Awar elephant is anelephant that istrained and guided byhumans for combat purposes. Historically, the war elephant's main use was tocharge the enemy, break their ranks, and instill terror and fear.Elephantry is a term for specific military units using elephant-mounted troops.[1]
War elephants played a critical role in several key battles inantiquity, especially inancient India.[2] While seeing limited and periodic use inAncient China, they became a permanent fixture in armies ofhistorical kingdoms in Southeast Asia. They were also used inancient Persia and in theMediterranean world within armies ofMacedon,Hellenistic Greek states, theRoman Republic and laterEmpire, andAncient Carthage in North Africa. In some regions they maintained a firm presence on the battlefield throughout theMedieval era. However, their use declined with the spread offirearms and othergunpowder weaponry inearly modern warfare. After this, war elephants became restricted to non-combat engineering and labour roles, as well as being used for minor ceremonial uses.
There is uncertainty as to when elephant warfare first started, but it is widely accepted that it began inancient India. Theearly Vedic period did not extensively specify the use of elephants in war. However, in theRamayana,Indra is depicted as riding eitherAiravata, a mythological elephant, or on theUchchaihshravas, as his mounts. Elephants were widely utilized in warfare by thelater Vedic period by the 6th century BC.[3] The increased conscription of elephants in themilitary history of India coincides with the expansion of the Vedic Kingdoms into theIndo-Gangetic Plain suggesting its introduction during the intervening period.[4] The practice of riding on elephants in peace and war, royalty or commoner, was first recorded in the 6th or 5th century BC.[3] This practice is believed to be much older than proper recorded history. Elephants were also used against Alexander the Great's army in India.
The ancient Indian epicsRamayana andMahābhārata, dating from 5th–4th century BC,[5] elaborately depict elephant warfare. They are recognized as an essential component of royal and military processions. In ancient India, initially, the army was fourfold (chaturanga), consisting of infantry, cavalry, elephants andchariots. Kings and princes principally rode on chariots, which were considered the most royal, while seldom riding on the backs of elephants.[6] Although viewed as secondary to chariots by royalty, elephants were the preferred vehicle of warriors, especially the elite ones. While the chariots eventually fell into disuse, the other three arms continued to be valued.[7] Many characters in the epicMahābhārata were trained in the art. According to therules of engagement set for theKurukshetra War, two men were to duel utilizing the same weapon and mount, including elephants. In theMahābhārata theakshauhini battle formation consists of a ratio of 1 chariot : 1 elephant : 3 cavalry : 5 infantry soldiers. Many characters in theMahābhārata were described as skilled in the art of elephant warfare e.g.Duryodhana rides an elephant into battle to bolster the demoralizedKaurava army. Scriptures like theNikāya andVinaya Pitaka assign elephants in their proper place in the organization of an army.[6] TheSamyutta Nikaya additionally mentions theGautama Buddha being visited by a 'hatthāroho gāmaṇi'. He is the head of a village community bound together by their profession as mercenary soldiers forming an elephant corp.[6]
Ancient Indian kings certainly valued the elephant in war, some stating that an army without elephants is as despicable as aforest without alion, a kingdom without a king, or as valor unaided by weapons.[8] The use of elephants further increased with the rise of theMahajanapadas. KingBimbisara (c. 543 BC), who began the expansion of theMagadha kingdom, relied heavily on his war elephants. The Mahajanapadas would be conquered by theNanda Empire under the reign ofMahapadma Nanda. According to Curtius, Alexander learned that the Nanda had 200,000 infantry; 20,000 cavalry; 3,000 elephants; and 2,000 four-horse chariots.[9][10] Diodorus gives the number of elephants as 4,000.[11]Plutarch inflates these numbers significantly, except the infantry:[12] according to him, the Nanda force included 200,000 infantry; 80,000 cavalry; 6,000 elephants; and 8,000 chariots.[13] It is possible that the numbers reported to Alexander had been exaggerated by the local Indian population, who had the incentive to mislead the invaders.[14]Alexander the Great would come in contact with the Nanda Empire on the banks of theBeas River and was forced to return due to his army's unwillingness to advance. Even if historic accounts exaggerated the numbers and prowess of these elephants, elephants were firmly established as war machines in this period.
At the height of his power,Chandragupta Maurya of theMaurya Empire is said to have wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants besides followers and attendants. In the Mauryan Empire, the 30-member war office was made up of six boards. The sixth board looked after the elephants, and was headed by aGajadhyaksha, or superintendent of elephants, who was tasked with their training. The use of elephants in the Maurya Empire is recorded byChanakya in theArthashastra. According to Chanakya, catching, training, and controlling war elephants were among the most important skills taught by military academies.[15] He advised Chandragupta to set up forested sanctuaries for the wellness of the elephants. Chanakya explicitly conveyed the importance of these sanctuaries. The Maurya Empire would reach its zenith under the reign ofAshoka, who used elephants extensively during his conquest. During theKalinga War, Kalinga had a standing army of 60,000 infantry, 1000 cavalry and 700 war elephants. Kalinga was notable for the quality of its war elephants, which its neighbors prized for their strength.[16] Later the KingKharavela was to restore an independent Kalinga into a powerful kingdom using war elephants as stated in theHathigumpha inscription or "Elephant Cave" Inscriptions. Following Indian accounts, foreign rulers would also adopt the use of elephants.
TheChola Empire of Tamil Nadu also had a very strong elephant force. The Chola emperorRajendra Chola had an armored elephant force, which played a major role in his campaigns.
Sri Lanka made extensive use of elephants and also exported elephants withPliny the Elder stating that the Sri Lankan elephants, for example, were larger, fiercer and better for war than local elephants. This superiority, as well as the proximity of the supply to seaports, made Sri Lanka's elephants a lucrative trading commodity.[18]Sri Lankan history records indicate elephants were used as mounts for kings leading their men in the battlefield,[19] with individual mounts being recorded in history. The elephantKandula was KingDutugamunu's mount andMaha Pambata, 'Big Rock', the mount of KingEllalan during their historic encounter on the battlefield in 200 BC, for example.[20]
Elephants were used for warfare in China by a small handful of southern dynasties. The state ofChu used elephants in 506 BC againstWu by tying torches to their tails and sending them into the ranks of the enemy soldiers, but the attempt failed. In December 554 AD, theLiang dynasty used armoured war elephants, carrying towers, againstWestern Wei. They were defeated by a volley of arrows. TheSouthern Han dynasty is the only state in Chinese history to have kept a permanent corps of war elephants. These elephants were able to carry a tower with some ten people on their backs. They were used successfully during the Han invasion ofMa Chu in 948. In 970, theSong dynasty invaded Southern Han and their crossbowmen readily routed the Han elephants on 23 January 971, during the taking of Shao. That was the last time elephants were used in Chinese warfare,[21] although theWanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620) did keep a herd of elephants capable of carrying a tower and eight men. These elephants were probably not native to China and were delivered to theMing dynasty by Southeast Asian countries such asSiam.[22] During theRevolt of the Three Feudatories, the rebels used elephants against theQing dynasty, but the Qing Bannermen shot them with so many arrows that they "resembled porcupines" and repelled the elephant charge.[23]
... the soldiers of the first column were attacked by the elephants. The flags of Major-general of the Guards, Walda of the Yellow Banner, and of Lieutenant Ulehi of the Manchu-Mongol cavalry were captured. As the elephants closed in on the encircled soldiers of the second column, the arrows shot by all of my men [into the elephants’ hides] looked like the quills of a porcupine. The elephants fled towards the hills [but] I was greatly alarmed and had a strange feeling. The rebels withdrew from the plain and split into groups [to hide] in the thick forest of the mountain.[24]
— Dzengseo
Chinese armies faced off against war elephants in Southeast Asia, such as during theSui–Lâm Ấp war (605),Lý–Song War (1075–1077),Ming–Mong Mao War (1386–1388), andMing–Hồ War (1406–1407). In 605, theChampa kingdom ofLâm Ấp in what is now southern Vietnam used elephants against the invading army of China'sSui dynasty. The Sui army dug pits and lured the elephants into them and shot them with crossbows, causing the elephants to turn back and trample their own army.[25] In 1075, the Song defeated elephants deployed on the borderlands ofĐại Việt during theLý–Song War. The Song forces used scythed polearms to cut the elephants' trunks, causing them to trample their own troops.[26] During the Mong Mao campaign, the elephants were routed by an assortment of gunpowder projectiles.[27] In the war against theHồ dynasty, Ming troops covered their horses with lion masks to scare the elephants and shot them with firearms.[28] The elephants all trembled with fear and were wounded by the guns and arrows, causing the Viet army to panic.[29]
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From India, military thinking on the use of war elephants spread westwards to theAchaemenid Empire, where they were used in several campaigns. They in turn came to influence the campaigns ofAlexander the Great, king ofMacedonia inHellenistic Greece. The first confrontation between Europeans and thePersian war elephants occurred at Alexander'sBattle of Gaugamela (331 BC), where the Persians deployed fifteen elephants.[30] These elephants were placed at the centre of the Persian line and made such an impression onAlexander's army that he felt the need to sacrifice toPhobos, the God of Fear, the night before the battle – but according to some sources the elephants ultimately failed to deploy in the final battle owing to their long march the day before.[31] Alexander was deeply impressed by the enemy elephants and took these first fifteen into his own army, adding to their number during his capture of the rest of Persia.
By the time Alexander reached the borders of India five years later, he had a substantial number of elephants under his own command. When it came to defeatingPorus, who ruled in what is nowPunjab region, Alexander found himself facing a force of between 85 and 100 war elephants[32][33] at theBattle of the Hydaspes. Preferring stealth and mobility to sheer force, Alexander manoeuvered and engaged with just his infantry and cavalry, ultimately defeating Porus' forces, including his elephant corps, albeit at some cost. Porus for his part placed his elephants individually, at long intervals from each other, a short distance in front of his main infantry line, in order to scare off Macedonian cavalry attacks and aid his own infantry in their struggle against thephalanx. The elephants caused many losses with their tusks fitted with iron spikes or by lifting the enemies with their trunks and trampling them.[34]Arrian described the subsequent fight: "[W]herever the beasts could wheel around, they rushed forth against the ranks of infantry and demolished the phalanx of the Macedonians, dense as it was."[35]
TheMacedonians adopted the standard ancient tactic for fighting elephants, loosening their ranks to allow the elephants to pass through and assailing them with javelins as they tried to wheel around; they managed to pierce the unarmoured elephants' legs. The panicked and wounded elephants turned on the Indians themselves; themahouts were armed with poisoned rods to kill the beasts but were slain by javelins and archers.[34][36]
Looking further east again, Alexander could see that the emperors and kings of theNanda Empire andGangaridai could deploy between 3,000 and 6,000 war elephants. Such a force was many times larger than the number of elephants employed by the Persians and Greeks, which probably discouraged Alexander's army and effectively halted their advance into India.[37] On his return, Alexander established a force of elephants to guard his palace atBabylon, and created the post ofelephantarch to lead his elephant units.[31]
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The successful military use of elephants spread further. The successors to Alexander's empire, theDiadochi, used hundreds of Indian elephants in their wars, with theSeleucid Empire being particularly notable for their use of the animals, still being largely brought from India. Indeed, theSeleucid–Mauryan war of 305–303 BC ended with the Seleucids ceding vast eastern territories in exchange for 500 war elephants[38] – a small part of theMauryan forces, which included up to 9000 elephants by some accounts.[39] The Seleucids put their new elephants to good use at theBattle of Ipsus four years later, where they blocked the return of the victoriousAntigonid cavalry, allowing the latter's phalanx to be isolated and defeated.
The first use of war elephants in Europe was made in 318 BC byPolyperchon, one of Alexander's generals, when he besiegedMegalopolis in thePeloponnesus during the wars of the Diadochi. He used 60 elephants brought from Asia with their mahouts. A veteran of Alexander's army, named Damis, helped the besieged Megalopolitians to defend themselves against the elephants and eventually Polyperchon was defeated. Those elephants were subsequently taken byCassander and transported, partly by sea, to other battlefields in Greece. It is assumed that Cassander constructed the first elephant transport sea vessels. Some of the elephants died of starvation in 316 BC in the besieged city ofPydna in Macedonia. Others of Polyperchon's elephants were used in various parts of Greece by Cassander.[40]
Although the use of war elephants in the western Mediterranean is most famously associated with the wars betweenCarthage andRoman Republic, the introduction of war elephants was primarily the result of an invasion byHellenistic eraEpirus across theAdriatic Sea. KingPyrrhus of Epirus brought twenty elephants to attackRoman Italy at thebattle of Heraclea in 280 BC, leaving fifty additional animals, on loan fromPtolemaic PharaohPtolemy II, on the mainland. The Romans were unprepared for fighting elephants, and the Epirot forces routed the Romans. The next year, the Epirots again deployed a similar force of elephants, attacking the Romans at thebattle of Asculum. This time the Romans came prepared with flammable weapons and anti-elephant devices: ox-drawn wagons, equipped with long spikes to wound the elephants, pots of fire to scare them, and accompanying screening troops who would hurl javelins at the elephants to drive them away. A final charge of Epirot elephants won the day, but this time Pyrrhus had suffered very heavy casualties.
TheSeleucid kingAntiochus V Eupator, whose father and he contended withPtolemaic Egypt's rulerPtolemy VI for control of Syria,[41] invadedJudea in 161 BCE with eighty elephants (some sources claim thirty-two[42]), some of which were clad in armoured breastplates, in an attempt to subdue theJews who had revolted during theMaccabean Revolt.[42][43]
TheNorth African elephant was a significant animal inNubian culture. They were depicted on the walls of temples and on Meroitic lamps. Kushite kings also utilize war elephants, which are believed to have been kept and trained in the "Great Enclosure" atMusawwarat al-Sufa. TheKingdom of Kush provided these war elephants to the Egyptians, Ptolemies and Syrians.[44]
ThePtolemaic Egypt and thePunics began acquiringAfrican elephants for the same purpose, as didNumidia and theKingdom of Kush. The animal used was the North African elephant (Loxodonta africana pharaohensis) which would become extinct fromoverexploitation.[citation needed] These animals were smaller and harder to tame, and could not swim deep rivers compared with the Asian elephants[34] used by theSeleucid Empire, particularlySyrian elephants.[45] It is likely that at least some Syrian elephants were traded abroad. The favourite, and perhaps last surviving, elephant ofHannibal's crossing of the Alps was an animal namedSurus ("the Syrian"), which may have been of Syrian stock,[46] though the evidence remains ambiguous.[47]
Since the late 1940s, a strand of scholarship has argued that the African forest elephants used by Numidia, the Ptolemies and themilitary of Carthage did not carry howdahs or turrets in combat, perhaps owing to the physical weakness of the species.[48] Some allusions to turrets in ancient literature are certainly anachronistic or poetic invention, but other references are less easily discounted. There is contemporary testimony that the army ofJuba I of Numidia included turreted elephants in 46 BC.[49] This is backed by the image of a turreted African elephant used on the coinage ofJuba II.[50] This also appears to be the case with Ptolemaic armies:Polybius reports that at thebattle of Raphia in 217 BC the elephants ofPtolemy IV carried turrets; these elephants were significantly smaller than the Asian elephants fielded by the Seleucids.[51] There is also evidence that Carthaginian war elephants were furnished with turrets and howdahs in certain military contexts.[52]
Farther south, tribes would have had access to theAfrican savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana oxyotis). Although much larger than either the African forest elephant or the Asian elephant, these proved difficult to tame for war purposes and were not used extensively.[53] Asian elephants were traded westwards to the Mediterranean markets, with Sri Lankan elephants being particularly preferred for war.[18]
Perhaps inspired by the victories ofPyrrhus of Epirus, Carthage developed its own use of war elephants and deployed them extensively during the First and SecondPunic Wars. The performance of the Carthaginian elephant corps was mixed, illustrating the need for proper tactics to take advantage of the elephant's strength and cover its weaknesses. AtAdyss in 255 BC, the Carthaginian elephants were ineffective due to the terrain, while at thebattle of Panormus in 251 BC the Romans'velites were able to terrify the Carthaginian elephants being used unsupported, which fled from the field. At thebattle of Tunis the charge of the Carthaginian elephants helped to disorder theRoman legions, allowing the Carthaginian phalanx to stand fast and defeat them. During theSecond Punic War,Hannibal led an army of war elephants across theAlps. Many of them perished in the harsh conditions but the surviving elephants were successfully used in thebattle of Trebia, where they panicked the Roman cavalry and Gallic allies. The Romans eventually developed effective anti-elephant tactics, leading to Hannibal's defeat at his finalbattle of Zama in 202 BC; his elephant charge, unlike the one at the battle of Tunis, was ineffective because the disciplined Romanmaniples made way for them to pass.
Rome brought back many elephants at the end of thePunic Wars, and used them in its campaigns for many years afterwards. The conquest of Greece saw many battles in which the Romans deployed war elephants, including the invasion ofMacedonia in 199 BC, thebattle of Cynoscephalae 197 BC,[54] thebattle of Thermopylae,[55] and thebattle of Magnesia in 190 BC, during whichAntiochus III's fifty-four elephants took on the Roman force of sixteen. In later years the Romans deployed twenty-two elephants atPydna in 168 BC.[56] The role of the elephant force at Cynoscephalae was particularly decisive, as their quick charge shattered the unformed Macedonian left wing, allowing the Romans to encircle and destroy the victorious Macedonian right. A similar event also occurred at Pydna. The Romans' successful use of war elephants against the Macedonians might be considered ironic, given that it was Pyrrhus who first taught them the military potential of elephants.
Elephants also featured throughout the Roman campaign against theLusitanians andCeltiberians in Hispania. During theSecond Celtiberian War,Quintus Fulvius Nobilior was helped by ten elephants sent by kingMasinissa ofNumidia. He deployed them against the Celtiberian forces ofNumantia, but a falling stone hit one of the elephants, which panicked and frightened the rest, turning them against the Roman forces. After the subsequent Celtiberian counterattack, the Romans were forced to withdraw.[57] Later,Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus marched againstViriathus with another ten elephants sent by kingMicipsa. However, the Lusitanian style of ambushes in narrow terrains ensured his elephants did not play an important factor in the conflict, and Servilianus was eventually defeated by Viriathus in the city of Erisana.[58]
The Romans used a war elephant in theirfirst invasion of Britain, one ancient writer recording that "Caesar had one large elephant, which was equipped with armour and carried archers and slingers in its tower. When this unknown creature entered the river, the Britons and their horses fled and the Roman army crossed over"[59] – although he may have confused this incident with the use of a war elephant inClaudius' finalconquest of Britain. At least one elephant skeleton with flint weapons found in England was initially misidentified as one of these elephants, but later dating proved it to be a mammoth skeleton from theStone Age.[60]
In the African campaign of theRoman civil war of 49–45 BC, the army ofMetellus Scipio used elephants against Caesar's army at thebattle of Thapsus. Scipio trained his elephants before the battle by aligning the elephants in front of slingers that would throw rocks at them, and another line of slingers at the elephants' rear to perform the same, in order to propel the elephants only in one direction, preventing them turning their backs because of frontal attack and charging against his own lines, but the author ofDe Bello Africano admits of the enormous effort and time required to accomplish this.[61]
By the time of Claudius, such animals were being used by the Romans in single numbers only – the last significant use of war elephants in the Mediterranean was against the Romans at thebattle of Thapsus, 46 BC, whereJulius Caesar armed hisfifth legion (Alaudae) with axes and commanded his legionaries to strike at the elephant's legs. The legion withstood the charge, and the elephant became its symbol.[62] The remainder of the elephants seemed to have been thrown into panic by Caesar's archers and slingers.
TheParthian Empire occasionally used war elephants in their battles against theRoman Empire,[63] but elephants were of substantial importance in the army of the subsequentSassanid Empire.[64] The Sasanian war elephants are recorded in engagements against the Romans, such as duringJulian's invasion of Persia. Other examples include theBattle of Vartanantz in 451 AD, at which the Sassanid elephants terrified theArmenians, and theBattle of al-Qādisiyyah of 636 AD, in which a unit of thirty-three elephants was used against theinvading Arab Muslims.
The Sassanid elephant corps held primacy amongst the Sassanid cavalry forces and was recruited from India. The elephant corps was under a special chief, known as theZend−hapet, meaning "Commander of the Indians", either because the animals came from that country, or because they were managed by natives ofHindustan.[65] The Sassanid elephant corps was never on the same scale as others further east, and after thefall of the Sassanid Empire the use of war elephants died out in the region.
TheKingdom of Aksum in what is now Ethiopia and Eritrea made use of war elephants in 525 AD during the invasion of theHimyarite Kingdom in the Arabian peninsula. The war elephants used by the Aksumite army consisted ofAfrican savannah elephants,[66][full citation needed] a significantly larger and more temperamental species of elephant. War elephants were again put to use by an Aksumite army in 570 in a military expedition against theQuraysh of Mecca.[67]
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TheKushan Empire conquered most of Northern India. The empire adopted war elephants when levying troops as they expanded into the Indian subcontinent. TheWeilüe describes how the population of Eastern India rode elephants into battle, but currently they provide military service and taxes to theYuezhi (Kushans). TheHou Hanshu additionally describes the Kushan as acquiring riches including elephants as part of their conquests. The emperorKanishka assembled a great army from his subject nations, including elephants from India. He planned on attacking theTarim Kingdoms, and sent a vanguard of Indian troops led by white elephants. However, when crossing thePamir Mountains the elephants and horses in the vanguard were unwilling to advance. Kanishka is then said to have had a religious revelation and rejected violence.[68]
TheGupta Empire demonstrated extensive use of elephants in war and greatly expanded under the reign ofSamudragupta. Local squads which each consisted of one elephant, one chariot, three armed cavalrymen, and five foot soldiers protected Gupta villages from raids and revolts. In times of war, the squads joined together to form a powerful imperial army. The Gupta Empire employed 'Mahapilupati', a position as an officer in charge of elephants. Emperors such asKumaragupta struck coins depicted as elephant riders and lion slayers.[69]
Harsha established hegemony over most of North India. TheHarshacharita composed byBāṇabhaṭṭa describes the army under the rule of Harsha. Much like the Gupta Empire, his military consisted of infantry, cavalry, and elephants. Harsha received war elephants as tribute and presents from vassals. Some elephants were also obtained by forest rangers from the jungles. Elephants were additionally taken from defeated armies. Bana additionally details the diet of the elephants, recording that they each consumed 600 pounds of fodder consisting of trees with mangos and sugarcanes.[70]
TheChola dynasty and theWestern Chalukya Empire maintained a large number of war elephants in the 11th and 12th century.[71] The war elephants of theChola dynasty carried on their backs fighting towers which were filled with soldiers who would shoot arrows at long range.[72] The army of thePala Empire was noted for its huge elephant corps, with estimates ranging from 5,000 to 50,000.[73]
TheGhaznavids were the first amongst the Islamic dynasties to incorporate war elephants into their tactical theories. They also used a large number of elephants in their battles. The Ghaznavids acquired their elephants as tribute from the Hindu princes and as war plunder. The sources usually list the number of beasts captured, and these frequently ran into hundreds, such as 350 from Qanauj and 185 from Mahaban in 409/1018-19, and 580 from the Raja Ganda in 410/1019-20. Utbi records that the Thanesar expedition of 405/1014-15 was provoked by Mahmad's desire to get some of the special breed of Sri lankan breed of elephants excellent in war[74]
In 1526,Babur, a descendant ofTimur, invaded India and established theMughal Empire. Babur introduced firearms and artillery into Indian warfare. He destroyed the army ofIbrahim Lodi at theFirst Battle of Panipat and the army ofRana Sanga in 1527 at theBattle of Khanua.[citation needed] The great Moghul EmperorAkbar (r. 1556–1605 AD) had 32,000 elephants in his stables.Jahangir, (reigned 1605–1627 A.D.) was a great connoisseur of elephants. He increased the number of elephants in service. Jahangir was stated to have 113,000 elephants in captivity: 12,000 in active army service, 1,000 to supply fodder to these animals, and another 100,000 elephants to carry courtiers, officials, attendants and baggage.[75]
King Rajasinghe I laid siege to thePortuguese fort atColombo,Sri Lanka, in 1558 with an army containing 2,200 elephants, used forlogistics and siege work.[76] The Sri Lankans had continued their proud traditions in capturing and training elephants from ancient times. The officer in charge of the royal stables, including the capture of elephants, was called theGajanayake Nilame,[76] while the post ofKuruve Lekham controlled the Kuruwe or elephant men.[76] The training of war elephants was the duty of the Kuruwe clan who came under their own Muhandiram, a Sri Lankan administrative post.
InIslamic history there is a significant event known as the‘Am al-Fil (Arabic:عَـام الـفـيـل, "Year of the Elephant"), approximately equating to 570AD. At that timeAbraha, theChristian ruler ofYemen, marched upon theKa‘bah inMecca, intending to demolish it. He had a large army, which included one or more elephants (as many as eight, in some accounts). However, the (single or lead) elephant, whose name was 'Mahmud', is said to have stopped at the boundary around Mecca, and refused to enter – which was taken by both the Meccans and their Yemenite foes as a serious omen. According to Islamic tradition, it was in this year thatMuhammad was born.[77]
In theMiddle Ages, elephants were seldom used in Europe.Charlemagne took his one elephant,Abul-Abbas, when he went to fight the Danes in 804, and theCrusades gaveHoly Roman EmperorFrederick II the opportunity to capture an elephant in theHoly Land, the same animal later being used in the capture ofCremona in 1214, but the use of these individual animals was more symbolic than practical, especially when contrasting food and water consumption of elephants in foreign lands and the harsh conditions of the crusades.
TheMongols faced war-elephants inKhorazm,Burma,Siam,Vietnam,Cambodia andIndia throughout the 13th century.[78] Despitetheir unsuccessful campaigns in Vietnam andIndia, the Mongols defeated the war elephants outsideSamarkand by usingcatapults andmangonels, and during the Mongol invasions of Burma in1277–1287 and1300–1302 by showeringarrows from their famouscomposite bows.[79]Genghis andKublai both retained captured elephants as part of their entourage.[80] Another central Asian invader,Timur faced similar challenges a century later. In theSack of Delhi, Timur's army faced more than one hundred Indian elephants in battle and almost lost because of the fear they caused amongst his troops. Historical accounts[which?] say that the Timurids ultimately won by employing an ingenious strategy: Timur tied flaming straw to the back of hiscamels before the charge. The smoke made the camels run forward, scaring the elephants, who crushed their own troops in their efforts to retreat. Another account of the campaign by Ahmed ibn Arabshah reports that Timur used oversizedcaltrops to halt the elephants' charge.[citation needed] Later, the Timurid leader used the captured animals against theOttoman Empire.
InSoutheast Asia, the powerfulKhmer Empire had come to regional dominance by the 9th century AD, drawing heavily on the use of war elephants. Uniquely, the Khmer military deployeddouble cross-bows on the top of their elephants. With the collapse of Khmer power in the 15th century, the successor region powers ofBurma (now Myanmar) and Siam (nowThailand) also adopted the widespread use of war elephants. In many battles of the period it was the practice for leaders to fight each other personally inelephant duels. One famous battle occurred when the Burmese armyattacked Siam'sKingdom of Ayutthaya. The war may have been concluded when the Burmese crown princeMingyi Swa was killed by Siamese KingNaresuan inpersonal combat on elephant in 1593.[81] However, this duel may be apocryphal.[82]
In Thailand, the king or general rode on the elephant's neck and carriedngaw, a long pole with a sabre at the end, plus a metal hook for controlling the elephant. Sitting behind him on ahowdah, was a signaller, who signalled by waving of a pair of peacock feathers. Above the signaller was thechatras, consisting of progressively stacked circular canopies, the number signifying the rank of the rider. Finally, behind the signaller on the elephant's back, was the steerer, who steered via a long pole. The steerer may have also carried a short musket and a sword.[83]: 40–41
In Malaysia, 20 elephants battled the Portuguese during theCapture of Malacca (1511).
The Chinese continued to reject the use of war elephants throughout the period, with the notable exception of theSouthern Han during the 10th century AD – the "only nation on Chinese soil ever to maintain a line of elephants as a regular part of its army".[84] This anomaly in Chinese warfare is explained by the geographical proximity and close cultural links of the southern Han to Southeast Asia.[84] The military officer who commanded these elephants was given the title "Legate Digitant and Agitant of the Gigantic Elephants".[85] Each elephant supported a wooden tower that could allegedly hold ten or more men.[86] For a brief time, war elephants played a vital role in Southern Han victories such as the invasion ofChu in 948 AD,[86] but the Southern Han elephant corps were ultimately soundly defeated at Shao in 971 AD, defeated bycrossbow shooting from troops of theSong dynasty.[86] As one academic has put it, "thereafter this exotic introduction into Chinese culture passed out of history, and the tactical habits of the North prevailed".[86] However, as late as the Ming dynasty in as far north as Beijing, there were still records of elephants being used in Chinese warfare, namely in 1449 where a Vietnamese contingent of war elephants helped the Ming dynasty defend the city from the Mongols.[87]
With the advent ofgunpowder warfare in the late 15th century, the balance of advantage for war elephants on the battlefield began to change. Whilemuskets had limited impact on elephants, which could withstand numerous volleys,[88]cannon fire was a different matter entirely – an animal could easily be knocked down by a single shot. With elephants still being used to carry commanders on the battlefield, they became even more tempting targets for enemy artillery.
Nonetheless, in south-east Asia the use of elephants on the battlefield continued up until the end of the 19th century.[89] One of the major difficulties in the region was terrain, and elephants could cross difficult terrain in many cases more easily than horse cavalry. Burmese forces used war elephants against the Chinese in theSino-Burmese War where they routed the Chinese cavalry. The Burmese used them again during theBattle of Danubyu during theFirst Anglo-Burmese War, where the elephants were easily repulsed byCongreve rockets deployed byBritish forces. TheSiamese Army continued utilising war elephants armed withjingals up until theFranco-Siamese conflict of 1893, while the Vietnamese used them in battle as late as 1885, during theSino-French War. During the mid to late 19th century, British forces in India possessed specialised elephant batteries to haul largesiegeartillery pieces over ground unsuitable for oxen.[90][91][92][93]
Into the 20th century, military elephants were used for non-combat purposes in theSecond World War,[94] particularly because the animals could perform tasks in regions that were problematic for motor vehicles. SirWilliam Slim, commander of theXIVth Army wrote about elephants in his introduction toElephant Bill: "They built hundreds of bridges for us, they helped to build and launch more ships for us thanHelen ever did for Greece. Without them our retreat from Burma would have been even more arduous and our advance to its liberation slower and more difficult."[95] Military elephants were used as late as theVietnam War.[96]
Elephants were as of 2017 being used by theKachin Independence Army for an auxiliary role.[97]Elephants are now more valuable to many armies infailing states for theirivory than as transport, and many thousands of elephants have died during civil conflicts due topoaching. They are classed as apack animal inUnited States Army Field Manuals issued as recently as 2004, but their use by U.S. personnel is discouraged because elephants areendangered.[98]
An elephant trainer, rider, or keeper is called amahout.[99] Mahouts were responsible for capturing and handling elephants. To accomplish this, they utilize metal chains and a specialized hook called anankus, or 'elephant goad'. According toChanakya as recorded in theArthashastra, first the mahout would have to get the elephant used to being led.[15] The elephant would have learned how to raise its legs to help a rider climb on. Then the elephants were taught to run and maneuver around obstacles, and move in formation.[15] These elephants would be fit to learn how to systematically trample and charge enemies.
Capturing elephants from the wild remained a difficult task, but a necessary one given the difficulties of breeding in captivity and the long time required for an elephant to reach sufficient maturity to engage in battle. Sixty-year-old war elephants were always prized as being at the most suitable age for battle service.[6] Today an elephant is considered in its prime and at the height of its power between the ages of 25 and 40, yet elephants as old as 80 are used intiger hunts because they are more disciplined and experienced.[3]
It is commonly thought that the reason all war elephants were male was because of males' greater aggression, but it was instead because a female elephant in battle will run from a male; therefore only males could be used in war, whereas female elephants were more commonly used forlogistics.[100]
There were many military purposes for which elephants could be used. In battle, war elephants were usually deployed in the centre of the line, where they could be useful to prevent a charge or to conduct one of their own. Their sheer size and their terrifying appearance made them valued heavy cavalry.[101] Off the battlefield they could carry heavymateriel, and with a top speed of approximately 30 kilometres per hour (19 mph) provided a useful means of transport, before mechanized vehicles rendered them mostly obsolete.[102]
In addition to charging, elephants could provide a safe and stable platform for archers to shoot arrows in the middle of the battlefield, from which more targets could be seen and engaged. The driver, called amahout, was responsible for controlling the animal, who often also carried weapons himself, like achisel-blade and a hammer (to kill his own mount in an emergency). Elephants were sometimes further enhanced with their own weaponry and armour as well. InIndia andSri Lanka, heavy iron chains with steel balls at the end were tied to their trunks, which the animals were trained to swirl menacingly and with great skill. Numerous cultures designed specialized equipment for elephants, liketusk swords and a protective tower on their backs, calledhowdahs. The late sixteenth century saw the introduction ofculverins,jingals androckets against elephants, innovations that would ultimately drive these animals out of active service on the battlefield.[103]
Besides the dawn of more efficient means of transportation and weaponry, war elephants also had clear tactical weaknesses that lead to their eventual retirement. After sustaining painful wounds, or when their driver was killed, elephants had the tendency to panic, often causing them to run amok indiscriminately, making casualties on either side. Experienced Roman infantrymen often tried to sever their trunks, causing instant distress, and possibly leading the elephant to flee back into its own lines. Fastskirmishers armed with javelins were also used by the Romans to drive them away, as well as flaming objects or a stout line of long spears, such asTriarii. Another method for disrupting elephant units inclassical antiquity was the deployment ofwar pigs. Ancient writers believed that elephants could be "scared by the smallest squeal of a pig".[104] Some warlords, however, interpreted this expression literally. At the siege ofMegara during theDiadochi wars, for example, the Megarians reportedly poured oil on a herd of pigs, set them alight, and drove them towards the enemy's massed war elephants, which subsequently bolted in terror.[105]
The value of war elephants in battle remains a contested issue. In the 19th century, it was fashionable to contrast the western, Roman focus on infantry and discipline with the eastern, exotic use of war elephants that relied merely on psychological tactics to defeat their enemy.[106] One writer commented that war elephants "have been found to be skittish and easily alarmed by unfamiliar sounds and for this reason they were found prone to break ranks and flee".[107] Nonetheless, the continued use of war elephants for several thousand years attests to their enduring value to the historical battlefield commander.[citation needed]
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Many traditional war games incorporate war elephants. Thebishop in the game of chess is called an elephant in many languages, includingSanskrit, Malayalam,Russian,Bengali, Arabic, and Spanish. InChinese chess the Elephant serves as a defensive piece, moving two spaces diagonally on its own side. InBurmese Chess, the elephant moves one step diagonally or one step forward, repersenting the 5 limbs of the animal.
In theJapanese gameshogi, there used to be a piece known as the "Drunken Elephant"; it was, however, dropped by order of theEmperor Go-Nara and no longer appears in the version played in today's Japan.[108] However the current piece known as the silver general moves just like the elephant in Burmese Chess.
Elephant armour, originally designed for use in war, is today usually only seen in museums. One particularly fine set of Indian elephant armour is preserved at the LeedsRoyal Armouries Museum, while Indian museums across the sub-continent display other fine pieces. The architecture of India also shows the deep impact of elephant warfare over the years. War elephants adorn many military gateways, such as those atLohagarh Fort for example, while some spiked, anti-elephant gates still remain, for example atKumbhalgarh fort. Across India, older gateways are invariably much higher than their European equivalents, in order to allow elephants withhowdahs to pass through underneath.
War elephants also remain a popular artistic trope, either in theOrientalist painting tradition of the 19th century, or in literature followingTolkien, who popularised a fantastic rendition of war elephants in the form of 'oliphaunts' ormûmakil.
Hathi fromThe Jungle Book byRudyard Kipling is a former Indian war elephant who pulledheavy artillery for theBritish Indian Army. Kala-Nag fromToomai of the Elephants performed similar duties during theFirst Anglo-Afghan War.[109]
Numerous strategy video games feature elephants as special units, usually available only to specific factions or requiring special resources. These includeAge of Empires,[110]Celtic Kings: The Punic Wars,[111] theCivilization series, theTotal War series,Hearts of Iron IV,Imperator: Rome, andCrusader Kings III.
In the 2004 filmAlexander, the scene depicting theBattle of Hydaspes includes war elephants fighting against theMacedonian phalanx.[citation needed]
In the 2017 video gameAssassin's Creed Origins, they are distributed around the map as boss fights.[112][113]
InThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King,Mûmakil (or Oliphaunts)[114] are fictional giant elephant-like creatures used bySauron and hisHaradrim army in theBattle of the Pelennor Fields.[115]
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