Who can think at this present time without a sickening of the heart of the appalling slaughter, the suffering, the manifold misery brought by warto Spain andto China? Who can think without horror of what another widespread war would mean, waged as it would be with all the new weapons of mass destruction?[3]
Safire saysBernard Baruch used that exact phrase in 1946 (in a speech at the United Nations probably written byHerbert Bayard Swope).[7] The phrase found its way into the very first resolution the United Nations General assembly adopted in January 1946 in London, which used the wording "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other weapons adaptable to mass destruction."[8] The resolution also created theAtomic Energy Commission (predecessor of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)).[9]
It is a very far reaching control which would eliminate the rivalry between nations in this field, which would prevent the surreptitious arming of one nation against another, which would provide some cushion of time before atomic attack, and presumably therefore before any attack with weapons of mass destruction, and which would go a long way toward removing atomic energy at least as a source of conflict between the powers.[11]
The term was also used in the introduction to the hugely influential U.S. government document known asNSC 68 written in 1950.[12]
During a speech atRice University on 12 September 1962, PresidentJohn F. Kennedy spoke of not filling space "with weapons of mass destruction, but with instruments of knowledge and understanding."[13] The following month, during a televised presentation about theCuban Missile Crisis on 22 October 1962, Kennedy made reference to "offensive weapons of sudden mass destruction."[14]
An early use of the exact phrase in aninternational treaty is in theOuter Space Treaty of 1967, but the treaty provides no definition of the phrase,[15] and the treaty also categorically prohibits the stationing of "weapons" and the testing of "any type of weapon" in outer space, in addition to its specific prohibition against placing in orbit, or installing on celestial bodies, "any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction."
During theCold War, the term "weapons of mass destruction" was primarily a reference to nuclear weapons. At the time, in theWest the euphemism "strategic weapons" was used to refer to the American nuclear arsenal. However, there is no precise definition of the "strategic" category, neither considering range noryield of the nuclear weapon.[16]
Subsequent toOperation Opera, the destruction of a pre-operational nuclear reactor inside Iraq by the Israeli Air Force in 1981, the Israeli prime minister,Menachem Begin, countered criticism by saying that "on no account shall we permit an enemy to develop weapons of mass destruction against the people of Israel." This policy of pre-emptive action against real or perceived weapons of mass destruction became known as theBegin Doctrine.[17]
The term "weapons of mass destruction" continued to see periodic use, usually in the context of nucleararms control;Ronald Reagan used it during the 1986Reykjavík Summit, when referring to the 1967Outer Space Treaty.[18] Reagan's successor,George H. W. Bush, used the term in a 1989 speech to the United Nations, primarily in reference to chemical arms.[19]
The end of the Cold War reduced U.S. reliance on nuclear weapons as a deterrent, causing it to shift its focus to disarmament. With the 1990invasion of Kuwait and 1991Gulf War, Iraq's nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons programs became a particular concern of the firstBush Administration.[20] Following the war,Bill Clinton and other western politicians and media continued to use the term, usually in reference to ongoing attempts to dismantleIraq's weapons programs.[20]
In early 2019, more than 90% of the world's 13,865nuclear weapons were owned by Russia and the United States.[21]
After the11 September 2001 attacks and the2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, an increased fear of nonconventional weapons andasymmetric warfare took hold in many countries. The fear reached a crescendo with the 2002Iraq disarmament crisis and thealleged existence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq that became the primary justification for the2003 invasion of Iraq; however, American forces found none in Iraq. They found old stockpiles of chemical munitions includingsarin andmustard agents, but all were considered to be unusable because of corrosion or degradation.[22] Iraq, however, declared a chemical weapons stockpile in 2009 which U.N. personnel had secured after the 1991 Gulf War. The stockpile contained mainly chemical precursors, but some munitions remained usable.[23]
Because of its prolific use and (worldwide) public profile during this period, theAmerican Dialect Society voted "weapons of mass destruction" (and its abbreviation, "WMD") theword of the year in 2002,[24] and in 2003Lake Superior State University added WMD to its list of terms banished for "Mis-use, Over-use and General Uselessness" (and "as a card that trumps all forms of aggression").[25]
There have been calls to classify at least some classes ofcyber weapons as WMD, in particular those aimed to bring about large-scale (physical) destruction, such as by targetingcritical infrastructure.[27][28][29] However, some scholars have objected to classifying cyber weapons as WMD on the grounds that they "cannot [currently] directly injure or kill human beings as efficiently as guns or bombs" or clearly "meet the legal and historical definitions" of WMD.[30][31]
The most widely used definition of "weapons of mass destruction" is that ofnuclear,biological, orchemical weapons (NBC) although there is notreaty or customaryinternational law that contains an authoritative definition. Instead, international law has been used with respect to the specific categories of weapons within WMD, and not to WMD as a whole. While nuclear, chemical and biological weapons are regarded as the three major types of WMDs,[32] some analysts have argued that radiological materials as well as missile technology and delivery systems such as aircraft and ballistic missiles could be labeled as WMDs as well.[32]
However, there is an argument that nuclear and biological weapons do not belong in the same category as chemical and "dirty bomb" radiological weapons, which have limited destructive potential (and close to none, as far as property is concerned), whereas nuclear and biological weapons have the unique ability to kill large numbers of people with very small amounts of material, and thus could be said to belong in a class by themselves.[citation needed]
Other documents expand the definition of WMD to also include radiological orconventional weapons. TheU.S. military refers to WMD as:
Chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons capable of a high order of destruction or causing mass casualties and exclude the means of transporting or propelling the weapon where such means is a separable and divisible part from the weapon. Also called WMD.[39]
This may also refer to nuclearICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missiles).[citation needed]
Protest in Amsterdam against the deployment ofPershing II missiles in Europe, 1981
The significance of the wordsseparable and divisible part of the weapon is that missiles such as thePershing II and theSCUD are considered weapons of mass destruction, while aircraft capable of carrying bombloads are not.[citation needed]
In 2004, the United Kingdom'sButler Review recognized the "considerable and long-standing academic debate about the proper interpretation of the phrase 'weapons of mass destruction'". The committee set out to avoid the general term but when using it, employed the definition ofUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 687, which defined the systems which Iraq was required to abandon:[citation needed]
"Nuclear weapons or nuclear-weapons-usable material or any sub-systems or components or any research, development, support or manufacturing facilities relating to [nuclear weapons].
Chemical and biological weapons and all stocks of agents and all related subsystems and components and all research, development, support and manufacturing facilities.
Ballistic missiles with a range greater than 150 kilometres and related major parts, and repair and production facilities."[40]
Chemical weapons expert Gert G. Harigel considers only nuclear weapons true weapons of mass destruction, because "only nuclear weapons are completely indiscriminate by their explosive power, heat radiation and radioactivity, and only they should therefore be called a weapon of mass destruction". He prefers to call chemical and biological weapons "weapons of terror" when aimed against civilians and "weapons of intimidation" for soldiers.[41]
Testimony of one such soldier expresses the same viewpoint.[42] For a period of several months in the winter of 2002–2003,U.S. Deputy Secretary of DefensePaul Wolfowitz frequently used the term "weapons of mass terror", apparently also recognizing the distinction between the psychological and the physical effects of many things currently falling into the WMD category.[43]
An additional condition often implicitly applied to WMD is that the use of the weapons must be strategic. In other words, they would be designed to "have consequences far outweighing the size and effectiveness of the weapons themselves".[45] The strategic nature of WMD also defines their function in the military doctrine oftotal war as targeting the means a country would use to support and supply its war effort, specifically its population, industry, and natural resources.[citation needed]
Within U.S.civil defense organizations, the category is nowChemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive (CBRNE), which defines WMD as:
(1) Anyexplosive,incendiary,poison gas, bomb,grenade, orrocket having apropellant charge of more than four ounces [113 g],missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce [7 g], ormine or device similar to the above. (2) Poison gas. (3) Any weapon involving a disease organism. (4) Any weapon that is designed to releaseradiation at a level dangerous to human life.[46]
For the general purposes of national defense,[47] the U.S. Code[48] defines a weapon of mass destruction as:
any weapon or device that is intended, or has the capability, to cause death or serious bodily injury to a significant number of people through the release, dissemination, or impact of:
For the purposes of the prevention of weaponsproliferation,[50] the U.S. Code defines weapons of mass destruction as "chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons, and chemical, biological, and nuclear materials used in the manufacture of such weapons".[51]
For the purposes of U.S.criminal law concerning terrorism,[52] weapons of mass destruction are defined as:
any "destructive device" defined as any explosive, incendiary, orpoison gas – bomb, grenade, rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces, missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce, mine, or device similar to any of the devices described in the preceding clauses[53]
any weapon that is designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals, or their precursors
any weapon involving a biological agent, toxin, or vector
any weapon that is designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life[54]
any "destructive device" as defined in Title 18 USC Section 921: any explosive, incendiary, or poison gas – bomb, grenade, rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces, missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce, mine, or device similar to any of the devices described in the preceding clauses
any weapon designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors
any weapon involving a disease organism
any weapon designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life
any device or weapon designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury by causing a malfunction of or destruction of an aircraft or other vehicle that carries humans or of an aircraft or other vehicle whose malfunction or destruction may cause said aircraft or other vehicle to cause death or serious bodily injury to humans who may be within range of the vector in its course of travel or the travel of its debris.
Indictments and convictions for possession and use of WMD such as truck bombs,[56]pipe bombs,[57] shoe bombs,[58] and cactus needles coated with a biological toxin[59] have been obtained under 18 USC 2332a.
As defined by 18 USC §2332 (a), a Weapon of Mass Destruction is:
(A) any destructive device as defined in section 921 of the title;
(B) any weapon that is designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals, or their precursors;
(C) any weapon involving a biological agent, toxin, or vector (as those terms are defined in section 178 of this title); or
(D) any weapon that is designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life;
Under the same statute, conspiring, attempting, threatening, or using a Weapon of Mass Destruction may be imprisoned for any term of years or for life, and if resulting in death, be punishable by death or by imprisonment for any terms of years or for life. They can also be asked to pay a maximum fine of $250,000.[60]
The Washington Post reported on 30 March 2006: "Jurors asked the judge in the death penalty trial ofZacarias Moussaoui today to define the term 'weapons of mass destruction' and were told it includes airplanes used as missiles". Moussaoui was indicted and tried for conspiracy to both destroy aircraft and use weapons of mass destruction, among others.[61]
The survivingBoston Marathon bombing perpetrator,Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, was charged in June 2013 with the federal offense of "use of a weapon of mass destruction" after he and his brotherTamerlan Tsarnaev allegedly placed crude shrapnel bombs, made from pressure cookers packed with ball bearings and nails, near the finish line of the Boston Marathon. He was convicted in April 2015. The bombing resulted in three deaths and at least 264 injuries.[62]
US and Soviet/Russian nuclear stockpiles, 1945 to 2014
Nuclear weapons use the energy inside of an atom's nucleus to create massive explosions. This goal is achieved through nuclear fission and fusion.[72]
Nuclear fission is when the nucleus of an atom is split into smaller nuclei. This process can be induced by shooting a neutron at the nucleus of an atom. When the neutron is absorbed by the atom, it becomes unstable, causing it to split and release energy.[72] Modern nuclear weapons start this process by detonating chemical explosives around a pit of either uranium-235 or plutonium-239 metal.[72] The force from this detonation is directed inwards, causing the pit of uranium or plutonium to compress to a dense point. Once the uranium/plutonium is dense enough, neutrons are then injected. This starts a fission chain reaction also known as an atomic explosion.[72]
Nuclear fusion is essentially the opposite of fission. It is the fusing together of nuclei, not the splitting of it. When exposed to extreme pressure and temperature, some lightweight nuclei can fuse together and form heavier nuclei, releasing energy in the process.[72] Fusion weapons (also known as “thermonuclear” or “hydrogen” weapons) use the fission process to initiate fusion. Fusion weapons use the energy released from a fission explosion to fuse hydrogen isotopes together.[72] The energy released from these weapons creates a fireball, which reaches tens of million degrees. A temperature of this magnitude is similar to the temperature found at center of the sun; the sun runs on fusion as well.[72]
At the start of 2024, nine states—the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) and Israel—together possessed approximately 12 121 nuclear weapons, of which 9585 were considered to be potentially operationally available. An estimated 3904 of these warheads were deployed with operational forces, including about 2100 that were kept in a state of high operational alert—about 100 more than the previous year.[73]
South Africa developed a small nuclear arsenal in the 1980s but disassembled them in the early 1990s, making it the only country to have fully given up an independently developed nuclear weapons arsenal.Belarus,Kazakhstan, andUkraine inherited stockpiles of nuclear arms following the break-up of theSoviet Union, but relinquished them to the Russian Federation.[74]
Thehistory of biological warfare goes back at least to theMongolsiege of Caffa in 1346 and possibly much farther back to antiquity.[77] It is believed that theAncient Greeks contaminated their adversaries' wells by placing animal corpses in them.[78][79] However, only by the turn of the 20th century did advances inmicrobiology allow for the large-scale weaponization of pathogens. Duringthe First World War, German military attempted to introduce anthrax into Allied livestock. Inthe Second World War, Japan conducted aerial attacks on China using fleas carrying the bubonic plague.[79] During the 20th century, at least nine states have operated offensive biological weapons programs, includingCanada (1946–1956),[80]France (1921–1972),[81]Iraq (1985–1990s),[82]Japan (1930s–1945),[83]Rhodesia,South Africa (1981–1993),[84] theSoviet Union (1920s–1992),[85] theUnited Kingdom (1934–1956),[86] and theUnited States (1943–1969).[87] The Japanese biological weapons program, which was run by the secretImperial Japanese ArmyUnit 731 during the Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), became infamous for conducting often fatalhuman experiments on prisoners and producing biological weapons for combat use.[88] TheSoviet Union covertly operated the world's largest, longest, and most sophisticated biological weapons program, in violation of its obligations under international law.[89]
International restrictions on biological warfare began with the 1925Geneva Protocol, which prohibits the use but not the possession or development of biological and chemical weapons.[90][91] Upon ratification of the Geneva Protocol, several countries madereservations regarding its applicability and use in retaliation.[92] Due to these reservations, it was in practice a "no-first-use" agreement only.[93] The 1972Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) supplements the Geneva Protocol by prohibiting the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons.[94] Having entered into force on 26 March 1975, the BWC was the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban the production of an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.[94] As of March 2021,183 states have become party to the treaty.[95]
Chemical weapons have been used around the world by various civilizations since ancient times. The oldest reported case of a chemical substance being used as a weapon was in 256 AD during the siege ofDura-Europos. A mixture of tar and sulfur was used to produce sulfur oxides, which helped take control of the city.[96][97] In the industrial era, chemical weapons were used extensively by both sides duringWorld War I, and by the Axis powers duringWorld War II (both in battle and in extermination campgas chambers) though Allied powers also stockpiled them.
International restrictions on chemical warfare began with theHague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and was expanded significantly by the 1925Geneva Protocol. These treaties prohibited the use of poisons or chemical agents in international warfare, but did not place restrictions on development or weapon stockpiles. Since 1997, theChemical Weapons Convention (CWC) has expanded restrictions to prohibit any use and development of chemical weapons except for very limited purposes (research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective). As of 2018, a handful of countries have known inventories, and many are in the process of being safely destroyed.[98] Nonetheless, proliferation and use in war zones remains an active concern, most recently theuse of chemical weapons in the Syrian Civil War.
Countries with known or possible chemical weapons, as of 2021
Some commentators classify some or all the uses of nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons during wartime as awar crime (orcrime against humanity if widespread) because they kill civilians (who are protected by thelaws of war) indiscriminately or are specifically prohibited by international treaties (which have become more comprehensive over time).[103] Proponents of use say that specific uses of such weapons have been necessary for defense or to avoid more deaths in a protracted war.[104] The tactic ofterror bombing from aircraft, and generallytargeting cities witharea bombardment or saturationcarpet bombing has also been criticized, defended, and prohibited by treaty in the same way; the destructive effect of conventional saturation bombing is similar to that of a nuclear weapon.[105][106][107]
Due to the potentially indiscriminate effects of WMD, the fear of a WMD attack has shaped political policies and campaigns, fostered social movements, and has been the central theme of many films. Support for different levels of WMD development and control varies nationally and internationally. Yet understanding of the nature of the threats is not high, in part because of imprecise usage of the term by politicians and the media.[citation needed]
An atomic-bomb blueprint
Fear of WMD, or of threats diminished by the possession of WMD, has long been used to catalyze public support for various WMD policies. They include mobilization of pro- and anti-WMD campaigners alike, and generation of popular political support.[citation needed] The term WMD may be used as a powerfulbuzzword[108] or to generate aculture of fear.[109] It is also used ambiguously, particularly by not distinguishing among the different types of WMD.[110]
A television commercial calledDaisy, promoting DemocratLyndon Johnson's 1964presidential candidacy, invoked the fear of a nuclear war and was an element in Johnson's subsequent election.[111]
Later, United States' President George W. Bush used the threat of potentialWMD in Iraq as justification for the2003 invasion of Iraq.[112] Broad reference to Iraqi WMD in general was seen as an element of President Bush's arguments.[110] The claim that Iraq possessed Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) was a major factor that led to the invasion of Iraq in 2003 byCoalition forces.[113]
Over 500 munitions containing mustard agent and sarin were discovered throughout Iraq since 2003; they were made in the 1980s and are no longer usable as originally intended due to corrosion.[114]
TheAmerican Heritage Dictionary defines a weapon of mass destruction as: "a weapon that can cause widespread destruction or kill large numbers of people, especially a nuclear, chemical, or biological weapon."[115] In other words, it does not have to be nuclear, biological or chemical (NBC). For example,Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, one of the perpetrators of theBoston Marathon bombing, was charged underUnited States law 18 U.S.C. 2332A[116] for using a weapon of mass destruction[117] and that was apressure cooker bomb. In other words, it was a weapon that caused large-scale death and destruction, without being an NBC weapon.
In March 2004, the Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland (CISSM) released a report[118] examining the media's coverage of WMD issues during three separate periods:nuclear weapons tests by India and Pakistan in May 1998; the U.S. announcement of evidence of aNorth Korean nuclear weapons program in October 2002; and revelations aboutIran's nuclear program in May 2003. The CISSM report argues that poor coverage resulted less from politicalbias among the media than from tired journalistic conventions. The report's major findings were that:
1. Most media outlets represented WMD as a monolithic menace, failing to adequately distinguish between weapons programs and actual weapons or to address the real differences among chemical, biological, nuclear, and radiological weapons.
2. Most journalists accepted the Bush administration's formulation of the "War on Terror" as a campaign against WMD, in contrast to coverage during the Clinton era, when many journalists made careful distinctions between acts of terrorism and the acquisition and use of WMD.
3. Many stories stenographically reported the incumbent administration's perspective on WMD, giving too little critical examination of the way officials framed the events, issues, threats, and policy options.
4. Too few stories proffered alternative perspectives to official line, a problem exacerbated by the journalistic prioritizing of breaking-news stories and the "inverted pyramid" style of storytelling.
— Susan D. Moeller, Media Coverage of Weapons of Mass Destruction
In a separate study published in 2005,[119] a group of researchers assessed the effects reports and retractions in the media had on people'smemory regarding thesearch for WMD in Iraq during the 2003 Iraq War. The study focused on populations in twocoalition countries (Australia and the United States) and one opposed to the war (Germany). Results showed that U.S. citizens generally did not correct initial misconceptions regarding WMD, even following disconfirmation; Australian and German citizens were more responsive to retractions. Dependence on the initial source of information led to a substantial minority of Americans exhibitingfalse memory that WMD were indeed discovered, while they were not. This led to three conclusions:
The repetition of tentative news stories, even if they are subsequently disconfirmed, can assist in the creation of false memories in a substantial proportion of people.
Once information is published, its subsequent correction does not alter people's beliefs unless they are suspicious about the motives underlying the events the news stories are about.
When people ignore corrections, they do so irrespective of how certain they are that the corrections occurred.
A poll conducted between June and September 2003 asked people whether they thought evidence of WMD had been discovered in Iraq since the war ended. They were also asked which media sources they relied upon. Those who obtained their news primarily from Fox News were three times as likely to believe that evidence of WMD had been discovered in Iraq than those who relied on PBS and NPR for their news, and one third more likely than those who primarily watched CBS.[120]
Media source
Respondents believing evidence of WMD had been found in Iraq
Based on a series of polls taken from June–September 2003.[121]
In 2006, Fox News reported the claims of two Republican lawmakers that WMDs had been found in Iraq,[122] based upon unclassified portions of a report by theNational Ground Intelligence Center. Quoting from the report, SenatorRick Santorum said "Since 2003, coalition forces have recovered approximately 500 weapons munitions which contain degraded mustard or sarin nerve agent". According to David Kay, who appeared before the U.S. House Armed Services Committee to discuss these badly corroded munitions, they were leftovers, many years old, improperly stored or destroyed by the Iraqis.[123] Charles Duelfer agreed, stating on NPR'sTalk of the Nation: "When I was running the ISG – the Iraq Survey Group – we had a couple of them that had been turned in to these IEDs, the improvised explosive devices. But they are local hazards. They are not a major, you know, weapon of mass destruction."[124]
Later, wikileaks would show that WMDs of these kinds continued to be found as the Iraqi occupation continued.[125]
Many news agencies, including Fox News, reported the conclusions of theCIA that, based upon the investigation of theIraq Survey Group, WMDs are yet to be found in Iraq.[126][127]
Awareness and opinions of WMD have varied during the course of their history. Their threat is a source of unease, security, and pride to different people. The anti-WMD movement is embodied most innuclear disarmament, and led to the formation of the BritishCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament in 1957.[citation needed]
In order to increase awareness of all kinds of WMD, in 2004 the nuclear physicist andNobel Peace Prize winnerJoseph Rotblat inspired the creation of The WMD Awareness Programme[128] to provide trustworthy and up to date information on WMD worldwide.
In 1998, theUniversity of New Mexico'sInstitute for Public Policy released their third report[129] on U.S. perceptions – including the general public, politicians and scientists – of nuclear weapons since the breakup of theSoviet Union. Risks of nuclear conflict, proliferation, and terrorism were seen as substantial.[130]
While maintenance of the U.S. nuclear arsenal was considered above average in importance, there was widespread support for a reduction in the stockpile, and very little support for developing and testing new nuclear weapons.[130]
Also in 1998, nuclear weapons became an issue in India's election of March, in relation to political tensions with neighboringPakistan.[131] Prior to the election theBharatiya Janata Party (BJP) announced it would "declare India a nuclear weapon state" after coming to power.[132]
BJP won the elections, and on 14 May, three days after India tested nuclear weapons for the second time, a public opinion poll reported that a majority of Indians favored the country's nuclear build-up.[133]
On 15 April 2004, theProgram on International Policy Attitudes (PIPA) reported[134] that U.S. citizens showed high levels of concern regarding WMD, and that preventing thespread of nuclear weapons should be "a very important U.S. foreign policy goal", accomplished through multilateral arms control rather than the use of military threats.[citation needed]
A majority also believed the United States should be more forthcoming with its biological research and itsNuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty commitment of nuclear arms reduction.[citation needed]
A Russian opinion poll conducted on 5 August 2005 indicated half the population believed new nuclear powers have the right to possess nuclear weapons.[135] 39% believed the Russian stockpile should be reduced, though not eliminated.[136]
Weapons of mass destruction and their related impacts have been a mainstay ofpopular culture since the beginning of theCold War, as both political commentary and humorous outlet. The actual phrase "weapons of mass destruction" has been used similarly and as a way to characterise any powerful force or product since the Iraqi weapons crisis in the lead up to the Coalition invasion of Iraq in 2003.[citation needed]Science-fiction may introduce novel weapons of mass destruction with much greater yields or impact than anything in reality.
The term; “Weapon of Mass Destruction”, verbatim, is voiced in the American dubbed 1964 anime television show Gigantor. Season 1, episode 3 (Japan, 1963)
The international radioactivity symbol (also known astrefoil) first appeared in 1946, at theUniversity of California, Berkeley Radiation Laboratory. At the time, it was rendered asmagenta, and was set on a blue background.[140]
It is drawn with a central circle of radiusR, the blades having an internal radius of 1.5R and an external radius of 5R, and separated from each other by 60°.[141] It is meant to represent a radiating atom.[142]
TheInternational Atomic Energy Agency found that the trefoil radiation symbol is unintuitive and can be variously interpreted by those uneducated in its meaning; therefore, its role as a hazard warning was compromised as it did not clearly indicate "danger" to many non-Westerners and children who encountered it. As a result of research, a new radiation hazard symbol (ISO 21482) was developed in 2007 to be placed near the most dangerous parts of radiation sources featuring a skull, someone running away, and using a red rather than yellow background.[143]
The red background is intended to convey urgent danger, and the sign is intended to be used on equipment where very strong ionizing radiation can be encountered if the device is dismantled or otherwise tampered with. The intended use of the sign is not in a place where the normal user will see it, but in a place where it will be seen by someone who has started to dismantle a radiation-emitting device or equipment. The aim of the sign is to warn people such as scrap metal workers to stop work and leave the area.[144]
^Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, Art. IV, Jan. 27, 1967, T.I.A.S. No. 6347, 610 U.N.T.S. 205, 18 U.S.T. 2410 (effective Oct. 10, 1967).
^Kotz, Deborah (24 April 2013)."Injury toll from Marathon bombs reduced to 264".The Boston Globe. Archived fromthe original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved29 April 2013.Boston public health officials said Tuesday that they have revised downward their estimate of the number of people injured in the Marathon attacks, to 264.
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^Mayor, Adrienne (2003).Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World. Abrams Press.ISBN978-1585673483.
^Dando, Malcolm (2006).Chapter 2: Biological warfare before 1945. In Bioterror and Biowarfare: A Beginner's Guide. Oneworld. pp. 11–31.ISBN9781851684472.
^Leitenberg, Milton; Zilinskas, Raymond A.; Kuhn, Jens H. (2012). "Conclusion".The Soviet Biological Weapons Program: A History. Harvard University Press. pp. 698–712.ISBN978-0-674-04770-9.JSTORj.ctt2jbscf.30.
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