| War of Jenkins' Ear | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part ofWar of the Austrian Succession | |||||||||
 1741 map of theWest Indies andNorth America | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Great Britain |  Spain | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| c. 20,000 dead or wounded | c. 10,000 dead or wounded[1] | ||||||||
TheWar of Jenkins' Ear[a] was fought betweenGreat Britain andSpain from 1739 to 1748. Most of the fighting took place inNew Granada and theCaribbean Sea, with major operations over by 1742. It is considered a related conflict of the 1740 to 1748War of the Austrian Succession.
The name derives fromRobert Jenkins, a British sea captain whose ear was allegedly severed in April 1731 by Spanishcoast guards searching his ship for contraband. In 1738, opposition politicians in theBritish Parliament used the incident to incite support for a war against Spain.[2]
The most significant operation of the war was a failed British attack onCartagena in 1741, which resulted in heavy casualties and was not repeated. Apart from minor actions inSpanish Florida,Georgia, andHavana, after 1742 Britain and Spain focused their efforts on the War of the Austrian Succession inEurope.
Fighting formally ended with the 1748Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the terms of which meant Britain largely failed to achieve its original territorial and economic ambitions in theAmericas. The war is significant in British naval history forGeorge Anson's voyage around the world from 1740 to 1744.
While the conflict is often portrayed as a trade dispute, modern historians argue Spanish concerns over British colonial expansion inNorth America were equally important.[3] They also suggest a decisive factor in the path to war was the campaign by theTory opposition, who sought to remove theWhig government led byRobert Walpole,Prime Minister since 1721.[4]
The 1713Treaty of Utrecht gave British merchants access to markets in Spanish America, including theAsiento de Negros, a monopoly to supply 5,000 slaves a year. Another was theNavío de Permiso, permitting two ships a year to sell 500 tons of goods each inPorto Bello inPanama, andVeracruz inMexico.[5] Both concessions were held by theSouth Sea Company, owned by the British government since 1720,[6] although their value was insignificant compared to the trade between Britain and mainland Spain.[7]
Theasiento itself has been described as a 'commercial illusion', with only eight ships in total sent from Britain between 1718 and 1733.[8] Even for these, their primary purpose was to transport consumer goods that evaded customs duties.[9] High tariffs on imported goods, combined with demand from local colonists, made smuggling too lucrative to be stopped. The Spanish therefore tried to either manage the illegal trade, or use it as an instrument of policy. During theAnglo-Spanish War (1727–1729), French ships were allowed through but British ones stopped, a policy reversed when Britain backed Spain in the 1733 to 1735War of the Polish Succession.[10]
Under the 1729Treaty of Seville, the Spanish were allowed to check British vessels trading with the Americas for contraband. In 1731, the brigRebecca was found to be carrying smuggled sugar, its captainRobert Jenkins later alleging his ear was partially amputated during the search by Spanish customs officers. While deprecating such treatment, the Royal Naval commander inPort Royal argued those involved in "clandestine trade" could not complain if their cargoes were confiscated, and often used violence themselves.[11]
Tensions increased after the founding of the British colony ofGeorgia in 1732, seen as a threat toSpanish Florida, vital to protect shipping routes with mainland Spain.[12] For their part, the British viewed the 1733Pacte de Famille betweenLouis XV of France andPhilip V of Spain as the first step in being replaced by France as Spain's largest trading partner.[13] A second round of Spanish "depredations" in 1738 led to demands for compensation, withTory-backed newsletters and pamphlets presenting them as being inspired by France.[14] In London, opposition newspapers—particularly the essay-paperThe Champion—ran serial columns (“Index to the Times” and “Journal of the War”) that criticised naval preparation and ministerial conduct during the opening phase of the war.[15][16] In support of their campaign against Walpole, the Tories exhibited Jenkins in theHouse of Commons, at which point the incident was widely publicised.[17]
The January 1739Convention of Pardo established a Commission to resolve the Georgia-Florida boundary dispute. It also agreed Spain would compensate British merchants for damages, while the South Sea Company would pay Philip V his share of profits on theasiento, but the company refused to comply.[18] As a result,George II declared war on 15 June, a decision formally ratified by Parliament on 23 October.[19] On 20 July, a naval force under AdmiralEdward Vernon sailed for theWest Indies, and reachedAntigua in early October.[20]
On 22 October, Vernon sent three ships commanded by Captain Thomas Waterhouse to intercept Spanish ships betweenLa Guaira andPorto Bello. He decided to attack a number of vessels that he observed at La Guaira, which was controlled by theRoyal Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas.[21] The governor of theProvince of Venezuela, Brigadier DonGabriel de Zuloaga had prepared the port defences, and Spanish troops were well-commanded by Captain Don Francisco Saucedo. On 22 October, Waterhouse entered the port of La Guaira flying the Spanish flag. Expecting attack, the port gunners were not deceived by hisruse; they waited until the Britishsquadron was within range and then simultaneously opened fire. After three hours of heavy shelling, Waterhouse ordered a withdrawal. The battered British squadron sailed to Jamaica to undertake emergency repairs. Trying later to explain his actions, Waterhouse argued the capture of a few small Spanish vessels would not have justified the loss of his men.
Prior to 1739, trade between mainland Spain and its colonies was conducted only through specific ports; twice a year, outward bound ships assembled inCádiz and theFlota escorted toPortobelo orVeracruz. One way to impact Spanish trade was by attacking or blockading these ports but as many ships carried cargoes financed by foreign merchants, the strategy also risked damaging British and neutral interests.[22]
During the 1727 to 1729Anglo-Spanish War, the British attempted to takePortobelo but retreated after heavy losses from disease. On 22 November 1739, Vernon attacked the port with sixships of the line; it fell within twenty-four hours and the British occupied the town for three weeks before withdrawing, having first destroyed its fortifications, port and warehouses.[23]
The victory was widely celebrated in Britain; the famous song "Rule Britannia" was written in 1740 to mark the occasion and performed for the first time at a dinner in London honouring Vernon.[24] The suburb ofPortobello in Edinburgh andPortobello Road in London are among the places in Britain named after this success, while more medals were awarded for its capture than any other event in the eighteenth century.[25]
Taking a port in Spain's American empire was considered a foregone conclusion by manyPatriot Whigs and oppositionTories. They now pressed a reluctant Walpole to launch larger naval expeditions to theGulf of Mexico. In the longer term, the Spanish replaced the twice yearlyFlota with a larger number of smaller convoys, calling at more ports and Portobelo's economy did not recover until the building of thePanama Canal nearly two centuries later.[citation needed]
Following the success of Portobelo, Vernon decided to focus his efforts on the capture ofCartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia. Both Vernon andEdward Trelawny, governor of Jamaica, considered the Spanish gold shipping port to be a prime objective. Since the outbreak of the war, and Vernon's arrival in the Caribbean, the British had made a concerted effort to gain intelligence on the defences of Cartagena. In October 1739, Vernon sent First Lieutenant Percival to deliver a letter toBlas de Lezo and Don Pedro Hidalgo, governor of Cartagena. Percival was to use the opportunity to make a detailed study of the Spanish defences. This effort was thwarted when Percival was denied entry to the port.
On 7 March 1740, in a more direct approach, Vernon undertook areconnaissance-in-force of the Spanish city. Vernon leftPort Royal in command of a squadron includingships of the line, twofire ships, threebomb vessels, andtransport ships. Reaching Cartagena on 13 March, Vernon immediately landed several men to map thetopography and to reconnoitre the Spanish squadron anchored in Playa Grande, west of Cartagena. Having not seen any reaction from the Spanish, on 18 March Vernon ordered the three bomb vessels to open fire on the city. Vernon intended to provoke a response that might give him a better idea of the defensive capabilities of the Spanish. Understanding Vernon's motives, Lezo did not immediately respond. Instead, Lezo ordered the removal of guns from some of his ships, in order to form a temporaryshore battery for the purpose ofsuppressive fire. Vernon next initiated anamphibious assault, but in the face of strong resistance, the attempt to land 400 soldiers was unsuccessful. The British then undertook a three-daynaval bombardment of the city. In total, the campaign lasted 21 days. Vernon then withdrew his forces, leaving HMSWindsor Castle and HMSGreenwich in the vicinity, with a mission to intercept any Spanish ship that might approach.
After the destruction of Portobelo the previous November, Vernon proceeded to remove the last Spanish stronghold in the area. He attacked thefortress of San Lorenzo el Real Chagres, in present-dayPanama on the banks of theChagres River, near Portobelo. The fort was defended by Spanishpatrol boats, and was armed with four guns and about thirty soldiers under Captain of Infantry Don Juan Carlos Gutiérrez Cevallos.
At 3 pm on 22 March 1740, the Britishsquadron, composed of the shipsStafford,Norwich,Falmouth andPrincess Louisa, the frigateDiamond, thebomb vesselsAlderney,Terrible, andCumberland, thefireshipsSuccess andEleanor, andtransportsGoodly andPompey, under command ofVernon, began to bombard the Spanish fortress. Given the overwhelming superiority of the British forces, Captain Cevallos surrendered the fort on 24 March, after resisting for two days.
Following the strategy previously applied at Porto Bello, the British destroyed the fort and seized the guns along with two Spanish patrol boats.
During this time of British victories along the Caribbean coast, events taking place in Spain would prove to have a significant effect on the outcome of the largest engagement of the war. Spain had decided to replace Don Pedro Hidalgo as governor ofCartagena de Indias. But, the new governor-designate, Lieutenant General of the Royal ArmiesSebastián de Eslava y Lazaga had first to dodge theRoyal Navy in order to get to his new post. Starting from theGalician port ofFerrol, the vesselsGalicia andSan Carlos set out on the journey. Hearing the news, Vernon immediately sent four ships to intercept the Spanish. They were unsuccessful in their mission. The Spanish managed to circumvent the British interceptors and entered the port of Cartagena on 21 April 1740, landing there with the new governor and several hundred veteran soldiers.[26]
In May, Vernon returned to Cartagena de Indias aboard the flagshipHMS Princess Caroline in charge of 13 warships, with the intention of bombarding the city. Lezo reacted by deploying his sixships of the line so that the British fleet was forced into ranges where they could only make short or long shots that were of little value. Vernon withdrew, asserting that the attack was merely a manoeuver. The main consequence of this action was to help the Spanish test their defences.[27]
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The largest action of the war was a majoramphibious attack launched by the British under Admiral Edward Vernon in March 1741 against Cartagena de Indias, one of Spain's principal gold-trading ports in their colony of New Granada (todayColombia). Vernon's expedition was hampered by inefficient organisation, his rivalry with the commander of his land forces, and the logistical problems of mounting and maintaining a major trans-Atlantic expedition. The strong fortifications in Cartagena and the able strategy of Spanish CommanderBlas de Lezo were decisive in repelling the attack. Heavy losses on the British side were due in large part to virulent tropical diseases, primarily an outbreak ofyellow fever, which took more lives than were lost in battle.[28]
The extreme ease with which the British destroyed Porto Bello led to a change in British plans. Instead of Vernon concentrating his next attack on Havana as expected, in order to conquer Cuba, he planned to attackCartagena de Indias. Located in Colombia, it was the main port of the Viceroyalty and main point of theWest Indian fleet for sailing to theIberian Peninsula. In preparation the British gathered inJamaica one of the largest fleets ever assembled. It consisted of 186 ships (60 more than the famousSpanish Armada ofPhilip II), bearing 2,620 artillery pieces and more than 27,000 men. Of that number, 10,000 were soldiers responsible for initiating the assault. There were also 12,600 sailors, 1,000 Jamaican slaves and macheteros, and 4,000 recruits fromVirginia. The latter were led byLawrence Washington, the older half-brother ofGeorge Washington, future President of the United States.[29]
Colonial officials assigned Admiral Blas de Lezo to defend the fortified city. He was a marine veteran hardened by numerous naval battles in Europe, beginning with theWar of the Spanish Succession, and by confrontations with European pirates in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean, andBarbary pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. Assisting in that effort were Melchor de Navarrete and Carlos Desnaux, with a squadron of six ships of the line (the flagship vesselGalicia together with theSan Felipe,San Carlos,África,Dragón, andConquistador) and a force of 3,000 soldiers, 600 militia and a group of native Indian archers.
Vernon ordered his forces to clear the port of allscuttled ships. On 13 March 1741, he landed a contingent of troops under command of Major GeneralThomas Wentworth and artillery to take Fort de San Luis de Bocachica. In support of that action, the British ships simultaneously opened with cannon fire, at a rate of 62 shots per hour. In turn, Lezo ordered four of the Spanish ships to aid 500 of his troops defending Desnaux's position, but the Spanish eventually had to retire to the city. Civilians were already evacuating it. After leaving Fort Bocagrande, the Spanish regrouped atFort San Felipe de Barajas, while Washington's Virginians took up positions in the nearby hill of La Popa. Vernon, believing the victory at hand, sent a message to Jamaica stating that he had taken the city. The report was subsequently forwarded to London, where there was much celebration. Commemorative medals were minted, depicting the defeated Spanish defenders kneeling before Vernon.[30] The robust image of the enemy depicted in the British medals bore little resemblance to Admiral Lezo. Maimed by years of battle, he was one-eyed with limited use of one hand.
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On the evening of 19 April, the British mounted an assault in force uponCastillo San Felipe de Barajas. Three columns ofgrenadiers, supported by Jamaicans and several British companies, moved under cover of darkness, with the aid of an intensenaval bombardment. The British fought their way to the base of the fort'sramparts where they discovered that the Spanish had dug deep trenches. This effectively rendered the Britishscaling equipment too short for the task. The British advance was stymied since the fort's walls had not been breached, and the ramparts could not be topped. Neither could the British easily withdraw in the face of intense Spanish fire and under the weight of their own equipment. The Spanish seized on this opportunity, with devastating effect.
Reversing the tide of battle, the Spanish initiated afixed bayonet charge at first light, inflicting heavy casualties on the British.[citation needed] The surviving British forces retreated to the safety of their ships. The British maintained a naval bombardment, sinking what remained of the small Spanish squadron (after Lezo's decision toscuttle some of his ships in an effort to block the harbour entrance). The Spanish thwarted any British attempt to land another ground assault force. The British troops were forced to remain aboard ship for a month, without sufficient reserves. With supplies running low, and with the outbreak of disease (primarilyyellow fever), which took the lives of many on the crowded ships,[31] Vernon was forced to raise thesiege on 9 May and return to Jamaica. Six thousand British died while only one thousand Spanish perished.[citation needed]
Vernon carried on, successfully attacking the Spanish atGuantánamo Bay, Cuba. On 5 March 1742, with the help of reinforcements from Europe, he launched an assault onPanama City,Panama. In 1742, Vernon was replaced byRear-AdmiralChaloner Ogle and returned to England, where he gave an accounting to theAdmiralty. He learned that he had been electedMP forIpswich. Vernon maintained his naval career for another four years before retiring in 1746. In an active parliamentary career, Vernon advocated for improvements in naval procedures. He continued to hold an interest in naval affairs until his death in 1757.
News of the defeat at Cartagena was a significant factor in the downfall of the British Prime MinisterRobert Walpole.[32] Walpole's anti-war views were considered by the Opposition to have contributed to his poor prosecution of the war effort.
The new government underLord Wilmington wanted to shift the focus of Britain's war effort away from the Americas and into the Mediterranean. Spanish policy, dictated by the queenElisabeth Farnese of Parma, also shifted to a European focus, to recover lostSpanish possessions in Italy from the Austrians. In 1742, a large British fleet underNicholas Haddock was sent to try and intercept a Spanish army being transported fromBarcelona to Italy, which he failed to do having only 10 ships.[33] With the arrival of additional ships from Britain in February 1742, Haddock successfully blockaded the Spanish coast[34] failing to force the Spanish fleet into an action.
Lawrence Washington survived the yellow fever outbreak, and eventually retired toVirginia. He named his estateMount Vernon, in honour of his former commander.
The success of the Porto Bello operation led the British, in September 1740, to send a squadron under CommodoreGeorge Anson to attackSpain's possessions in the Pacific. Before they reached the Pacific, numerous men were killed by disease, they had to outrun pursuing Spanish naval vessels, and ultimately the fleet found itself in no shape to launch any sort of attack.[35] Anson reassembled his force in theJuan Fernández Islands, allowing them to recuperate before he moved up theChilean coast, raiding the small town ofPaita. He reachedAcapulco too late to intercept the yearlyManila galleon, which had been one of the principal objectives of the expedition. He retreated across the Pacific, running into a storm that forced him to dock for repairs inCanton. After this he tried again the following year to intercept the Manila galleon. He accomplished this on 20 June 1743 offCape Espiritu Santo, capturing more than a million gold coins.[33]
Anson sailed home, arriving in London more than three and a half years after he had set out, havingcircumnavigated the globe in the process. Less than a tenth of his forces had survived the expedition. Anson's achievements helped establish his name and wealth in Britain, leading to his appointment asFirst Lord of the Admiralty. One of his ships,HMSWager, was presumed lost in the storms roundCape Horn. The survivors would later take part in a sensational public inquiry concerning allegations ofmutiny,cannibalism, and murder among theWager's crew.
In 1740, the inhabitants ofGeorgia launched an overland attack on thefortified city ofSt. Augustine in Florida, supported by a British naval blockade, but were repelled. The British forces led byJames Oglethorpe, the Governor of Georgia,besieged St. Augustine for over a month before retreating, and abandoned theirartillery in the process. The failure of theRoyal Navy blockade to prevent supplies reaching the settlement was a crucial factor in the collapse of the siege. Oglethorpe began preparing Georgia for an expected Spanish assault. The Battle of Bloody Mose, where the Spanish and free black forces repelled Oglethorpe's forces atFort Mose, was also a part of the War of Jenkins' Ear.[36]
When war broke out in 1739, both Britain and Spain expected that France would join the war on the Spanish side. This played a large role in the tactical calculations of the British. If the Spanish and French were to operate together, they would have a superiority of ninetyships of the line.[37] In 1740, there was aninvasion scare when it was believed that a French fleet atBrest and a Spanish fleet atFerrol were about to combine and launch an invasion of England.[38] Although this proved not to be the case, the British kept the bulk of their naval and land forces in or near southern England to act as adeterrent.
Many in the British government were afraid to launch a major offensive against the Spanish, for fear that a major British victory would draw France into the war to protect thebalance of power.[39]
In 1742, the Spanish launched an attempt to seize the British colony ofGeorgia. Manuel de Montiano commanded 2,000 troops, who were landed onSt Simons Island off the coast. General Oglethorpe rallied the local forces and defeated the Spanish regulars atBloody Marsh andGully Hole Creek, forcing them to withdraw. Border clashes between the colonies of Florida and Georgia continued for the next few years, but neither Spain nor Britain undertook offensive operations on the North American mainland.
The British attacked several locations in the Caribbean with little consequence to the geopolitical situation in the Atlantic. The weakened British forces under Vernon launched anattack against Cuba, landing inGuantánamo Bay with a plan to march the 45 miles toSantiago de Cuba and capture the city.[40] Vernon clashed with the army commander, and the expedition withdrew when faced with heavier Spanish opposition than expected. Vernon remained in the Caribbean until October 1742, before heading back to Britain; he was replaced by admiralChaloner Ogle, who took command of a sickly fleet. Fewer than half the sailors were fit for duty. The following year, a smaller Royal Navy squadron led by commodoreCharles Knowles raided the Venezuelan coast, on 2 March 1743 attacking newlyLa Guaira controlled by RoyalGuipuzcoan Company of Caracas whose ships had rendered assistance to the Spanish navy during War in carrying troops, arms, stores and ammunition from Spain to her colonies, and its destruction could have been a severe blow both to the Company and the Spanish Crown.
After a fierce defence by GovernorGabriel José de Zuloaga's troops, Commodore Knowles, having suffered 97 killed and 308 wounded over three days, decided to retire west before sunrise on 6 March. He decided to attack nearbyPuerto Cabello. However, despite his orders to rendezvous atBorburata Keys—4 miles (6.4 km) east of Puerto Cabello, the captains of the detachedBurford,Norwich,Assistance, andOtter proceeded toCuraçao. The commodore angrily followed them in. On 28 March, he sent his smaller ships to cruise off Puerto Cabello, and once his main body had been refitted, went to sea again on 31 March. He struggled against contrary winds and currents for two weeks before finally diverting to the eastern tip ofSanto Domingo by 19 April.[35]
By mid-1742, theWar of the Austrian Succession had broken out in Europe. Principally fought byPrussia andAustria over possession ofSilesia, the war soon engulfed most of the major powers of Europe, who joined two competing alliances. The scale of this new war dwarfed any of the fighting in the Americas, and drew Britain and Spain's attention back to operations on the European continent. The return of Vernon's fleet in 1742 marked the end of major offensive operations in the War of Jenkins' Ear. France entered the war in 1744, emphasizing the European theatre and planning anambitious invasion of Britain. While it ultimately failed, the threat persuaded British policymakers of the dangers of sending significant forces to the Americas which might be needed at home.
Britain did not attempt any additional attacks on Spanish possessions. In 1745,William Pepperrell of New England led a colonial expedition, supported by a British fleet under Commodore Peter Warren, against the French fortress ofLouisbourg onCape Breton Island off Canada. Pepperrell was knighted for his achievement, but Britain returned Louisbourg to the French by theTreaty of Aix-La-Chapelle in 1748. A decade later, during theSeven Years' War (known as theFrench and Indian War in the North American theatre), British forces underLord Jeffrey Amherst andGeneral Wolfe recaptured it.[41][pages needed]
The war involved privateering by both sides.Anson captured a valuableManila galleon, but this was more than offset by the numerous Spanish privateering attacks on British shipping along the transatlantictriangular trade route. They seized hundreds of British ships, looting their goods and slaves, and operated with virtual impunity in the West Indies; they were also active in European waters. The Spanishconvoys proved almost unstoppable. During the Austrian phase of the war, the British fleet attacked poorly protected French merchantmen instead.
_-_Sir_Charles_Knowles%2527s_Engagement_with_the_Spanish_Fleet_off_Havana._-_RCIN_406654_-_Royal_Collection.jpg)
From August 1746, negotiations began in the city ofLisbon, in neutral Portugal, to try to arrange a peace settlement. The death ofPhilip V of Spain had brought his sonFerdinand VI to the throne, and he was more willing to be conciliatory over the issues of trade. Because of their commitments to their Austrian allies, the British were unable to agree to Spanish demands for territory in Italy and talks broke down.[42]
The eventual diplomatic resolution formed part of the wider settlement of theWar of the Austrian Succession by theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelle which restored thestatus quo ante.[43] British territorial and economic ambitions on the Caribbean had been repelled,[44][45][46] while Spain, although unprepared at the start of the war, proved successful in defending its American possessions.[47] Moreover, the war put an end to the British smuggling, and the Spanish fleet was able to dispatch three treasure convoys to Europe during the war and off-balance the British squadron at Jamaica.[48] The issue of theasiento was not mentioned in the treaty, as its importance had lessened for both nations. The issue was finally settled by the 1750Treaty of Madrid in which Britain agreed to renounce its claim to theasiento in exchange for a payment of £100,000. The South Sea Company ceased its activity, although the treaty also allowed favourable conditions for British trade withSpanish America.[49]
George Anson's expedition to the Southeast Pacific led the Spanish authorities inLima andSantiago to advance the position of the Spanish Empire in the area. Forts were thus built in theJuan Fernández Islands and theChonos Archipelago in 1749 and 1750.[50]
Relations between Britain and Spain improved temporarily, in subsequent years, due to a concerted effort by theDuke of Newcastle to cultivate Spain as an ally. A succession ofAnglophile ministers were appointed in Spain, includingJosé de Carvajal andRicardo Wall, all of whom were on good terms with British AmbassadorBenjamin Keene, in an effort to avoid a repeat of hostilities. As a result, during the early part of theSeven Years' War between Britain and France, Spain remained neutral. However, it later joined the French side and lostHavana andManila to the British in 1762; although both were returned as part of the peace settlement, in exchange the Spanish cededFlorida to the British.
The War of Jenkins' Ear is commemorated annually on the last Saturday in May atWormsloe Plantation inSavannah,Georgia.
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