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War in the Hebrew Bible concerns anymilitary engagement narrated or discussed in theHebrew Bible, also known as the Tanakh orOld Testament of theBible. Texts aboutwar in the Hebrew Bible are part of the broader topic ofThe Bible and violence. They cover a wide range of topics from detailed battle reports including weapons and tactics used, numbers of combatants involved, and casualties experienced, to discussions ofmotives and justifications for war, the sacred and secular aspects of war (with divinely commanded wars known asMilkhemet Mitzvah), descriptions and considerations of what in themodern era would be consideredwar crimes, such asgenocide orwartime sexual violence (see alsoRape in the Hebrew Bible), and reflections on wars that have happened, or predictions, visions or imaginations of wars that are yet to come.
In modern times, biblical scholars have questioned thehistoricity of the Bible, including military events narrated in it. They have noted some discrepancies and contradictions between various descriptions of wars and battles. For example, with the exception of the first verse, scholars have long recognised and studied the parallels betweenchapter 1 of Judges andchapters 13 to19 in the precedingBook of Joshua.[1] Both provide similar accounts of the purported conquest ofCanaan by the ancientIsraelites. Judges 1 and Joshua 15–19 present two accounts of a slow, gradual, and only partial conquest by individual Israelite tribes, marred by defeats, in stark contrast with the10th and11th chapters of the Book of Joshua, which portray a swift and complete victory of a united Israelite army under the command ofJoshua.[2]
In cases such as the War against the Midianites found inNumbers 31, the scholarly consensus is that the war did not take place, certainly not as narrated.[3][4]: 66 Rather than describing what really happened in the past, the author(s) of Numbers 31 most likely wished to convey a certain theological message about whoYahweh,Moses,Eleazar andPhinehas were, and how powerful the Israelites would be if Yahweh was on their side.[3]
Sometimes, theHebrew Bible contains the only known sources of a battle, such as in the case of theSiege of Jerusalem (587 BC) (primarily the books of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and 2 Kings). In other cases, there are extrabiblical sources that attest to a military event having happened, such as theFall of Nineveh (612 BCE); it is not only the main topic of the books of Nahum and Jonah, but also described in thePersica of the Greek writerCtesias, and theBabylonian "Fall of Nineveh" chronicle found on a clay tablet. There are also some wars involving the ancient Israelites/Jews that have not been recorded in theHebrew Bible, but that have been attested in other biblical writings (as well as extrabiblical sources), such as theMaccabean Revolt in the GreekDeuterocanonical booksof the Maccabees, or theSiege of Jerusalem (70 CE) that is referenced in the GreekNew Testament. Sometimes archaeology can provide some additional evidence in favour or against a purported biblical battle having happened or not.
Warfare represents a special category of biblical violence and is a topic the Bible addresses, directly and indirectly, in four ways: there are verses that supportpacifism, and verses that supportnon-resistance; 4th century theologianAugustine found the basis ofjust war in the Bible, andpreventive war which is sometimes calledcrusade has also been supported using Bible texts.[5]: 13–37 Historian Susan Niditch says the range of war ideologies in ancient Near Eastern culture can be seen by understanding attitudes toward war in the Hebrew Bible.[6] In the Hebrew Bible warfare includes the Amalekites, Canaanites, Moabites, and the record in Exodus, Deuteronomy, Joshua, and both books of Kings.[7][8][9][10]
God commands the Israelites to conquer thePromised Land, placing city after city "under the ban".[11]: 319–320 The Hebrewverb ḥāram (חֲרֵ֤ם) connotes complete annihilation (New Revised Standard Version is “utterly destroy”; Deut. 7:2). The noun which is derived from the verb (ḥērem[12]) is sometimes translated as "the ban" and it denotes the separation, exclusion and dedication of persons or objects to God which may be specially set apart for destruction (Deuteronomy 7:26; Leviticus 27:28-29).[13]: 319 [14] Historian Susan Niditch says "the root h-r-m links together several biblical non-war and war usages of the term ... under the heading ofsacrifice."[15]
Over half the occurrences of the verb and noun for the rootḥ-r-m are concerned with the destruction of nations in war.[16] C. L. Crouch compares the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah to Assyria, saying their similarities in cosmology and ideology gave them similar ethical outlooks on war.[17] Both Crouch and Lauren Monroe, professor of Near Eastern studies at Cornell, agree this means theḥerem type of total war was not strictly an Israelite practice but was a common approach to war for many Near Eastern people of the Bronze and Iron Ages.[18]: 335 For example, the 9th centuryMesha Stele says that King Mesha of Moab fought in the name of his godChemosh and that he subjected his enemies toḥerem.[17]: intro, 182, 248 [12]: 10, 19
The Hebrew scholar Baruch A. Levine notes that Deut.7:1-11 shows that Hebrew ideology has evolved since the writing of Exodus 33:5-16, with its addition of the ban (see Exodus 20:19,20). Levine concludes that this is one of several indications, including extra-biblical evidence, thatḥērem was a later addition to Hebrew thought.[19] Levine says this indicates that Israel was still, as late as Deuteronomy, making ideological adjustments with regard to the importation of the foreign practice ofḥērem from its source in the surrounding Near Eastern nations."[19]: 396
The early usage of herem indicates that theIsraelites were not allowed to touch, possess, or redeem these "devoted things".[20] However, the later usage of the term, such as its usage in Numbers 18:14-17 and Deuteronomy 7, indicates that items and first-born children were supposed to be set aside asḥērem so that they could be redeemed by the Priests.[15]: 30InGenesis 14:1–17, the Battle of the Vale of Siddim is narrated, also often called the War of Nine Kings or the Slaughter of Chedorlaomer. It occurs in the days ofAbram andLot. The Vale of Siddim was the battleground for the cities of theJordan River plain revolting againstMesopotamian rule. In theBook of Genesis, during the days ofLot, the vale of Siddim was ariver valley where the Battle of Siddim occurred between four Mesopotamian armies and five cities of the Jordan plain. According to the biblical account, before the destruction ofSodom and Gomorrah, the Elamite King Chedorlaomer had subdued the tribes and cities surrounding the Jordan River plain. After 13 years, four kings of the cities of the Jordan plain revolted against Chedorlaomer's rule. In response, Chedorlaomer and three other kings started a campaign against King Bera of Sodom and four other allied kings.[21]
The Northern forces overwhelmed the Southern kings of the Jordan plain, driving some of them into the asphalt ortar pits that littered the valley. Those who escaped fled to the mountains, including the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah. These two cities were then spoiled of their goods and provisions and some of their citizens were captured. Among the captives was Abraham's nephew, Lot.[22] Abraham, staying in Elonei Mamrei withAner andEshcol, immediately mounted a rescue operation, arming 318 of his trained servants, who went in pursuit of the enemy armies that were returning to their homelands. They caught up with them in the city ofDan, flanking the enemy on multiple sides during a night raid. The attack ran its course as far asHobah, north ofDamascus, where he defeated Chedorlaomer and his forces. Abram recovered all the goods and the captives (including Lot).[23] After the battle,Melchizedek, king ofSalem, brought out bread and wine and blessed Abraham, who gave him atenth of the plunder as tithes. Then Bera, king of Sodom, came to Abraham and thanked him, requesting that he keep the plunder but return his people. Abraham declined, saying, "I swore I would never take anything from you, so you can never say 'I have made Abraham rich.'" What Abraham accepted from Bera instead was food for his 318 men and his Amorite neighbours.[24]
Whether this event occurred in history has been disputed by scholars.[25] According to Ronald Hendel, "The current consensus is that there is little or no historical memory of pre-Israelite events in Genesis."[26]
TheParting of the Red Sea or Crossing of the Red Sea (Hebrew:קריעת ים סוף,romanized: KriatYam Suph, lit. "parting of the sea of reeds")[27] is an episode inThe Exodus, afoundational story in theHebrew Bible.
It tells of the escape of theIsraelites, led byMoses, from the pursuingEgyptians, as recounted in theBook of Exodus.[28] Moses holds outhis staff and God parts the waters of theYam Suph, which is traditionally presumed to be theRed Sea, although other interpretations have arisen. With the water dispersed, the Israelites were able to walk on dry ground and cross the sea, followed by the Egyptian army. Once the Israelites have safely crossed, Moses drops his staff, closing the sea, and drowning the pursuing Egyptians.The Battle of Refidim (or Rephidim), as described inExodus 17:8–13, was a battle between theIsraelites and theAmalekites, which occurred inRephidim while the former were moving towards thePromised Land.
According toExodus 17:8–13, following the Israelites' escape fromEgypt they camped in Rephidim. The battle began with the Amalekites' unprovoked attack against the Israelites (Exodus 17:8). Afterwards,Yahweh announced the extermination of the Amalekites and called on Israel to defeat them, stating that Israel would experience peace with their enemies (Exodus 17:14,Deuteronomy 25:19). This was the first of several conflicts over several hundred years between the Amalekites and Israelites.[29]
Moses urged the faithful to fight and placed his people under the leadership of Joshua. The words, "that will hold up the rod of God," could be an expression of his beliefs about impending victory in the coming battle, since they fought under the banner of God.Moses watched from above. When he held his hands up, Israel gained the military advantage. Whenever he put his hands down, according to the biblical account, they began to lose. The Bible describes how when Moses became tired, his closest relatives,Hur andAaron, held up his hands for support (Exodus 17:12). The battle lasted until the evening, ending in victory for theIsraelites.
The Book of Exodus mentions the curse-punishment thrown at enemies of the chosen people, thechildren of Israel. The Amalekites were to be erased from history. Curses with similar overtones are also recorded in theBook of Jeremiah (Jer 2:3). After the success of the Israeli military, it erected an altar – Yahweh-Nissi (Heb. יְהוָה נִסִּי) – denoting "The Lord is my banner." The name refers to the sticks held by Moses.
In Exodus 32:26–28, it is narrated that Moses ordered the Levites to carry out a massacre amongst the Israelites as a punishment for making and worshipping thegolden calf in his absence.
Numbers 21:33–35 and Deuteronomy 3:1–7 narrate that Moses and the Israelites conquerBashan after destroying the entire army of kingOg. Deuteronomy adds that they also exterminate the entire population, comprising 60 cities.
Numbers 31 is the 31stchapter of theBook of Numbers, the fourth book of thePentateuch (Torah), the central part of theHebrew Bible (Old Testament), a sacred text inJudaism andChristianity. Scholars such asIsrael Knohl and Dennis T. Olson name this chapter the War against theMidianites.[30][31]
Set in the southernTransjordanian regions ofMoab andMidian, it narrates the Israelites waging war against the Midianites, commanded byPhinehas andMoses. They killed the men, including their five kings andBalaam, burnt their settlements and took captive the women, children and livestock. Moses commanded the Israelites to kill the boys, and women who had sex with men, and spare the virgin girls for themselves. Thespoils of war were then divided betweenEleazar, theLevitical priesthood, soldiers andYahweh.[32][note 1]
Much scholarly and religious controversy exists surrounding the authorship, meaning and ethics of this chapter of Numbers.[32] It is closely connected to Numbers 25.[33]: 69Thehistorical books of the Hebrew Bible includeJoshua,Judges,Ruth,Samuel (split in two in Christian Bibles:I Samuel andII Samuel),Kings (split in two in Christian Bibles:I Kings andII Kings),Chronicles (split in two in Christian Bibles:I Chronicles andII Chronicles), andEzra (1 Esdras) andNehemiah (2 Esdras) (sometimes jointly calledEzra–Nehemiah by scholars).
Narratives of the purported conquest of Canaan by the Israelites can be primarily found inJoshuachapters 2–19, andJudges 1. The Book of Joshua contains the most elaborate account. Judges 1 andJoshua 15–19 present two accounts of a slow, gradual, and only partial conquest by individual Israelite tribes, marred by defeats, in stark contrast with the10th and11th chapters of the Book of Joshua, which portray a swift and complete victory of a united Israelite army under the command ofJoshua.[2]
The narrative of the Israelites conquering the land of Canaan comprises verses 5:13 to 12:24 of the Book of Joshua and has the following outline:[34]
Chapters 10 and 11 closely parallel each other and have similar structure:[35]
| Joshua 10 | Joshua 11 |
|---|---|
| southern alliance (10:1–5) | northern alliance (11:1–5) |
| divine reassurance (10:8) | divine reassurance (11:6) |
| victory employing surprise (10:9–11) | victory employing surprise (11:7–9) |
| execution of kings/destruction of cities (10:16–39) | execution of kings/destruction of cities (11:10–15) |
| conquest summary (10:40–43) | conquest summary (11:16–23) |
Joshua 5:13–6:27 narrates the Battle of Jericho. Joshua, the leader of the Israelites, sent two spies to Jericho, the first city of Canaan that they decided to conquer, and discovered that the land was in fear of them and their God. According toJoshua 6:1–27, the Israelites marched around the walls once every day for six days with the priests carrying theArk of the Covenant. On the seventh day they marched seven times around the walls, then the priests blew theirram's horns, the Israelites raised a great shout, and the walls of the city fell. FollowingGod's law they killed every man and woman of every age, as well as the oxen, sheep, and donkeys. OnlyRahab, a Canaanite prostitute who had sheltered the spies, her parents, brothers and all "those who belonged to her" were spared. Joshua then cursed anybody who rebuilt the foundations and gates, with the deaths of their firstborn and youngest child respectively. This was eventually fulfilled by Hiel the Bethelite underKing Ahab's reign.
The Battle is described as the firstbattle fought by the Israelites in the course of theconquest of Canaan. Excavations atTell es-Sultan, the biblical Jericho, have failed to substantiate this story,[36] which has its origins in the nationalist propaganda of much later kings ofJudah and their claims to the territory of theKingdom of Israel.[37] The lack of archaeological evidence and the composition, history and theological purposes of the Book of Joshua have led archaeologists likeWilliam G. Dever to characterise the story of the fall of Jericho as "invented out of whole cloth".[38]
Judges 1 does not mention Jericho, although some Bible translations identify the "City of Palms" mentioned in Judges 1:16 with Jericho. Even so, the verse does not indicate the city was taken by military force, nor is it the first city the Israelites conquered according to Judges 1, which starts with the defeat of kingAdoni-Bezek of the unidentified place "Bezek" (Judges 1:4–7), after whichJerusalem was supposedly taken and sacked (Judges 1:8).[39]
InJoshua chapters 7 and8, theIsraelites attempt to conquerAi on two occasions. The first, in Joshua 7, fails. The biblical account portrays the failure as being due to a prior sin ofAchan, for which he is stoned to death by the Israelites. On the second attempt, in Joshua 8,Joshua, who is identified by the narrative as the leader of the Israelites, receives instruction from God. God tells them to set up an ambush and Joshua does what God says. An ambush is arranged at the rear of the city on the western side. Joshua is with a group of soldiers that approach the city from the front so the men of Ai, thinking they will have another easy victory, chase Joshua and the fighting men from the entrance of the city to lead the men of Ai away from the city. Then the fighting men to the rear enter the city and set it on fire. When the city is captured, 12,000 men and women are killed, and it is razed to the ground. The king is captured and hanged on a tree until the evening. His body is then placed at the city gates and stones are placed on top of his body. The Israelites then burn Ai completely and "made it a permanent heap of ruins".[40] God told them they could take the livestock as plunder and they did so.
According toJoshua 11, the Battle of the Waters of Merom was a battle between theIsraelites and a coalition ofCanaanitecity-states near theWaters of Merom. Archaeologist Nadav Na'aman has suggested that this battle may never have taken place, and that its narrative might have "preserved some remote echoes of wars conducted in these places in early Iron Age I."[41]
In the biblical narrative, around 40 years before the battle, the Israelites escaped from slavery inEgypt, setting out forthe Exodus under the leadership ofMoses. They enteredCanaan nearJericho and captured several cities.[42] An alliance of northern Canaanite city-states sent a united force to halt the Israelite invasion. The Israelites counterattacked, catching the Canaanite forces unaware and routing them with a fearsome head-on assault.
The Battle of Mount Tabor is described in theBook of Judgeschapters 4 and5 as taking place during the time of theJudges between the forces of KingJabin ofCanaan who ruled fromHazor, and the Israelite army led byBarak andDeborah. It supposedly happened 160 years after Joshua's death.
The Israelites had been oppressed for twenty years by the Canaanite kingJabin, and by the captain of his army,Sisera, who commanded a force of nine hundred ironchariots. At this time, the prophetessDeborah was judgingIsrael. She summoned the generalBarak, telling him that God commanded him to march on Mount Tabor with an Israelite army and God promised him he would "deliver them" (the Canaanites) into Barak's "power".[43] Barak was hesitant and told Deborah that he would not undertake the campaign unless she accompanied him. The prophetess agreed to come, but scolded Barak, telling him that "you shall not gain the glory in the expedition on which you are setting out, for the Lord will have Sisera fall into the power of a woman."[44] Deborah, Barak and the army gathered atKedesh, its number rising to 10,000 warriors recruited from the tribes of Naphtali and Zebulun.[45]
The Israelites marched toMount Tabor. Their movements were reported to Sisera, who hastened to theWadi Kishon, near Mount Tabor.[46] God caused a strong rainstorm which saturated the ground, causing the Canaanites heavy iron chariots to become stuck in the mud.[47] Rain filled the streams on the mountain causing a flash flood at the Wadi Kishon, sweeping many away.[48] The Canaanites panicked and fled, and the Israelites pursued them and slayed them to the last man.[49] Sisera left his chariot and ran for his life. Sisera reached to the tent ofYael, wife ofHeber the Kenite, and she offered him shelter, as the Kenites were not at war with the Canaanites.[46] Yael hid Sisera and gave him some milk to drink, but killed him after he fell asleep by knocking a tent peg through his temple. Thus, when Barak arrived in pursuit of Sisera, he found that Deborah's prophecy had been fulfilled.[50]
Gideon's battles against theMidianites are narrated inJudges 6 to8. Following a period of 40 years of peace established by Deborah and Barak (Judges 5:31), according toJudges 6:1, 'The Israelites did evil in the eyes of Yahweh, and for seven years he gave them into the hands of the Midianites.' When the oppression of the Midianites becomes too severe to bear, the Israelites cry out to Yahweh for help (Judges 6:5), and Yahweh appoints Gideon as his champion, giving him supernatural powers to kill all the Midianites (Judges 6:16). There is some distrust between Yahweh and Gideon at first: Yahweh accuses the Israelites (and Gideon as one of them) for not listening to his command to 'not worship the gods of the Amorites', despite having brought the Israelites out of Egypt and driven out their 'oppressors' and giving them 'their land' (Canaan) (Judges 6:6–10). In return, Gideon accuses Yahweh of having abandoned the Israelites to the oppression of the Midianites despite having brought the Israelites (Gideon's ancestors) out of Egypt (Judges 6:11–13). It is not clear why Yahweh chooses to re-embrace the Israelites and trust Gideon as their champion, but Gideon's trust in Yahweh is restored when the god tells him to sacrifice a goat and unleavened bread, which an angel of Yahweh sets on fire (Judges 6:17–24). Gideon proceeds to follow Yahweh's orders to destroy the sanctuaries of other gods, includingBaal andAsherah. This action is widely considered sacrilege by their devotees (Judges 6:14–32), and eventually causes 'all the Midianites, Amalekites and other eastern peoples' to join forces and attack, against which Gideon assembles a coalition of the Israelite tribes of Abiezrites, Manasseh, Asher, Zebulun and Naphtali (Judges 6:33–35).
The episode of theLevite's concubine, also known as the Benjamite War,[51] is presented inJudges 19–21 (chapters 19,20 and 21 of theBook of Judges).
ALevite fromEphraim and hisconcubine travel through theBenjamite city ofGibeah and are assailed by a mob, who wish togang-rape the Levite. He turns his concubine over to the crowd, and they rape her until she collapses. The Levite dismembers her and presents the remains to the othertribes of Israel. Outraged, the confederated tribes mobilized to demand justice and gathered a combined force of about 400,000 confederated Israelites at Mizpah. They sent men through all the tribe of Benjamin, demanding that they deliver up the men who committed the crime to be executed, but the Benjaminites refused and decided to go to war to defend the men of Gibeah instead. They gathered a rebel Benjaminite force of 26,000 to defend Gibeah. According toJudges 20:15–18, the strength of the armies numbered 26,000 men on the Benjamin side (of whom only 700 from Gibeah), and 400,000 men on the other side.[52] According to Judges 20:16, among all these soldiers there were seven hundred select troops who were left-handed, each of whom could sling a stone at a hair and not miss. When the Tribe of Benjamin refused to surrender the guilty parties, the rest of the tribes marched on Gibeah.[53] On the first day of battle the confederated Israelite tribes suffered heavy losses. On the second day Benjamin went out against them from Gibeah and cut down thousands of the confederated Israelite swordsmen.[53] Then the confederated Israelites went up to the house of God. They sat there before the Lord and fasted that day until evening; and they offered burnt offerings and peace offerings before the Lord. (The ark of the covenant of God was there in those days, and Phinehas the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, stood before it.) And the Lord said, "Go up, for tomorrow I will deliver them into your hand."[54]
On the third day the confederated Israelites set men in ambush all around Gibeah. They formed into formation as before and the rebelling Benjaminites went out to meet them. The rebelling Benjaminites killed about thirty in the highways and in the field, anticipating another victory where unaware of the trap that had been set as the confederated Israelites appeared to retreat and the Benjaminites were drawn away from the city to the highways in pursuit, one of which goes up to Bethel and the other to Gibeah. Those besieging the city sent up a great cloud of smoke as a signal, and the Israelite main force wheeled around to attack. When the Benjaminites saw their city in flames, and that the retreat had been a ruse, they panicked and routed toward the desert, pursued by the confederated Israelites. About 600 survived the onslaught and made for the more defensible rock of Rimmon where they remained for four months. The Israelites withdrew through the territory off Benjamin, destroying every city they came to, killing every inhabitant and all the livestock.[55]
According to scholars, the biblical text describing the battle and the events surrounding it is considerably late in date, originating close to the time of theDeuteronomist's compilation of Judges from its source material, and clearly has several exaggerations of both numbers and modes of warfare.[56] Additionally, the inhospitality which triggered the battle is reminiscent of the Torah's account ofSodom and Gomorrah.[56][57] Manybiblical scholars concluded that the account was a piece ofpolitical spin, which had been intended to disguise atrocities carried out by thetribe of Judah against Benjamin, probably in the time ofKing David as an act of revenge or spite by David against the associates ofKing Saul, by casting them further back in time, and adding a more justifiable motive.[56] More recently, scholars have suggested that it is more likely for the narrative to be based on a kernel of truth, particularly since it accounts for the stark contrast in the biblical narrative between the character of the tribe before the incident and its character afterwards.[56]
The confederated tribes had vowed that none would give his daughter to the Benjamites (or Benjaminites) for marriage, but after killing all but 600 Benjamites, the tribes were overcome by remorse, fearing that it would cause the extinction of an entire tribe. They circumvented the oath by pillaging and massacring the city ofJabesh-Gilead, none of whose residents partook in the war or in the vow, thereby capturing its 400 maidens for the Benjaminites. The 200 men still lacking women were subtly allowed to abduct the maidens dancing atShiloh. Ken Steven Brown (2015) drew comparisons between Judges 21 andNumbers 31, stating: "This command [in Numbers 31:17–18] to kill all but the virgin girls is without precedent in the Pentateuch. However, [Judges 21] precisely parallels Moses's command. (...) Like Num 25, the story recounted inJudges 19–21 centers on the danger of apostasy, but its tale of civil war and escalating violence also emphasizes the tragedy that can result from the indiscriminate application of חרם [herem, meaning 'devotion to Yahweh, usually for complete destruction']. The whole account is highly ironic: the Israelites set out to avenge the rape of one woman, only to authorize the rapes of six hundred more. They regret the results of one slaughter, so they commit another to repair it".[4]: 77–78
During this battle, described in theFirst Book of Samuel4:1–10 of theHebrew Bible, thePhilistines defeated theIsraelite army and captured theArk of the Covenant. Among biblical scholars, the historicity of the early events in theBooks of Samuel is debated, with some scholars leaning toward many events in Samuel being historical, and some scholars leaning towards less.[58] (See alsoBiblical minimalism andBiblical maximalism.)
TheBook of Samuel records that the Philistines were camped atAphek and the Israelites atEben-Ezer. The Philistines defeated the Israelites during the first battle, killing 4,000 Israelites. The Israelites then brought up the Ark of the Covenant fromShiloh, thinking that through this "they should have the presence of God with them, and so success",[59] but the Philistines again defeated the Israelites, this time killing 30,000 and capturing the Ark. Samuel records that the two sons of the judgeEli,Hophni and Phinehas, died that day, as well as Eli. "And it came to pass, when [a messenger] made mention of the ark of God, that [Eli] fell from off his seat backward by the side of the gate, and hisneck broke, and he died; for he was an old man, and heavy. And he hadjudged Israel forty years". (1 Samuel 4:18)
In theBook of Samuel, theBattle of Mizpah (1084 B.C.) was a battle inIsrael that occurred when theArk of the Covenant was captured in theBattle of Aphek.[60]
The united monarchy period in the Hebrew Bible stretches from the establishment of a supposedKingdom of Israel (united monarchy) underSaul,David, andSolomon, until it split into the northernKingdom of Israel (Samaria) and the southernKingdom of Judah (Jerusalem) during the rule ofRehoboam (c. 930 BCE).
The biblical Battle of Michmash (alternate spelling,Michmas) was fought betweenIsraelites underJonathan, son ofKing Saul and a force ofPhilistines atMichmash, a town east ofBethel and south ofMigron.[61] According to the Bible, Saul's army consisted entirely of infantry, about 3,000 soldiers and militia men. Saul kept a standing army of three thousand soldiers after the Battle ofJabesh-Gilead. However, none of the soldiers carried swords or spears with them and had to rely on axes, sickles, mattocks, and plow points as weapons. According to1 Samuel 13:21, "the price was 2/3 of a shekel for sharpening plow points and mattocks, and 1/3 of a shekel for sharpening forks and axes." Only King Saul and his son Jonathan were said to have carried a spear and a bronze straight sword between them, though it is also possible that Jonathan was armed with a bow and quiver of arrows as well.
The full strength of the Philistine armies at Michmash has been debated. According toJosephus and some versions of the Bible, the Philistines dispatched a force of 30,000 chariots, 6,000 horsemen, and a large number of infantry against King Saul's army, but it is believed that the Philistines supplied way fewer than 30,000 chariots to the battlefield. The actual size and strength of the Philistine army is estimated at over 40,000 men, consisting of 6,000 horsemen and about 3,000 specialhamashhith units. Eachhamashhith was composed of a chariot carrying 2 men, a charioteer and an archer with javelins, bows, and arrows, and three squads of infantry runners, 4-men each. The infantry runners, also wearing leather breastplates and armed with swords, spears, and round bronze shields, would have numbered more than 30,000 men in total strength. Add in the charioteers and archers mounted in the chariots and the 6,000 horsemen, the Philistines mustered a total of 48,000 soldiers against the Israelites.
As described in1 Samuel 13, "Saul, and Jonathan his son, and the people that were present with them, abode inGibeah ofBenjamin, but the Philistines encamped in Michmash."[62] Jonathan is recalled to have found a secret path around the Philistines, allowing him to flank them and defeat them.[63] Jonathan silently approached the Philistine garrison with his armour-bearer, not telling his father of the act, and passed two rocky crags: "there was a sharp rock on the one side, and a sharp rock on the other side: and the name of the one was Bozez and the name of the other Seneh."[64] The two single-handedly climbed the ramparts and attacked the garrison "within as it were an half acre of land, which a yoke of oxen might plough." They are said to have killed twenty men together in that single ambush. The remainder of the camp awoke with confusion, and "melted away and they went on beating down one another."[65] During the confusion and chaos, a detachment of Israelite warriors had previously been fighting alongside the Philistines defected over to the army of King Saul, bringing the king's force from six hundred men to several thousand strong. Finally, a miraculous earthquake threw the entire Philistine host into disarray. Drawn by the sounds of combat, Saul approached the garrison with his own force only to find that the army had already torn itself apart in fear, with the majority of survivors fleeing from Saul's army. No account in the Bible tells us how many Philistines fell in the battle, though Josephus numbers the Philistine casualties to as many as 60,000.
The Pool ofGibeon is mentioned a number of times in theHebrew Bible. Archeological evidence locates the historical site of the pool in the village ofJib, inSamaria. In theSecond Book of Samuel, twelve men commanded byAbner fought twelve men commanded byJoab at the pool.[66]
Abner the son of Ner, and the servants of Ish-bo'sheth the son of Saul, went out from Mahana'im to Gibeon. And Jo'ab the son of Zeru'iah, and the servants of David, went out and met them at the pool of Gibeon; and they sat down, the one on the one side of the pool, and the other on the other side of the pool. And Abner said to Jo'ab, "Let the young men arise and play before us." And Jo'ab said, "Let them arise." Then they arose and passed over by number, twelve for Benjamin and Ish-bo'sheth the son of Saul, and twelve of the servants of David. And each caught his opponent by the head, and thrust his sword in his opponent's side; so they fell down together. Therefore that place was called Hel'kath-hazzu'rim, which is at Gibeon. And the battle was very fierce that day; and Abner and the men of Israel were beaten before the servants of David. (2 Samuel 2:12–17)
The remains of Gibeon were excavated in the late 1950s and early 1960s by a team of archeologists led byUniversity of Pennsylvania archaeologistJames B. Pritchard. The pool itself was unearthed in 1957.[67] The Pool of Gibeon, "one of the ancient world's remarkable engineering achievements", was dug 88 feet into limestone until it met thewater table. A spiral staircase along the walls allowed access to the water, according to the archeologists that excavated the site.[68]
The Siege of Jebus is described in passages of theHebrew Bible as having occurred when theIsraelites, led by kingDavid, besieged and conquered theCanaanite city ofJerusalem, then known asJebus (Hebrew:יבוס,Yəḇūs,transl. 'threshing-floor'). The Israelites gained access to the city by conducting a surprise assault, and Jebus (or Jerusalem) was subsequently installed as the capital city of theUnited Kingdom of Israel under its initial name as theCity of David.
The identification of Jebus with Jerusalem has been challenged.Danish biblical scholarNiels Peter Lemche notes that every non-biblical mention of Jerusalem found in theancient Near East refers to the city with the name of Jerusalem, offering as an example theAmarna letters, which are dated to the 14th century BCE and refer to Jerusalem asUrasalimmu. He states that "There is no evidence of Jebus and theJebusites outside of theOld Testament. Some scholars reckon Jebus to be a different place from Jerusalem; other scholars prefer to see the name of Jebus as a kind of pseudo-ethnic name without any historical background".[69]
The capture of Jebus is mentioned in2 Samuel 5 and1 Chronicles 11 with similar wordings:
AndDavid and allIsrael went to Jerusalem, that is, Jebus, where theJebusites were, the inhabitants of the land. The inhabitants of Jebus said to David, "You will not come in here." Nevertheless, David took the stronghold ofZion, that is, thecity of David.
According to2 Samuel, the Battle of theWood of Ephraim occurred between the rebel forces of the formerly exiledIsraelite princeAbsalom against the royal forces of his fatherKing David during a short-lived revolt.[70]
Absalom, the third son of King David ofIsrael, had been newly returned from three years in exile inGeshur for the murder of his half-brother,Amnon and received a pardon with some restrictions.[71] Later, he began a campaign to win the lost favour and trust of the people,[72] which was successful.[73] Absalom, under the pretense of going to worship atHebron, asked King David permission to leaveJerusalem. David, unaware of his true intentions, granted it and Absalom left with an escort of 200 men. Upon arriving in the city, Absalom sent messengers to all the leaders andtribal princes throughout the empire to back him as king.[74] Meanwhile, back in Hebron he continued to sacrifice under the guise that he was only there to worshipGod while still gathering officials and important people in the empire, growing his numbers and strength, including receiving the support ofAhithophel of Giloh one of the royal councilors. When News of Absalom's now open revolt in Hebron reached the royal Israelite court in Jerusalem[75] Upon learning of these developments, King David ordered the city and court evacuated, fearing that the rebel forces under Absalom would besiege.[76] He left with the entire Israelite royal house, as well as hiselite Cherethite/Pelethite Royal guard, a mercenary force of 600 Gathites under their commander Ittai the Gittite. They marched to theKidron valley and came to the bank ofthe Jordan river. They crossed leaving behind several spies and double agents to subvert Absalom and his conspirators and infiltrate their court and gather information on the rebel movements.[77][78] David retreated to a city east of the Jordan, Mahanaim,[79] most likely to be identified with Tell adh-Dhahab ash-Sharqiyya on the south side of theJabbok River. Most Bible geographers place the "Forest of Ephraim" east of the Jordan River, in the region also known asGilead. This identification is bolstered by the statement that Absalom's army camped "in the land of Gilead"[80] as they prepared for battle against David.[81]
Absalom initiated the attack with his forces. He choseAmasa, one ofJoab's kinsmen, as general, and marched out of Jerusalem into the land ofGilead. When David entered Mahanaim with his forces, as a result of his fame many warriors flocked to his aid, and passed before him to the battle,[82] as he stood at the gate of the city. David divided the army into three parts—one was to be led by Joab; one by Abishai; and the third by Ittai, the trusted friend and commander from Gath. David then declared that he would head the army himself, but his soldiers would not allow David to risk his life. They asked him to remain in the city. When all was ready, David gave to the three Generals this parting injunction, "Deal gently, for my sake, with the young man, with Absalom." The two armies met in a forest of Ephraim. It was a great and terrible battle. The rebel forces were unable to maneuver because the thickness of trees, and their numbers were reduced by the underbrush of the forest.[83] The forces of Absalom were thus routed by the royal forces of David. Absalom himself fled. As he was riding through the woods on his mule, he was caught by the long locks of his hair under the spreading branches of a large tree. Unable to free himself, he remained suspended, his mule had escaped. One of David's servants brought this intelligence to General Joab, who gave the order that Absalom be put to death and the royal troops disengaged immediately thereafter.
Scholarly opinion is divided as to the historicity of the events in the Books of Samuel. Most scholars believe that the Books of Samuel contain a large amount of historical information, while there are some dissenters who view them as entirely fictional.[84]
According to2 Samuel 5:20, and1 Chronicles 14:11, Ba'al-Perazim was the scene of a victory gained byDavid over thePhilistines. It may be the same as a Mount Perazim referenced inIsaiah 28:21. which suggests a mountain with a high ground position for David to attack. Alternatively, since David says "Yahweh burst-through" (פָּרַץ יְהוָה) "like bursting of waters" (פֶרֶץ מָיִם) it may be a reference to waters.
The Israel and Judah period in the Hebrew Bible stretches from the alleged split of the united monarchy into Israel and Judah (c. 930 BCE), until the fall of Judah due to the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. The military and religious conflict between theKingdom of Israel andKingdom of Judah is claimed to have originated with the rejection of idolatrous practices introduced byKing Solomon. This is alleged to have led to different religious traditions in the north and south. The Judahite prophetIsaiah, active in Jerusalem about a century beforeJosiah, makes no mention ofthe Exodus, covenants with God, or disobedience to God's laws; in contrast Isaiah's contemporaryHosea, active in the northernkingdom of Israel, makes frequent reference to the Exodus, the wilderness wanderings, a covenant, the danger of foreign gods and the need to worship Yahweh alone; this has led scholars to the view that these traditions behind Deuteronomy have a northern origin.[85] Whether the Deuteronomic code – the set of laws at chapters 12–26 which form the original core of the book – was written inJosiah's time (late 7th century) or earlier is subject to debate, but many of the individual laws are older than the collection itself.[86] The two poems at chapters 32–33 – theSong of Moses and theBlessing of Moses were probably originally independent.[85]
Jeroboam's Revolt (Hebrew:יִפְשְׁעוּ יִשְׂרָאֵל בְּבֵית דָּוִד,Modern: Yīfš'ū Yīsraʾēl B'vēt Davīd,Tiberian: Yīp̄š'ū Yīsrāʾēl Bəḇēṯ Dāwīḏ, 'Israel's revolt against the House of David') was an armed insurrection againstRehoboam, king of theUnited Monarchy of Israel, and subsequently theKingdom of Judah, led byJeroboam in the late 10th century BCE, according to theFirst Book of Kings and theSecond Book of Chronicles of theHebrew Bible. The conflict, referring to the independence of the Kingdom of Samaria and the subsequent civil war during Jeroboam's rule, began shortly after the death ofSolomon and lasted until theBattle of Mount Zemaraim. The conflict began due to discontent under the rule of Solomon's successor, his son Rehoboam, and was waged with the goal of breaking away from the United Monarchy of Israel. Though this goal was achieved very early on in the conflict, the war continued throughout the duration of Rehoboam's reign[87] and well into the reign of his son,Abijam, who defeated the armies of Jeroboam but failed to reunite the kingdoms.[88]
Jeroboam had fled to Egypt decades prior to the war after Solomon tried to kill him following prophecies by Yahweh (1 Kings 11:9-13) andAhijah (1 Kings 11:29-39) that God wanted Jeroboam to rule overten of the twelveTribes of Israel,[89] and lived under the protection of the pharaohShishak, probablyShoshenq I.[90] Following the news of Solomon's death in 931 BCE, Jeroboam ventured back to the kingdoms of Israel, now under the rule of Solomon's son Rehoboam. Rehoboam's rule had been comparatively less appreciated than his father's, having been advised to show no weakness to the people, and to tax them even more.[91] Jeroboam, as part of a delegation, went before Rehoboam and petitioned for a cap on taxes, which Rehoboam refused.[92] Following the rejection, ten of the tribes withdrew their allegiance to the house ofDavid and proclaimed Jeroboam their king, forming Samaria. Only the tribes ofJudah andBenjamin remained loyal to Rehoboam in the new kingdom of Judah.[92]
TheBattle of Mount Zemaraim in c. 913 BCE proved to be Jeroboam's final defeat,[93] as the armies of Rehoboam's son Abijam reportedly killed half a million of Jeroboam's soldiers and captured the important Samarian centers ofBethel,Jeshanah, andEphron, with their surrounding villages.[94] Following this defeat, Jeroboam posed little threat to the Davidic kingdom, and died three years later. Despite defeating the separatist forces of the ten rebel tribes, the kingdoms of Judah and Samaria failed to be reunified in the wake of the war's end, and remained increasingly divided until being destroyed by invaders in586 BCE and720 BCE respectively.
The great Battle of Mount Zemaraim was reported in theBible to have been fought in Mount Zemaraim, when the army of theKingdom of Israel led by the kingJeroboam I encountered the army of theKingdom of Judah led by the kingAbijah I.[95] About 500,000 Israelites were said to have lain dead after this single engagement, though most modern commentators consider the numbers to be either wildly exaggerated or symbolic, and some have even questioned its fundamentalhistoricity.[96] Achronology proposed byEdwin Thiele suggests the battle would have taken place in around 913 BC.
The friction began when the late kingRehoboam increased the royal taxes throughout theKingdom of Israel after Solomon died in about 931 BCE.[97] This created discontent among all the Israelite tribes of the kingdom, excepting Judah and Benjamin, and the people's discontent soon became a rebellion when the king, against the advice of the elders, refused to lessen the burdens of royal taxation.[98] The ten northern tribes of Israel eventually broke up from the kingdom and made a newKingdom of Israel with the former fugitive and exileJeroboam as king,[99] provoking a civil war. Rehoboam then went to war against the new kingdom with a force of 180,000 soldiers,[100] but was advised against fighting his brethren, so he returned to Jerusalem.[101] After the unified kingdom was divided, there had been constant border issues between the two parties, and both attempted to settle them.Abijah succeeded to the throne after the death of his father Rehoboam, and attempted to reunite all of Israel, including Judah, under his rule. According to biblical sources, Abijah had an army of 400,000, all of them handpicked or conscripted, and Jeroboam had 800,000 warriors.[102]
Before the battle, Abijah addressed the armies of Israel, urging them to submit and to let the Kingdom of Israel be whole again. As written in the biblical narrative (2 Chronicles 13:4-12), Abijah then rallied his own troops with an address to all the people of Israel:
“Listen to me, Jeroboam and all Israel: 5 “Do you not know that the LORD God of Israel gave the rule over Israel forever to David and his sons by acovenant of salt? 6 “Yet Jeroboam the son of Nebat, the servant of Solomon the son of David, rose up and rebelled against his master, 7 and worthless men gathered about him, scoundrels, who proved too strong for Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, when he was young and timid and could not hold his own against them.8 “So now you intend to resist the kingdom of the LORD through the sons of David, being a great multitude and having with you the golden calves which Jeroboam made for gods for you. 9 “Have you not driven out the priests of the LORD, the sons of Aaron and the Levites, and made for yourselves priests like the peoples of other lands? Whoever comes to consecrate himself with a young bull and seven rams, even he may become a priest of what are no gods. 10 “But as for us, the LORD is our God, and we have not forsaken Him; and the sons of Aaron are ministering to the LORD as priests, and the Levites attend to their work. 11 “Every morning and evening they burn to the LORD burnt offerings and fragrant incense, and the showbread is set on the clean table, and the golden lampstand with its lamps is ready to light every evening; for we keep the charge of the LORD our God, but you have forsaken Him. 12 “Now behold, God is with us at our head and His priests with the signal trumpets to sound the alarm against you. O sons of Israel, do not fight against the LORD God of your fathers, for you will not succeed.”
Abijah's plea to Jeroboam was not heeded. Jeroboam had set up an ambush to come from the rear of Abijah's army, so that the latter's army would be fighting on his army's front and rear,[103] executing a giantpincer movement. All of the soldiers of Judah pleaded to God for help, and then thepriests blew the trumpets.[104] Abijah was quick in countering this move made by Jeroboam; he ordered his warriors to fight bravely and countered the pincer movement executed by Jeroboam to his warriors, crushing the latter's huge army. Abijah and the warriors of Judah who were under his command had won the day, killing 500,000 Israelite warriors in the process.[105] The rest of the Israelite army fled from the battlefield heading back north, and the forces of Judah then staged a relentless pursuit against them, taking the cities ofBethel, Jeshanah andEphron during the ensuing pursuit.[106] The factor for Judah's success in the battle is mainly attributed to Abijah and his troops' devotion to their God.[107]
Jeroboam was crippled by this severe defeat to Abijah and thus posed little threat to theKingdom of Judah for the rest of his reign;[108] however, despite being victorious, Abijah also failed to reunify Israel and Judah. To conclude, despite the battle being decisive for both sides, this only deepened their division of each other, and these two kingdoms would be engaged in severe border wars for almost two centuries until the Kingdom of Israel's conquest and destruction by Assyria in 720 BC.
According to1 Kings 14:25 and2 Chronicles 12:1–12, there was an Egyptian pharaoh calledShishak (possibly the same person asShoshenq I, r. ~943–922 BCE) who attacked and sacked Jerusalem in the fifth year of kingRehoboam's rule of Judah (usually dated to c. 926 BCE). Moreover, Egyptian sources such as theBubastite Portal atKarnak confirm the accounts of Shoshenq I's campaign in Canaan,[109] around the same time as Rehobeam; the size of the Egyptian army might not be unrealistic for the historical period, and a relief from Karnak records Sheshonq I presenting the tribute taken from his Levantine campaign toAmun-Re, later used to finance the construction of several structures across Egypt.[109]
The Old Testament describes this battle in2 Chronicles 14:9–15 as having occurred during the dates of 911–870 BCE, in the reign of KingAsa of Judah. It was fought at the Valley of Zephath nearMaresha, in modern-dayIsrael, between the armies of theKingdom of Judah under the command of King Asa and that of theKushites andancient Egyptians under the command ofZerah the Ethiopian who, given the time frame with Asa's reign, may have been a military commander under PharaohOsorkon I.[110]
The warriors of Judah were victorious in the battle, utterly defeating the Egyptians and Kushites,[111] whichthe Chronicler attributes to divine intervention,[112] and Asa's forces collected a large volume ofwar spoils.[113] Asa's forces pursued the enemy stragglers as far as the coastal city ofGerar, where they halted due to exhaustion. The result of the battle created peace between Judah and Egypt until the time ofJosiah some centuries later, when the latter would again make encroachments in the region.
TheTibni–Omri war, briefly mentioned in 1 Kings 16, appears to have taken place fromc. 886 to 883 BCE.Zimri assassinatedking Elah of Samaria and all his family members, starting a war of succession between rival factions. One faction was led byOmri, commander of an Israelite army encamped nearGibbethon; his soldiers had acclaimed him as king upon hearing of Zimri's usurpation (1 Kings 16:15–16). Omri led his army towards the capital and commenced the siege of Tirzah (1 Kings 16:17). When Zimri realised the city would fall, he set his palace on fire and perished in the flames after a reign of seven days; the narrator claims this happened because he had 'sinned in the eyes of Yahweh', just like his predecessor Jeroboam (1 Kings 16:17–18). The people of Israel/Samaria were then divided into two factions, one siding with Omri, and the other with Tibni (1 Kings 16:21). As Zimri's 7-day reign began inAsa of Judah's 27th reign year and Omri's reign began in Asa's 31st (1 Kings 16:23), the war would have lasted about 4 years until Omri's forces prevailed. Tibni is recorded as having died, and the Septuagint adds that he had a brother called Joram (Ancient Greek:καὶ Ἰωρὰμ ὁ ἀδελφὸς αὐτοῦ) who died as well (1 Kings 16:22), although how they met their ends is not narrated.[114]
The biblical Battle of Megiddo is recorded as having taken place in 609 BC whenPharaoh Necho II ofEgypt led his army toCarchemish (northern Syria) to join with his allies, the fadingNeo-Assyrian Empire, against the surgingNeo-Babylonian Empire. This required passing through territory controlled by theKingdom of Judah. The Judaean kingJosiah refused to let the Egyptians pass.[115] The Judaean forces battled the Egyptians at Megiddo, resulting in Josiah's death and his kingdom becoming a vassal state of Egypt. The battle is recorded in theHebrew Bible, the Greek1 Esdras, and the writings ofJosephus. While Necho II gained control of the Kingdom of Judah, the combined Assyrian-Egyptian forces lost to the Babylonians at theFall of Harran, after which Assyria largelyceased to exist as an independent state.
The basic story is told in2 Kings 23:29–30 (written c. 550 BC). TheHebrew text here has been misunderstood and translated as Necho going 'against' Assyria.Cline 2000:92-93 notes that most modern translations try to improve this passage by taking into account what we now know from other historical sources, namely that Egypt and Assyria were then allies. The original text also does not mention a 'battle', yet some modern versions add the word 'battle' to the text.
In his days Pharaoh Neco king of Egypt went up to the king of Assyria to the riverEuphrates. King Josiah went to meet him; and Pharaoh Neco slew him at Megiddo, when he saw him. And his servants carried him dead in a chariot from Megiddo, and brought him to Jerusalem, and buried him in his own tomb.
There is a longer account recorded later in2 Chronicles 35:20–25 (written c. 350–300 BC).[116]
After all this, when Josiah had set the temple in order, Neco king of Egypt came up to make war at Carchemish on the Euphrates, and Josiah went out to engage him. But Neco sent messengers to him, saying, "What have we to do with each other, O King of Judah? I am not coming against you today but against the house with which I am at war, and God has ordered me to hurry. Stop for your own sake from interfering with God who is with me, so that He will not destroy you." However, Josiah would not turn away from him, but disguised himself in order to make war with him; nor did he listen to the words of Neco from the mouth of God, but came to make war on the plain of Megiddo. The archers shot King Josiah, and the king said to his servants, "Take me away, for I am badly wounded." So his servants took him out of the chariot and carried him in the second chariot which he had, and brought him to Jerusalem where he died and was buried in the tombs of his fathers.
Theprophetic books of the Hebrew Bible contain the books ofIsaiah throughMalachi. Some of the battles mentioned or described in the prophetic books also feature in the historical books, and so there is some overlap in content, although the information provided may differ significantly.
The Book of Nahum is dedicated to theFall of Nineveh, which happened in or around 612 BCE. The story was supposedly written down after "the vision ofNahum the Elkoshite".[117] Chapter 1 narrates in the first and third person how the Israelite deity Yahweh tells the Assyrians that he will punish them by destroying their capital city of Nineveh, and chapters 2 and 3 go on to narrate in detail how he will do so. Scholar Susanne Scholz (2021) noted that Nahum 3 mirrors other Hebrew prophetic poems in which a city (with Nineveh here being apars pro toto representative of theNeo-Assyrian Empire) destroyed by a foreign enemy is portrayed as a sexually promiscuous woman who receives sexual violence and the resulting shame as a just punishment for her sins. Even though the Israelite god Yahweh had no previous relationship with Nineveh that the latter could be 'unfaithful' to, it is presented as revenge for theAssyrian conquest of the northernKingdom of Israel (Samaria) and theAssyrian captivity in the 730s BCE.[118]
This battle was fought about 605 BC[119][120][121] between the armies ofEgypt allied with the remnants of the army of the formerAssyrian Empire against the armies ofBabylonia, allied with theMedes,Persians, andScythians. This battle is mentioned in theBook of Ezekiel chapter 30,[122] and in theBook of Jeremiah.[123]
The Egyptians met the full might of the Babylonian and Median army led byNebuchadnezzar II at Carchemish, where the combined Egyptian and Assyrian forces were destroyed. Assyria ceased to exist as an independent power, and Egypt retreated and was no longer a significant force in theAncient Near East. Babylonia reached its economic peak after 605 BC.[124]
To avoid the destruction of Jerusalem, KingJehoiakimof Judah, in his third year, changed his allegiance from Egypt to Babylon. He paid tribute from the treasury in Jerusalem, some temple artifacts and some of the royal family and nobility as hostages.[125] In 601 BC, during the fourth year of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar unsuccessfully attempted to invadeEgypt and was repulsed with heavy losses. The failure led to numerous rebellions among the states of theLevant which owed allegiance to Babylon, includingJudah, where King Jehoiakim stopped paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar[126] and took a pro-Egyptian position.
Nebuchadnezzar soon dealt with these rebellions. According to theNebuchadnezzar Chronicle,[127] he laid siege toJerusalem, which eventually fell in 597 BC. The Chronicle states:
In the seventh year [of Nebuchadnezzar, 598 BC] in the month Chislev [November/December] the king of Babylon assembled his army, and after he had invaded the land of Hatti (Syria/Palestine) he laid siege to the city of Judah. On the second day of the month of Adar [16 March] he conquered the city and took the king [Jeconiah] prisoner. He installed in his place a king [Zedekiah] of his own choice, and after he had received rich tribute, he sent forth to Babylon.[128]
Jehoiakim died during the siege, possibly on December 10, 598 BC,[129] or during the months ofKislev,[130] orTevet.[131] Nebuchadnezzar pillaged the city and itsTemple, and the new kingJeconiah, who was either 8 or 18, and his court and other prominent citizens and craftsmen, weredeported to Babylon.[132] The deportation occurred prior to Nisan of 597 BC, and dates in theBook of Ezekiel are counted from that event.[133]
Nebuchadnezzar installed Jeconiah's uncle,Zedekiah as puppet-king of Judah, and Jeconiah was compelled to remain in Babylon.[134] The start of Zedekiah's reign has been variously dated within a few weeks before,[135] or after[136][137] the start of Nisan 597 BC.
Nebuchadnezzar began a siege ofJerusalem in January 589 BC.[138][139] Many Jews fled to surroundingMoab,Ammon,Edom and other countries to seek refuge.[140] The Bible describes the city as enduring horrible deprivation during the siege (2 Kings 25:3;Lamentations 4:4,5,9). The city fell after a siege, which lasted either eighteen or thirty months.[139] In the eleventh year of Zedekiah's reign (2 Kings 25:2;Jeremiah 39:2), Nebuchadnezzar broke through Jerusalem's walls, conquering the city. Zedekiah and his followers attempted to escape but were captured on the plains ofJericho and taken toRiblah. There, after seeing his sons killed, Zedekiah was blinded, bound, and taken captive to Babylon (2 Kings 25:1–7;2 Chronicles 36:12;Jeremiah 32:4–5;34:2–3;39:1–7;52:4–11), where he remained a prisoner until his death.
After the fall of Jerusalem, the Babylonian general Nebuzaraddan was sent to complete its destruction. Jerusalem was plundered, andSolomon's Temple was destroyed. Most of the elite were taken intocaptivity in Babylon. The city was razed to the ground. Only a few people were permitted to remain to tend to the land (Jeremiah 52:16). The JewGedaliah was made governor of the remnant of Judah, theYehud Province, with aChaldean guard stationed atMizpah (2 Kings 25:22–24;Jeremiah 40:6–8). The Bible reports that, on hearing this news, Jews who had fled toMoab,Ammon,Edom, and in other countries returned to Judah (Jeremiah 40:11–12). Gedaliah was assassinated byIshmael son of Nethaniah two months later, and the population that had remained and those who had returned then fled to Egypt for safety (2 Kings 25:25–26,Jeremiah 43:5–7). In Egypt, they settled inMigdol (it is uncertain where the Bible is referring to here, probably somewhere in theNile Delta),Tahpanhes,Memphis (called Noph), andPathros in the vicinity ofThebes (Jeremiah 44:1).
| Name of conflict | Biblical sources | Extrabiblical sources | Notes | Dating | Historicity |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Battle of Siddim | Genesis 14:1–17 | Samaritan Pentateuch | Five Cities of Jordan Plain defeat Mesopotamian kingdoms at Siddim (nearDead Sea?) | Early 2nd millennium BCE | Probably not historical |
| Crossing the Red Sea | Exodus 13:17–15:21 | Samaritan Pentateuch | Yahweh partsRed Sea soMoses & Israelites cross, then drowns chasing Egyptians | (13th century BCE) | |
| Battle of Refidim | Exodus 17:8–13 | Samaritan Pentateuch | Yahweh assists Moses & Israelites in defeatingAmalekites atRephidim | (13th century BCE) | Probably not historical |
| Golden calf massacre | Exodus 32:26–28 | Samaritan Pentateuch | Moses instructs Levites to kill Israelites as punishment forgolden calf | Probably not historical | |
| Conquest of Heshbon | Numbers 21:21–30 Deuteronomy 2:24–34 Judges 11:19–22 | Samaritan Pentateuch | Moses & Israelites kill all Heshbon soldiers (and civilians?) | Probably not historical | |
| Conquest of Bashan | Numbers 21:33–35 Deuteronomy 3:1–7 | Samaritan Pentateuch | Moses & Israelites kill all Bashan soldiers (and civilians?) | Probably not historical | |
| War against the Midianites | Numbers 31 | Samaritan Pentateuch | Yahweh assistsPhinehas & Israelites in massacring Midianite men, enslaving virgins | (late 13th century BCE) | Not historical |
| Conquest of Canaan | Joshua 2–19 Judges 1 | Probably not historical | |||
| Battle of Jericho | Joshua 5:13–6:27 | Yahweh assistsJoshua & Israelites in destroyingJericho | (16th or 13th century BCE) | Probably not historical | |
| Battles of Ai | Joshua 7–8 | Yahweh assists Joshua & Israelites in destroyingAi | Probably not historical | ||
| Battle of the Waters of Merom | Joshua 11 | Yahweh assists Joshua & Israelites in defeating Canaanite city-states. | Probably not historical | ||
| Post-Joshua raids | Judges 2:10–23 | Apattern of Israelite apostasy, foreign raids as punishment, and Israelite repentance to Yahweh is established that is repeated throughout the Hebrew Bible.[141] Judges 2 seems a summary of what is to come rather than a unique set of battles.[141] | Probably not historical | ||
| Moabite conquest of Israel | Judges 3:12–14 | Yahweh punishes Israelites:Eglon's Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites conquer Israel. | Probably not historical | ||
| Battle of the Jordan fords | Judges 3:15–30 | Yahweh helps judgeEhud murderEglon, Israelites defeat and vassaliseMoabites. | Probably not historical | ||
| Battle of Mount Tabor | Judges 4–5 | JudgesDeborah andBarak lead Israelites to defeatJabin's Canaanites. | (mid 12th century BCE) | Probably not historical | |
| Gideon's campaign against the Midianites (Well of Harod) | Judges 6–8 | Yahweh assists Gideon in driving out Midianites and other invaders. In return, Gideon destroys all sanctuaries of 'foreign' gods and goddesses such asBaal andAsherah. | Probably not historical | ||
| Shechemite rebellion | Judges 9:22–57 | Abimelech kills his 70 brothers, becomes king, Shechemites rebel and defeat him. | Probably not historical | ||
| Israelite–Ammonite war | Judges 11:4–36 | Yahweh helpsJephthah defeat theAmmonites in return forsacrificing his daughter | Probably not historical | ||
| Gileadite–Ephraimite war (Shibboleth war) | Judges 12:1–6 | Ephraimites complain toJephthah about not inviting them to help fight the Ammonites. Jephthah's Gileadite army attacks and kills Ephraimites who can't say 'shibboleth'. | Probably not historical | ||
| Samson versus Philistines | Judges 15:6–20 Judges 16:27–31 | Avenging his wife's murder, Samson attacks and kills 'many' Philistines, with Yahweh's help he kills 1,000 more, and when captured kills 3,000 in asuicide attack.[142] | Probably not historical | ||
| Micah's Idol (Sack ofLaish) | Judges 18:9–31 (prologue:Judges 17) | 600 Danites sack the poorly defended city of Laish. They rename it "Dan", rebuild and repopulate it, and adopt Micah's idolatry. | Probably not historical | ||
| Benjamite War / Battle of Gibeah | Judges 19–21 | AfterLevite's concubine's gang-rape, other Israelite tribes attack Benjamites | Probably not historical | ||
| Battle of Aphek | 1 Samuel 4:1–10 (1 Samuel 2–3) | Because judgeEli'ssons were 'wicked', Yahweh allows the Philistines to defeat the Israelites, andcapture the Ark of the Covenant. | Probably not historical | ||
| Battle of Mizpah | 1 Samuel 7:5–14 (1 Samuel 7:1–4) | With the Ark's return, Israelites rejectBaal andAshtoreth worship, reconnect to Yahweh at Mizpah. Philistines attack them, but Yahweh leads Israelites to victory. | Probably not historical | ||
| Siege of Jabesh-Gilead | 1 Samuel 11 | Ammonites besiegeJabesh-Gilead, but Yahweh helpsSaul relieve it. Saul is crowned king. | 11th century BCE | Probably not historical | |
| Battle of Michmash | 1 Samuel 13–14:23 | Antiquities of the Jews, VI.6 | Israelites led by Saul's sonJonathan defeat Philistines. | 11th century BCE | Probably not historical |
| Saul's campaigns against various tribes | 1 Samuel 14:47–48 | 'Moab, the Ammonites, Edom, the kings of Zobah, and the Philistines', 'the Amalekites'. | 11th century BCE | Probably not historical | |
| Saul's Amalekite campaign | 1 Samuel 15:1–11 | Saul exterminates Amalekites. Yahweh rejects Saul as king for not killing Amalekite livestock. | 11th century BCE | Probably not historical | |
| DavidorElhanan versusGoliath | 1 Samuel 17 2 Samuel 21:19 (1 Chronicles 20:5) |
| 11th century BCE | Probably not historical | |
| Foreskin war | 1 Samuel 18:24–30 (2 Samuel 3:14) | 1 Samuel 18: David kills 200 Philistines and takes theirforeskins asbride price forMichal. (2 Samuel 3: David betrothed Michal for 100 Philistine foreskins, demands Saul deliver her.) | 11th century BCE | Probably not historical | |
| Battle of Mount Gilboa | 1 Samuel 28:4 1 Samuel 31:1–4 2 Samuel 1:1–16 1 Chronicles 10 | Josephus | Philistines invade and defeat Israelites.
| 11th century BCE | Probably not historical |
| David versusIsh-bosheth | 2 Samuel 2:8–4:5 | War of succession upon Saul's death between his son Ish-bosheth and son-in-law David. | c. 1000 BCE | Probably not historical | |
| Pool of Gibeon | 2 Samuel 2:12–17 | David versusIsh-bosheth battle | c. 1000 BCE | Probably not historical | |
| Siege of Jebus | 2 Samuel 5:6–10 1 Chronicles 11:4–5 | None[69] | David conquers Canaanite city Jebus, makes ithis capital (Jerusalem?[69]) | c. 1000 BCE | Probably not historical[69] |
| Siege of Rabbah | 2 Samuel 11 | Israelites led byJoab besiege theAmmonite city ofRabbah. David arrangesUriah's death in battle, so that he can take Uriah's wifeBathsheba. | c. 1000 BCE | Probably not historical | |
| Battle of the Wood of Ephraim | 2 Samuel 17:24–18:18 (proper:2 Sam 18:6–8) | David's army defeats and kills his rebellious sonAbsalom | c. 1000 BCE | Probably not historical | |
| Battles ofBaal-perazim and theValley of Rephaim | 2 Samuel 5:17–25 1 Chronicles 14:8–16 | David defeats the Philistines | c. 1000 BCE | Maybe historical | |
| Jeroboam's Revolt | 1 Kings 11 2 Chronicles 13 | Archeological findings | United monarchy splits into kingdoms ofIsrael (Samaria) andJudah (Jerusalem) | c. 931–913 BCE | Maybe historical |
| Shishak's sack ofJerusalem | 1 Kings 14:25 2 Chronicles 12:1–12 | (Shoshenq I?) | Egyptian pharaoh Shishak sacks Jerusalem duringRehoboam's reign | c. 926 BCE | Maybe historical |
| Battle of Mount Zemaraim | 1 Kings 12 2 Chronicles 13 | Judahites repel an Israelite invasion | c. 913 BCE | Maybe historical | |
| Battle of Zephath | 2 Chronicles 14:8–15 | (Osorkon I/II?) | Yahweh helpsAsa of Judah defeatZerah the Cushite, killing 1 million troops | c. 911–870 BCE | Probably not historical |
| Tibni–Omri war (Siege of Tirzah) | 1 Kings 16:21–22 (1 Kings 16:15–20) | War of succession after usurperZimri killed kingElah of Israel. Started with Omri's brief siege of Tirzah, then 4-year war against Tibni. | c. 886 to 883 BCE. | Maybe historical | |
| Israelite–Aramean War | 1 Kings 20:1–34 2 Kings 6:8–7:16 | Ahab & Israelites defeatAram-Damascus | c. 874 BCE | Mix of fact and fiction[143] | |
| Edomite and Libnahite revolts Battle of Zair | 2 Kings 8:20–22 2 Chronicles 21:8–10 | The Judahite vassal statesEdom andLibnah revolt against Judah. Judahite chariots try to reclaim Edom, but are defeated at Zair,Jehoram narrowly escaping. | c. 845 BCE | Maybe historical | |
| Philistine–Arab raid on Judah | 2 Chronicles 21:12–17 | Yahweh cursesJehoram of Judah, causes Philistine/Arab raiders to invade Judah | c. 845 BCE | Probably not historical | |
| Sack of Tiphsah | 2 Kings 15:16 | Menahem killsShallum, becomes king, sacks city of Tiphsah for not opening its gates. | c. 745 BCE | Maybe historical | |
| Tiglath-Pileser III's conquest of the Levant | 2 Kings 15:19–20,29 2 Kings 16:5–9 | Tiglath-Pileser III invades several times, increasing Assyrian power. | 743–732 BCE | Historical | |
| Syro-Ephraimite War | 2 Kings 16:5 2 Chronicles 28 (Isaiah 7:1) | Assyria and Judah defeat Aram-Damascus and Israel | 736–732 BCE | Maybe historical | |
| Siege of Samaria | 2 Kings 17:3–6 2 Kings 18:9–11 | Babylonian Chronicle | Shalmaneser V besieges and conquersSamaria, destroysKingdom of Israel (Samaria), startsAssyrian captivity. | 724–722 BCE | Historical |
| Sennacherib's campaign in the Levant | 2 Kings 18–19 Isaiah 36–37 2 Chronicles 32 | Sennacherib's Annals | AfterSargon II's death (705 BCE), various Levantine vassal states rebel against Assyria. New Assyrian kingSennacherib reasserts control. | 701 BCE | Historical |
| Siege of Lachish | 2 Kings 18 2 Chronicles 32 Micah 1:13 | Sennacherib's Annals Lachish reliefs Antiquities of the Jews | 701 BCE | Historical | |
| Assyrian siege of Jerusalem | 2 Kings 18 Chronicles Isaiah | Sennacherib's Annals Histories (Herodotus) 2:141? | 701 BCE | Historical | |
| Battle of Nineveh (612 BC) | Nahum 2–3 (Book of Jonah) | Persica "Fall of Nineveh" chronicle |
| c. 612 BCE | Historical |
| Battle of Megiddo (609 BC) | 2 Kings 23:29–30 2 Chronicles 35:20–25 (1 Esdras) | Antiquities of the Jews x.5.1 (Histories (Herodotus) 2:159?) Talmud Lev. 26:6 Taanis 22b | Egyptians & Assyrians defeat Judahites (and killJosiah?) | 609 BCE | Probably historical |
| Battle of Carchemish | Ezekiel 30 Jeremiah 46:3–12 | Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle Antiquities of the Jews x.5.1 | Babylonians defeat Egyptians and Assyrians | c. 605 BCE | Historical |
| Judah's revolts against Babylon | c. 601–586 BCE | Historical | |||
| Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC) | 2 Kings 24:10–16 (Ezekiel?) | Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle | Nebuchadnezzar II besieges and conquers Jerusalem | c. 598–597 BCE | Historical |
| Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC) | 2 Kings 25 2 Chronicles 36 Lamentations 4, 5 Jeremiah 32–52 | Archeological findings | Nebuchadnezzar II besieges and destroys Jerusalem | c. 587–586 BCE | Probably historical |
| Purim war | Esther 9:5–16 | Antiquities of the Jews xi.6 | With KingAhasuerus' help, Jews in theFirst Persian Empire kill their enemies | 5th–4th century BCE | Not historical |
the Bible also contains the horrific account of what can only be described as a "biblicalholocaust".
The current consensus is that there is little or no historical memory of pre-Israelite events in Genesis
discussion of Genesis 19 (and its parallel, Judges 19) is still couched in such terms as 'homosexual rape' and 'homosexuality'. {...}There is a parallel story to Genesis 19 in the Hebrew bible, that of the outrage at Gibeah found in Judges 19–21 which Phyllis Trible (1984) has rightly described as a text of terror for women.{...}Stone acknowledges the relationship of Judges 19 and Genesis 19, describing them as each being one of the few "clear references to homosexuality in the Hebrew Bible" (Stone, 1995:98).{...}In Judges 19, the process is similar but with some interesting differences.
The first date is taken from Ezek 24:1, where it is said that the final siege of Jerusalem began in the tenth month of the "ninth year." ... The tenth month of that year corresponds roughly to January 589 BC.
The discrepancy between the length of the siege according to the regnal years of Zedekiah (years 9–11), on the one hand, and its length according to Jehoiachin's exile (years 9–12), on the other, can be cancelled out only by supposing the former to have been reckoned on a Tishri basis, and the latter on a Nisan basis. The difference of one year between the two is accounted for by the fact that the termination of the siege fell in the summer, between Nisan and Tishri, already in the 12th year according to the reckoning in Ezekiel, but still in Zedekiah's 11th year which was to end only in Tishri.
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