annual one-day festival.[104] TheBBC National Orchestra of Wales performs in Wales and internationally.[105] TheWelsh National Opera is based at theWales Millennium Centre inCardiff Bay,[106] while theNational Youth Orchestra of Wales was the first of its type in the world.[107]
Wales has had a number of successful singers. In the 1960s, these included bands such asAmen Corner and The Iveys/Badfinger and singers includingSir Tom Jones,Dame Shirley Bassey andMary Hopkin.[108] By the 1980s,indie pop andalternative rock bands such asThe Alarm,The Pooh Sticks andThe Darling Buds were popular in their genres. But the wider view at the time was that the wider Welsh music scene was stagnant, as the more popular musicians from Wales were from earlier eras.[109]
In the 1990s, in England, theBritpop scene was emerging, while in Wales, bands such asY Cyrff andFfa Coffi Pawb began to sing in English, starting a culture that would lead to the creation ofCatatonia and theSuper Furry Animals.[110] The influence of the 80s bands and the emergence of a Welsh language and dual language music scene locally in Wales led to a dramatic shift in opinion across the United Kingdom as the "Cool Cymru" bands of the period emerged.[109] The leading Welsh band during this period was theManic Street Preachers, whose 1996 albumEverything Must Go has been listed among the greatest albums of all time.[111]
Some of those bands have had ongoing success, while the general popularity of Welsh music during this period led to a resurgence of singers such as Tom Jones with his albumReload. It was his first non-compilation number one album since 1968'sDelilah.[112] Meanwhile, Shirley Bassey reached the top 20 once more in the UK Charts with her collaboration with thePropellerheads on the single "History Repeating".[113] They also introduced new acts, such as Catatonia'sOwen Powell working withDuffy during her early period.[110] Moving into the 21st century,Bullet For My Valentine were named the Best British Band at theKerrang! Awards for three years running.[114] Other successful bands from this period includeFuneral For A Friend,[115] andLostprophets.[116]
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Television is the most common source of news in Wales, used by 75% of people, with radio used by 43%, 33% using printed newspapers and 31% using websites and apps. In 2020, 46% of people gained their news from social media, which is largely unregulated but includes some news from regulated sources.[117]
Over fiftynational governing bodies regulate and organise their sports in Wales.[118] Most of those involved in competitive sports select, organise and manage individuals or teams to represent their country at international events or fixtures against other countries. Wales is represented at major world sporting events such as theFIFA World Cup,[119] theRugby World Cup and theCommonwealth Games.[120][121] At theOlympic Games, Welsh athletes compete alongside those of Scotland, England and Northern Ireland as part of aGreat Britain team.[122]
Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness.[123]The Welsh national rugby union team takes part in the annualSix Nations Championship and has also competed in everyRugby World Cup,[124] with Wales hosting the1999 tournament.[125] The five professional sides that replaced the traditional club sides in major competitions in 2003 were in turn replaced in 2004 by the four regions:Scarlets;Cardiff Blues;Newport Gwent Dragons; and theOspreys.[126][127] The Welsh regional teams play in thePro14 league,[128] theAnglo-Welsh Cup (LV Cup),[129] theEuropean Heineken Cup and theEuropean (Amlin) Challenge Cup.[130][131]
Wales has had its ownassociation football league since 1992.[132] For historical and other reasons, four Welsh clubs (Cardiff City,Swansea City,Wrexham, andNewport County) play in theEnglish Football League.[133] Another Welsh club plays in English football's feeder leagues:Merthyr Town.[134] This also qualifies those teams to compete for England's domestic trophies. On 23 April 1927, Cardiff City became the only team outside England to win theFA Cup.[135] In European football competitions, only teams playing in the Welsh leagues are eligible to play for Wales. The five teams in the English leagues are eligible to represent England only, and they are not allowed to compete for domestic Welsh trophies.[134]
In internationalcricket, Wales and England field a single representative team, administered by theEngland and Wales Cricket Board (ECB), called theEngland cricket team, or simply "England".[136] Occasionally, a separateWales national cricket team plays in limited-overs competitions, mainly against English county teams.[137]Glamorgan is the only Welsh participant in the England and Wales County Championship.[138]Plaid Cymru have argued thatWales should have its own international team and withdraw from the existing arrangement under which Welsh players play for England. The proposal has aroused opposition from Cricket Wales and Glamorgan County Cricket Club, who argue such a move would be financially disastrous. The debate focused on a report produced by theWelsh National Assembly's petitions committee, which reflected the arguments on both sides.Bethan Jenkins, Plaid Cymru's spokesperson on heritage, culture, sport and broadcasting, and a member of the petitions committee, said: "Cricket Wales and Glamorgan CCC say the idea of a Welsh national cricket team is 'an emotive subject'. Of course having a national team is emotive. You only have to look at the stands during any national game to see that. To suggest this as anything other than natural is a bit of a misleading argument."[139][140][141][142][143][144]In their strategic plan, Cricket Wales state they are "committed to continuing to play a major role within the ECB"[145]
Wales has produced several world-class participants in individual sports, includingsnooker playersRay Reardon,Terry Griffiths,Mark Williams andMatthew Stevens.[146] Successful track athletes include milerJim Alford who was a world record holder in the 4 x 1500 metres relay, the 110-metre hurdlerColin Jackson who is a former world record holder and the winner of numerous Olympic, World and European medals,[147] andTanni Grey-Thompson who has won 11 Paralympic gold medals.[148] Wales has also produced a number of world-class boxers.Joe Calzaghe wasWBO World Super-Middleweight Champion and then won the WBA, WBC and Ring Magazine super-middleweight and Ring Magazine Light-Heavyweight titles.[149] Other former boxing world champions includeEnzo Maccarinelli,Freddie Welsh,Howard Winstone,Percy Jones,Jimmy Wilde,Steve Robinson andRobbie Regan.[150]
Welsh cuisine is internationally renowned; Welsh lamb, Welsh cakes, and dishes such as bara brith remain exports synonymous with quality and flavour. Some say that some other Welsh dishes are said to be similar toEnglish cuisine in style.[151] However, there are regional variations in the food seen across Wales, which can be traced historically to the availability of certain crops and produce in specific areas of the country.[152] Thecuisine of Gower is particularly different to the rest of Wales. It was strongly influenced bySomerset andDevon, and developed dishes such aswhitepot while ingredients such aspumpkin were used, which are unusual in the rest of Wales.[153]
Cattle farming produces the majority of Wales' agricultural output. Welsh beef is protected underEuropean Union law, meaning that it must be produced and slaughtered in Wales.[154]Welsh pigs are raised, providing good cuts of meat.[155] The mountainous areas of Wales are suited tosheep farming and this has led to an association of their meat with the country.[156] Themutton of Wales has been popular in the rest of the United Kingdom since the 16th century,[157] and by the end of the 20th century there were more than 11 million sheep in Wales.[156]
SeveralWelsh dishes are thought of as Welsh because their ingredients are associated with Wales, whereas others have been developed there.Cawl is regarded as the Welsh national dish;[158] it is a slow-cooked meat and vegetable broth. Traditionally it was a vegetable-heavy dish,[159] but now it is more likely to contain beef or lamb.[160]Welsh rarebit is thought to date from the 18th century, although the original term "Welsh rabbit" may have been intended as a slur against the Welsh.[161][162][163] Another use of cheese in a traditional Welsh dish is seen inGlamorgan sausage, which is a skinless sausage made of cheese and either leek or spring onion,[164] which is then rolled into a sausage shape before frying.[165][166]Laverbread is made using apurée of seaweed, and is traditionally served in a Welsh breakfast.[167]Welsh cakes are made on abakestone, and are small round spiced cakes containingraisins,sultanas and occasionallycurrants.[168]Bara brith contains similar ingredients to Welsh cakes, but is similar to atea bread.[169]
The Welsh have their own versions ofpancakes:crempogau (sing.crempog) (sometimes calledffroes, sing.ffroesen) are traditionally layered on top of each other to form a large cake. Some are very much like American pancakes; others may be made with yeast (calledcrempogau burum, sing.crempog furum) or oatmeal (although this is also true of American pancakes) and some are like Scotch pancakes.[170][171]
Beer is thenational drink of Wales, despite the influence of the link totemperance movement in Wales.[172] TheWrexham Lager Beer Company was the first successfullager producer in Britain when it opened in 1882,[173] and theFelinfoel Brewery was the first brewery in Europe to put beer in cans.[172] Whisky production in Wales was historically a niche industry, and completely shut down in 1910 when the last distillery was bought out by a Scottish firm. However, thePenderyn distillery produced the first Wales-created whisky in a century to go on sale when it was launched in 2004.[174] There are 20 Welshvineyards producing 100,000 bottles of wine a year in total.[175][176]
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