Webster's Dictionary is any of the US English languagedictionaries edited in the early 19th century byNoah Webster (1758–1843), a USlexicographer, as well as numerous related or unrelated dictionaries that have adopted the Webster's name in his honor. "Webster's" has since become agenericized trademark in the United States for US English dictionaries, and is widely used in dictionary titles.[1]
Merriam-Webster is the corporate heir to Noah Webster's original works, which are in thepublic domain.
Noah Webster (1758–1843), the author of the readers and spelling books which dominated the American market at the time, spent decades of research in compiling his dictionaries. His first dictionary,A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language, appeared in 1806. In it, he popularized features which would become a hallmark of American English spelling (center rather thancentre,honor rather thanhonour,program rather thanprogramme, etc.) and included technical terms from the arts and sciences rather than confining his dictionary to literary words. Webster was a proponent ofEnglish spelling reform for reasons bothphilological and nationalistic. InA Companion to the American Revolution (2008), John Algeo notes: "it is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in America, but he did not originate them. Rather [...] he chose already existing options such ascenter, color andcheck on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology".[2] InWilliam Shakespeare'sFirst Folios, for example, spellings such ascenter andcolor are the most common.[3][4] He spent the next two decades working to expand his dictionary.
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In 1828, when Noah Webster was 70, hisAmerican Dictionary of the English Language was published by S. Converse in twoquarto volumes containing 70,000 entries,[5] as against the 58,000 of any previous dictionary. There were 2,500 copies printed, at $20 (adjusted for 2023 inflation: $647.73) for the two volumes. At first the set sold poorly. When he lowered the price to $15 (adjusted for 2023 inflation: $485.80), its sales improved, and by 1836 that edition was exhausted.[6] "Not all copies were bound at the same time; the book also appeared in publisher's boards; other original bindings of a later date are not unknown."[7]
In 1841, 82-year-old Noah Webster published a second edition of his lexicographical masterpiece with the help of his son, William G. Webster. Its title page does not claim the status of second edition, merely noting that this new edition was the "first edition in octavo" in contrast to the quarto format of the first edition of 1828. Again in two volumes, the title page proclaimed that theDictionary contained "the whole vocabulary of the quarto, with corrections, improvements and several thousand additional words: to which is prefixed an introductory dissertation on the origin, history and connection of the languages of western Asia and Europe, with an explanation of the principles on which languages are formed.[8] B. L. Hamlen ofNew Haven, Connecticut, prepared the 1841 printing of the second edition.[9]
When Webster died, in 1843, his heirs sold unbound sheets of his 1841 revisionAmerican Dictionary of the English Language to the firm of J. S. & C. Adams ofAmherst, Massachusetts. This firm bound and published a small number of copies in 1844 – the same edition thatEmily Dickinson used as a tool for her poetic composition.[10][11] However, a $15 (adjusted for inflation: $512.78) price tag on the book made it too expensive to sell easily, so the Amherst firm decided to sell out. Merriam acquired rights from Adams, as well as signing a contract with Webster's heirs for sole rights.[12]
The third printing of the second edition was byGeorge and Charles Merriam ofSpringfield, Massachusetts, in 1845.[13] This was the firstWebster's Dictionary with a Merriam imprint.[7]
Lepore (2008) demonstrates Webster's innovative ideas about language and politics and shows why Webster's endeavors were at first so poorly received. Culturally conservativeFederalists denounced the work as radical – too inclusive in its lexicon and even bordering on vulgar. Meanwhile, Webster's old foes, theJeffersonian Republicans, attacked the man, labeling him mad for such an undertaking.[14]
Scholars have long seen Webster's 1844 dictionary to be an important resource for reading poetEmily Dickinson's life and work; she once commented that the "Lexicon" was her "only companion" for years. One biographer said, "The dictionary was no mere reference book to her; she read it as a priest his breviary – over and over, page by page, with utter absorption.";[15]
Austin (2005) explores the intersection of lexicographical and poetic practices in American literature, and attempts to map out a "lexical poetics" using Webster's dictionaries. He shows the ways in which American poetry has inherited Webster and drawn upon his lexicography to reinvent it. Austin explicates key definitions from both theCompendious (1806), andAmerican (1828) dictionaries and brings into its discourse a range of concerns including the politics of American English, the question of national identity and culture in the early moments of American independence, and the poetics of citation and of definition.[full citation needed]
Webster's dictionaries were a redefinition of Americanism within the context of an emergent and unstable American socio-political and cultural identity. Webster's identification of his project as a "federal language" shows his competing impulses towards regularity and innovation in historical terms. Perhaps the contradictions of Webster's project represented a part of a larger dialectical play between liberty and order within Revolutionary and post-Revolutionary political debates.[16]
Noah Webster's assistant, and later chief competitor,Joseph Emerson Worcester, and Webster's son-in-law Chauncey A. Goodrich, published anabridgment of Noah Webster's 1828American Dictionary of the English Language in 1829, with the same number of words and Webster's full definitions, but with truncated literary references and expanded etymology. Although it was more successful financially than the original 1828 edition and was reprinted many times, Noah Webster was critical of it.[9] Worcester and Goodrich's abridgment of Noah Webster's dictionary was published in 1841 by White and Sheffield, printed by E. Sanderson in Elizabethtown, N.J. and again in 1844 by publishers Harper and Brothers of New York City, in 1844, with added words as an appendix.
Upon Webster's death in 1843, the unsold books and all rights to the copyright and name "Webster" were purchased by brothersGeorge and Charles Merriam, who then hired Webster's son-in-lawChauncey A. Goodrich, a professor atYale College, to oversee revisions. Goodrich'sNew and Revised Edition appeared on September 24, 1847, and aRevised and Enlarged edition in 1859, which added a section of illustrations indexed to the text. His revisions remained close to Webster's work, but removed what later editors referred to as his "excrescences".
In 1850, Blackie and Son in Glasgow published the first general dictionary of English that made heavy use of pictorial illustrations integrated with the text,The Imperial Dictionary, English, Technological, and Scientific, Adapted to the Present State of Literature, Science, and Art; On the Basis of Webster's English Dictionary. Editor John Ogilve used Webster's 1841 edition as a base, adding many new, specialized, and British words, increasing the vocabulary fromWebster's 70,000 to more than 100,000.[17]
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In response to Joseph Worcester's groundbreaking dictionary of 1860,A Dictionary of the English Language, theG. & C. Merriam Company created a significantly revised edition,A Dictionary of the English Language.[18] It was edited byYale University professorNoah Porter and published in 1864, containing 114,000 entries. It was sometimes referred to as theWebster–Mahn edition, because it featured revisions byC. A. F. Mahn, who replaced unsupportable etymologies which were based on Webster's attempt to conform to Biblical interpretations of the history of language. It was the first edition to largely overhaul Noah Webster's work, and the first to be known as theUnabridged.
Later printings included additional material: a "Supplement Of Additional Words And Definitions" containing more than 4,600 new words and definitions in 1879,A Pronouncing Biographical Dictionary containing more than 9,700 names of noteworthy persons in 1879, and aPronouncing Gazetteer in 1884. The 1883 printing of the book contained 1,928 pages and was 8½ in (22 cm) wide by 11½ in (29 cm) tall by 4¼ in (11 cm) thick. The 1888 printing (revision?) is similarly sized, with the last printed page number "1935" which has on its back further content (hence, 1936th page), and closes with "Whole number of pages 2012". This dictionary carries the 1864 Preface by Noah Porter with postscripts of 1879 and 1884.
James A.H. Murray, the editor of theOxford English Dictionary (1879–1928) says Webster's unabridged edition of 1864 "acquired an international fame. It was held to be superior to every other dictionary and taken as the leading authority on the meaning of words, not only in America and England, but also throughout the Far East."[19]
Porter also edited the succeeding edition,Webster's International Dictionary of the English Language (1890), which was an expansion of theAmerican Dictionary. It contained about 175,000 entries. In 1900,Webster's International was republished with a supplement that added 25,000 entries to it. It was reprinted again in 1913. Being in the public domain and having been scanned andOCRd in 1996, this edition has had substantial influence onWiktionary.
In 1898, theCollegiate Dictionary also was introduced (see below).
The Merriam Company issued a complete revision in 1909,Webster's New International Dictionary, edited byWilliam Torrey Harris andF. Sturges Allen. Vastly expanded, it covered more than 400,000 entries, and double the number of illustrations. A new format feature, thedivided page, was designed to save space by including a section ofwords below the line at the bottom of each page: six columns of very fine print, devoted to such items as rarely used, obsolete, and foreign words, abbreviations, and variant spellings. Notable improvement was made in the treatment and number ofdiscriminated synonyms, comparisons of subtle shades of meaning. Also added was a twenty-page chart comparing the Webster's pronunciations with those offered by six other major dictionaries.
In 1934, theNew International Dictionary was revised and expanded for a second edition, which is popularly known asWebster's Second orW2, although it was not published under that title. It was edited byWilliam Allan Neilson andThomas A. Knott. It contained 3,350 pages and sold for $39.50 (adjusted for inflation: $755.77). Some versions added a 400-page supplement calledA Reference History of the World, which providedchronologies "from earliest times to the present". The editors claimed more than 600,000 entries, more than any other dictionary at that time, but that number included many proper names and newly added lists of undefined "combination words". Multiple definitions of words are listed in chronological order, with the oldest, and often obsolete, usages listed first. For example, the first definition ofstarve includes dying of exposure to the elements as well as from lack of food.
The numerous picture plates added to the book's appeal and usefulness, particularly when pertaining to things found in nature. Conversely, the plate showing the coins of the world's important nations quickly proved to be ephemeral. Numerous gold coins from various important countries were included, including American eagles, at a time when it had recently become illegal for Americans to own them, and when most other countries had withdrawn gold from active circulation as well.
Early printings of this dictionary contained the erroneousghost worddord.
Because of its style and word coverage,Webster's Second is still a popular dictionary. For example, in the case ofMiller Brewing Co. v. G. Heileman Brewing Co., Inc., 561 F.2d 75 (7th Cir. 1977)[20] – a trademark dispute in which the terms "lite" and "light" were held to be generic for light beer and therefore available for use by anyone – the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, after considering a definition fromWebster's Third New International Dictionary, wrote that "[T]he comparable definition in the previous, and for many the classic, edition of the same dictionary is as follows:..."
After about a decade of preparation, G. & C. Merriam issued the entirely newWebster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (commonly known asWebster's Third, orW3) in September 1961.
The dictionary was met with considerable criticism for its descriptive (rather than prescriptive) approach.[21] The dictionary's treatment of "ain't" was subject to particular scorn, since it seemed to overrule the near-unanimous denunciation of that word by English teachers.
Since the 1961 publication of theThird,Merriam-Webster has reprinted the main text of the dictionary with only minor corrections. To add new words, they created anAddenda Section in 1966, included in the front matter, which was expanded in 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1993, and 2002. However, the rate of additions was much slower than it had been throughout the previous hundred years. Following the purchase of Merriam-Webster byEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in 1964, a three-volume version was issued for many years as a supplement to the encyclopedia. At the end of volume three, this edition included theBritannica World Language Dictionary, 474 pages of translations between English and French, German, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, and Yiddish. A CD-ROM version of the complete text, with thousands of additional new words and definitions from the "addenda", was published by Merriam-Webster in 2000, and is often packaged with the print edition. The third edition was published in 2000 on Merriam-Webster's website as asubscription service.
Planning for a Fourth edition of theUnabridged began with a 1988 memo from Merriam-Webster president William Llewellyn but was repeatedly deferred in favor of updates to the more lucrativeCollegiate. Work on a full revision finally began in 2009. In January 2013, theThird New International website service was rebranded as theUnabridged with the first "Release" of 4,800 new and revised entries added to the site. There were two further "Releases" in 2014. The revised website is not branded as the "Fourth edition" and it is unlikely that a print version will ever be produced, because demand is declining and its increased size would make it unwieldy and expensive.[22][23][24]
Merriam-Webster introduced itsCollegiate Dictionary in 1898 and the series is now in its eleventh edition. Following the publication ofWebster's International in 1890, twoCollegiate editions were issued as abridgments of each of theirUnabridged editions.
With the ninth edition (Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (WNNCD), published in 1983), theCollegiate adopted changes which distinguish it as a separate entity rather than merely an abridgment of the "Third New International." Some proper names were returned to the word list, including names ofKnights of the Round Table. The most notable change was the inclusion of the date of the first known citation of each word, to document its entry into the English language. The eleventh edition (published in 2003) includes more than 225,000 definitions, and more than 165,000 entries.[25] ACD-ROM of the text is sometimes included.
This dictionary is preferred as a source "for general matters of spelling" byThe Chicago Manual of Style, which is followed by many book publishers and magazines in the United States. TheChicago Manual states that it "normally opts for" the first spelling listed.[26]
In addition to itsCollegiate editions G. & C. Merriam Co. also produced abridged editions for students (Primary School, Elementary School, Secondary School, High School, Common School, Academic) as well as for general public (Condensed, Practical, Handy). The first edition of the abridgedPrimary School dictionary was prepared by Noah Webster in 1833 and later revised by William G. Webster and William A. Wheeler.
Below is a list of years of publication of the Collegiate dictionaries.
Though there has not been a fully-revised new edition of the Collegiate dictionary since the release of the 11th edition in 2003, new words and senses, likeBitcoin andransomware, are added into new prints of the dictionary on a regular basis to meet the current need of readers.
Since the late 19th century, dictionaries bearing the nameWebster's have been published by companies other thanMerriam-Webster. Some of these were unauthorized reprints of Noah Webster's work; some were revisions of his work. One such revision wasWebster's Imperial Dictionary, based onJohn Ogilvie'sThe Imperial Dictionary of the English Language, itself an expansion of Noah Webster'sAmerican Dictionary.
Following legal action by Merriam, successive US courts ruled by 1908 thatWebster's entered thepublic domain when theUnabridged did, in 1889.[27] In 1917, a US court ruled thatWebster's entered the public domain in 1834 when Noah Webster's 1806 dictionary'scopyright lapsed. Thus,Webster's became agenericized trademark and others were free to use the name on their own works.
Since then, use of the nameWebster has been rampant. Merriam-Webster goes to great pains to remind dictionary buyers that it alone is the heir to Noah Webster.[28][29] Although Merriam-Webster revisers find solid ground in Noah Webster's concept of the English language as an ever-changing tapestry, the issue is more complicated than that. Throughout the 20th century, some non-Merriam editions, such asWebster's New Universal, were closer to Webster's work than contemporary Merriam-Webster editions.[citation needed] Further revisions by Merriam-Webster came to have little in common with their original source,[citation needed] while theUniversal, for example, was minimally revised and remained largely out of date.
So many dictionaries of varied size and quality have been calledWebster's that the name no longer has any specific brand meaning.[citation needed] Despite this, many people still recognize and trust the name. Thus,Webster's continues as a powerful and lucrative marketing tool.[citation needed] In recent years,[when?] even established dictionaries with no direct link to Noah Webster whatsoever have adopted his name, adding to the confusion.Random House dictionaries are now calledRandom House Webster's, andMicrosoft'sEncarta World English Dictionary is nowEncarta Webster's Dictionary. The dictionary now calledWebster's New Universal no longer even uses the text of the originalWebster's New Universal dictionary, but rather is a newly commissioned version of theRandom House Dictionary.
TheWebster's Online Dictionary: The Rosetta Edition is not linked toMerriam-Webster Online. It is a multilingualonline dictionary created in 1999 byPhilip M. Parker.[30] This site compiles different online dictionaries and encyclopedia including theWebster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913),Wiktionary and Wikipedia.[31]
Noah Webster's main competitor wasJoseph Emerson Worcester, whose 1830Comprehensive Pronouncing and Explanatory Dictionary of the English Language brought accusations of plagiarism from Webster. The rivalry was carried on by Merriam after Webster's death, in what is often referred to as the "Dictionary Wars". After Worcester's death in 1865, revision of hisDictionary of the English Language was soon discontinued, and it eventually went out of print.
The American edition ofCharles Annandale's four volume revision ofThe Imperial Dictionary of the English Language, published in 1883 by the Century Company, was more comprehensive than theUnabridged. TheCentury Dictionary, an expansion of theImperial first published from 1889 to 1891, covered a larger vocabulary until the publication ofWebster's Second in 1934, after theCentury had ceased publication.
In 1894 cameFunk & Wagnalls Standard Dictionary, an attractive one volume counterpart toWebster's International. The expandedNew Standard of 1913 was a worthy challenge to theNew International, and remained a major competitor for many years. However, Funk & Wagnalls never revised the work, reprinting it virtually unchanged for more than 50 years, while Merriam published two major revisions.
TheOxford English Dictionary (OED), which published its complete first edition in 1933, challengedMerriam in scholarship, though not in the marketplace due to its much larger size. TheNew International editions continued to offer words and features not covered by theOED, and vice versa. In the 1970s, theOED began publishingSupplements to its dictionary and in 1989 integrated the new words in the supplements with the older definitions and etymologies in itsSecond Edition.
Between the 1930s and the 1950s, several college dictionaries, notably theAmerican College Dictionary and (non-Merriam)Webster's New World Dictionary, entered the market alongside theCollegiate. Among larger dictionaries during this period was (non-Merriam)Webster's Universal Dictionary (also published asWebster's Twentieth Century Dictionary) which traced its roots to Noah Webster and called itself "unabridged", but had less than half the vocabulary and paled in scholarship against theMerriam editions.
After the commercial success ofWebster's Third New International in the 1960s,[32]Random House responded by adapting its college dictionary by adding more illustrations and large numbers of proper names, increasing its print size and page thickness, and giving it a heavy cover. In 1966, it was published as a new "unabridged" dictionary. It was expanded in 1987, but it still covered no more than half the actual vocabulary ofWebster's Third.
The American Heritage Publishing Co., highly critical ofWebster's Third, failed in an attempt to buy out Merriam-Webster and determined to create its own dictionary,The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. In 1969, it issued a college-sized dictionary. Now in its fifth edition, it is only slightly greater in vocabulary than theCollegiate, but it appears much larger and has the appeal of many pictures and other features, such as a usage panel of language professionals which is polled for the acceptability of certain word usage, and a discussion for some entries of subtle differences among words with similar meaning. Other medium-sized dictionaries have since entered the market, including theNew Oxford American and theEncarta Webster's, while Merriam-Webster has not attempted to compete by issuing a similar edition.
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The 1828 edition of theAmerican Dictionary of the English Language (2 volumes; New York: S. Converse) can be searched online at:
DjVu andPDF versions can be viewed at theInternet Archive:
Plain-text versions are also available from the Internet Archive (with some errors, due to automaticoptical character recognition).
Offline versions in Apple Mac Dictionary, SWORD module, StarDict, Rakuten Kobo, and Amazon Kindle formats are available fromAkai Tsurugi.
An American Dictionary of the English Language, edited by Chauncey A. Goodrich.
An American Dictionary of the English Language, edited by Chauncey A. Goodrich, first pictorial edition.
An American Dictionary of the English Language, edited by Noah Porter and C. A. F. Mahn
Webster's International Dictionary, edited by Noah Porter and W. T. Harris, 1890 edition plus 1900 supplement
Webster's New International Dictionary, 1st edition
A reprint of the 1890 edition, theWebster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (editor Noah Porter, Springfield, MA: C. & G. Merriam Co., 1913), from which copyright has lapsed and is now in thepublic domain, has been digitized in 1996 by MICRA, Inc.[33][34] and is now available at various free online resources, including: