.jpg)
Themilitary ofWallachia existed throughout the history of the country. Starting from its founding to 1859, when it was united with theMoldavian army into what would become theRomanian Army.[1]
The army mainly consisted of light cavalry which was used inhit-and-run tactics, though various other units existed as well.[2][3] Between the 16th and 18th centuries, the army was mostly formed frommercenary units.[4] In 1830, following theOrganic Regulation, thestanding army of Wallachia was created.[5][6]
The Wallachian fleet usedriverboats of various sizes between the 15th and 17th centuries. In 1794, a smallflotilla was created with the approval ofThe Porte.[7] After the regulations of 1830, a military flotilla was created as well.[8] The Wallachian flotilla was merged with theMoldavian one in 1860, forming theDanube Flotilla Corps, the precursor of theRomanian Naval Forces.[9]
Before the formation of a Wallachian state, someRomanian leaders controlled lands south of theCarpathians. During theMongol invasion of Europe, two such leaders,Bezerenbam and Mișelav, fought against the invadingMongol armies. Bezerenbam's army was defeated in theIlaut Country, while Mișelav's army was defeated by Budjek.[10]
In 1277, the WallachianvoivodeLitovoi, first mentioned in theDiploma of the Joannites, fought against theHungarians over the lands claimed by theHungarian crown. Litovoi was killed in the battle, and his brother,Bărbat, was captured and forced to pay aransom and recognize Hungarian rule.[11]
One of the first military actions after thefounding of Wallachia was theBattle of Velbazhd in 1330. There, an army led byBasarab I fought alongside theBulgarians. The battle ended in a defeat.[12]
In the same year, Wallachia was invaded byCharles I of Hungary who was seeking to recapture the "marginal lands" held by Basarab.[13] The Hungarian royal army capturedSeverin in September, appointing Dionysius Széchy asBan. Due to the poor supplies of Charles' army, he was compelled to sign an armistice and retreat from Wallachia.[14] His army wasambushed by Basarab in a mountain valley on 9 November. According to historianConstantin Rezachevici, in the first phase of the battle, which lasted two days, the Hungarian army was stopped in the valley and attacked with ranged weapons. The last two days of battle were primarily fought inmelee combat, which marked the character of the battle.[15] While portrayed only as peasants armed with bows and rocks in theIlluminated Chronicle, the Wallachian army of Basarab was just as well equipped as the King's army, as noted by Stephen, the son of theCumanIspán Parabuh.[16]
Wars with Hungary continued during the reign ofVladislav Vlaicu, with Vlaicu defeating an army led byNicholas Lackfi on theIalomița valley in the autumn of 1368.[17] In 1369, the Voivode captured theHungarian-occupied city ofVidin to restore its ruler,Ivan Sratsimir.[18] However, following the successful campaign ofLouis I in the summer of the same year, he had to submit to theHungarian king.[19]
Launching another offensive against Wallachia after escalatingreligious tensions,[20] Louis managed to take theBanate of Severin in 1375 from Vladislav[21] who in turn allied himself withIvan Shishman of Bulgaria andMurad I. Still, the King failed to bring Vladislav under his rule and the Voivode took back Severin in 1377.[22] For a battle against the Hungarians, Vladislav's successor,Radu I, equipped his army witharmour fromVenice as described inCronaca Carrarese by Galeazzo and Bartolomeo Gatari. His army was defeated, however, in the clash according to thechronicle,[23] although the Hungarian campaign of 1377 was unsuccessful in bringing Radu under the rule of the Hungarian crown.[24]
The first battles with theOttomans took place during the reign of Vladislav Vlaicu. Shortly after reinstalling Ivan Sratsimir in Vidin, Vlaicu had to fight againstTsarIvan Alexander of Bulgaria who was attempting to take control of the city with Ottoman support. During the successful campaign of Vladislav, theknight[a] Ladislaus Dobokai distinguished himself in the fighting against theTurks.[26] Voivode Vlaicu also joined Ivan Sratsimir and Louis I of Hungary in acrusade against the Ottomans and Bulgarians in February-March 1371, which resulted in the capture ofSofia.[27]
During the reign ofMircea the Elder, Wallachia faced the Ottomans again. A victory was achieved at theBattle of Rovine,[28] and Mircea also participated in theBattle of Nicopolis.[29] In 1430, a document issued by KingSigismund of Luxembourg mentioned that Wallachia and Moldavia could raise an army of 10,000pancerati,[30][b] and in 1448 a contingent of 4,000archers led bythe Voivode participated in theBattle of Kosovo.[32]
In 1444, a contingent of 4,000 Wallachian cavalrymen, according toJan Długosz, under the command ofMircea II aided KingVladislaus ofPoland and Hungary in theCrusade of Varna.[33] According toMichael Beheim, the Wallachians participated in the siege ofPetricha [bg]fortress, with Mircea ordering his troops to bring up ladders andscale the walls. Failing the direct assault, the Wallachians intercepted the Turks who were attempting to flee through asecret tunnel after the Hungariancannons had breached the walls.[34] During theBattle of Varna, the Wallachianbanner fought on the right flank of the crusader army, later breaking away, likely following an order fromJohn Hunyadi, and engaging the Ottomans on the left to prevent aflanking maneuver. Breaking through the Ottoman flank, the Wallachians stopped for plunder and left the battlefield[35] after being threatened with the killing of Mircea's two brothers.[36]
.png)
Due to the constant internal and external conflicts,Vlad Dracula organized a small army of 6,000 to 8,000 soldiers composed of small land owners, boyars, courtiers, and a hired personal guard oftrabants fromTransylvania. Vlad also made use ofartillery, which was likely operated by foreign mercenaries.[39][40]
With this army, Vlad campaigned against theTransylvanian Saxons who supported his rivals.[41] He also defeated an Ottoman army led byHamza Bey in 1460.[42] In 1462, Vlad launched a campaign south of the Danube. Dividing his army into six columns, he attacked strategic settlements near the river. Vlad led the army heading towardsNicopolis.[43] During this offensive, he utilizedculverins in his attack onSvishtov,[44] and also destroyed a number of 50 Ottoman ships.[45] During thenight attack onMehmet's camp nearTârgoviște in 1462, the Voivode's army took heavy losses.[41]
The large host (oastea cea mare) was an army that consisted of peasants and city dwellers. The number of soldiers in this army could reach 30 to 40,000. Once thePrince ordered the call to arms, special envoys were dispatched to the territory to deliver the message. Territorial governors (vornici dejudeț andvornici detârg) then passed the call to arms tovillages andtowns. In an Ottoman document from 1521, it is specified that this mobilization took at least 20 days.[39]
The first documented mention of the large host comes from the reign of Mircea the Elder in 1408, when the Voivode granted a village to theabbot of theSnagov Monastery, who was exempt from all taxes but not from service in the large host. Vlad the Impaler tried to raise this army in the summer of 1462, during Mehmet's invasion. Due to the relatively short time, Vlad failed to form the army and only relied on his small host. From the first half of the 16th century, this army was no longer raised. The last mention of the large host comes fromVlad Înecatul, who mentioned that villagers were still required to serve in this army. After this mention, the large host never appeared in any documents or other sources.[39]
During his four reigns as Voivode between 1522 and 1529,Radu of Afumați fought in 20 battles with Ottoman-supported pretenders to the throne such asVladislav III and Mehmed Bey.[46] He won an important victory against Mehmed Bey at Grumazi. Forced out of the country in a new campaign launched by Mehmed, Radu gained support fromJohn Zápolya, theVoivode of Transylvania, and defeated the pretender in the autumn of 1522.[47]
The army ofRadu Paisie participated in theOttoman expedition in Hungary under the command ofBan Șerban of Izvorani. In 1538, the Voivode himself led a 3,000-strong army in support of the invasion of Moldavia againstPetru Rareș.[48] To better equip his army withcannons for an upcoming anti-Ottoman offensive, VoivodePetru Cercel established abronze cannon foundry inTârgoviște.[49] Thefoundry, organized with the help of Venetian craftsmen,[50] functioned until the end of his reign.[51]
VoivodeMichael the Brave carried out several successful campaigns. In 1594, he captured several Turkish forts along the Danube and won at theBattle of Călugăreni a year later. With new support from Transylvania, Michael launched another offensive against the Ottomans in the summer of 1595, continuing with his attacks as far asAdrianopole. His anti-Ottoman campaigns lasted until 1599. After the peace with the Ottomans, Michael then attacked Transylvania and disposed ofAndrew Báthory following theBattle of Șelimbăr.[52][53] His last victory came at theBattle of Guruslău againstSigismund Báthory in 1601.[52]
Besides the local troops ofroșii,călărași, anddorobanți, Michael's armies were composed of various mercenaries includingcossacks,Székelys,Serbs, Moldavians, andGermans.[54] Over the course of his reign their number increased, and by 1598 there were over 13,000mercenaries.[55]
During the time ofLeon Tomșa, there were 10,000horsemen and 2,000footmen in the Wallachian army, as the Voivode recounted to Paul Strassburg, a secret counselor ofKingGustav II Adolph.[56] PrinceMatei Basarab increased the number of soldiers in his army. The army, divided intoroșii, servants (dorobanți andcălărași), and mercenaries reached around 40,000 soldiers. In 1646, Matei Basarab hired additional mercenaries, the SerbianSeimeni. With this army and with hisPolish allies, he defeatedVasile Lupu at theBattle of Finta.[57]
As the Seimeni did not receive their pay after the battle, they began revolting against the Voivode. Initially, the revolt was stopped with the threat of invasion fromGeorge II Rákóczi. Due to the cost of maintaining the army, the new Prince,Constantin Șerban, disbanded the Seimeni in 1655. After this action, theuprising started again, this time the Seimeni being joined by thedorobanți and someroșii, and was aimed towards the boyars. The rebelling army reached a number of 20,000 soldiers and 30 cannons. They plundered churches,monasteries, and boyar estates, killing 32 boyars in the process. With help from Rákóczi, the rebel army led byHrizea of Bogdănei was defeated in battle atȘoplea after the betrayal of some rebel commanders who joined forces with the Prince. The remnants of the Seimeni were further defeated at Târgul Bengăi. The uprising, although subsided, continued until 1657.[57]
As anOttoman vassal, PrinceȘerban Cantacuzino was required to participate in thesiege of Vienna in 1683. The 4,000-strong army raised by the Prince was given auxiliary tasks, such as building bridges, as the Ottomans did not have much faith in them. Since Cantacuzino had secretly allied himself with theHoly League, the troops under his command were ordered to sabotage the Ottomansiege works and left the battlefield soon afterSobieski's attack without taking part in the battle.[59]
In 1711,Constantin Brâncoveanu deployed his army near the Moldavian border and waited for the Russian army. Due to the Voivode's hesitations,SpătarToma Cantacuzino left with eight cavalry regiments to join with the Russians on 22 June. The Wallachian cavalry led by Toma took part in thesiege of Brăila together with a Russian detachment led by GeneralCarl Ewald von Rönne, an event which would lead to Brâncoveanu's arrest and execution.[60][61]
After the establishment of thePhanariot rule, the armies of Wallachia and Moldavia continued their service. Like a century prior, the Wallachian army was mainly made up of mercenaries.[4] A total number of 27 different types of troops existed throughout the century. Their equipment and uniforms varied between each troop type. Though the boyars who led them were not trained atmilitary academies, they studied themilitary tactics of their time and instructed their troops accordingly.[62] While the Phanariot armies carried out their tasks well during peacetime, such as guarding thePrincely Courts, borders, and towns, and ensuring public order; during wartime, the efficiency of these armies was limited due to the poor training of the troops, lack of equipment, and the lack of a well-trainedofficer corps. Some victories were however achieved.[63]
During theAustro-Turkish War of 1737–1739, an army led bySpătar Ioan Nicolae Mavrocordat,Constantin Mavrocordat's brother, together with an Ottoman detachment defeated theAustrian troops in theArgeș andMuscel counties in September 1737. On 18 October, the Austrianvanguard of 5,000Hungarian Hussars and 300 Germans was attacked and destroyed atPitești, forcing the mainarmy corps to retreat towardsOltenia. The Wallachian army continued the offensive and further defeated a 10,000-strongImperial army atRâmnicu Vâlcea in November. By December 1737, all ofAustrian Oltenia was under Wallachian control. The next year, an Austrian attack was repelled atCozia and the troops under Constantin Mavrocordat forced aRussian army to retreat to Transylvania.[64] Other victories were registered against the Austrians along the Wallachian border by the army ofNicolae Mavrogheni in theRusso-Turkish War (1787–1792) before the allied victory at theBattle of Focșani.[65]
The Wallachian soldiers mainly wore green and blue coloreduniforms, with red being reserved for nobles, though eventually red was adopted byofficers and certain troops as well. Yellow uniforms were sometimes worn by officers, while white ones were worn by the Princely Court guards. Other troops might have worn uniforms in multiple colors. Someirregular troops like thepotecași worepeasant clothes.[66]
During the Russian occupation of theDanubian Principalities from 1829 to 1834, the Wallachian army was modernized. Under the supervision of Russian GeneralPavel Kiselyov, a Wallachianstanding army was created. In April 1830, a committee composed of General Starov, LieutenantAlexandru Ghica, Colonel Ment, and Lieutenant-colonel Ion Odobescu was formed.[5]
According to the law issued by the drafting commission of theOrganic Regulation on 30 April 1830, the Wallachian army was to be organized into 6 infantry battalions and 6cavalry squadrons.[67] The core of this army were thePandurs, which formed six battalions. Around June 1830, it was announced that the new army would have 6 cavalry squadrons, and 3 regiments (the1st [ro],2nd [ro] and3rd [ro]line infantry regiments), each with 2 infantry battalions.[5] The previous Wallachian units were disbanded and the soldiers were instead transferred to theDorobanți units, which would ensure the internal guard of the country.[6] In total, the regular Wallachian army numbered 3,516 infantrymen and 1,200 cavalrymen, while the irregular troops numbered 4,488 soldiers, both mounted and on foot.[68]
The commander of the "militia" (army) wasSpătar Alexandru Ghica, while the officer corps was made up ofboyars and sons of boyars. The regimental commanders, appointed in July 1830, were Colonel Emanuel Băleanu and Major I. Solomon. Alexandru Ghica's brother, Costache, became the inspector of the cavalry. The reception of certain Pandur chiefs, likeChristian Tell, as officers in the army caused some displeasure among the boyars.[5]
In 1843, with the occasion of a visit toConstantinople and advised by LieutenantIoan Emanoil Florescu, PrinceGheorghe Bibescu requested and received four cannons for equipping the Wallachian army. The 4-pounder cannons, similar to theGribeauval system, entered service with the first modernartillery battery of Wallachia on 10 November 1843. Another eight artillery pieces (six12-pounder cannons, and two 7-pounderhowitzers) were received in 1849, and by 1850 these were organized into afoot artillery battery and ahorse artillery battery of six guns each.[69][70] The two batteries participated in the battles against the Ottomans during theCrimean War, such as theSiege of Silistria, being confiscated by the Russians to avoid capture after their retreat from the Principality. The artillery was returned after theunification with Moldavia.[71][72]
During the1848 revolution, as theOttoman army led byOmar Pasha andFuat Pasha crossed into Wallachia, an armed resistance began to be organized. Military units of the army were rallied at theRâureni camp byGheorghe Magheru. Due to the poor economic conditions which did not allow the resistance to properly arm itself, and due to the hesitation of some revolution leaders, these troops never entered combat with the Ottomans.[73]
On 24 September, the Ottomans set up their camp atCotroceni, being faced by several thousandpeasants who tried to defend Bucharest. After arresting the revolution leaders, the Ottoman army began marching towards the city on 25 September, dividing their forces into three columns. The first column, led by Mehmed Pasha, passed throughVăcărești. The larger second column, led by Fuat and Omar Pasha, forced their entry through the barrier at Beilic Bridge (Calea Șerban Vodă). The peasants tried to stop the advance of the Ottoman column, but due to the lack of weapons they were defeated by the Turkish cavalry, with hundreds of peasants being killed in the fight.[73]
The third Ottoman column, led by Kerim Pasha advanced along Calea Pandurilor, heading to thebarracks onDealul Spirii. Despite being ordered not to do so, CaptainPavel Zăgănescu [ro] prepared thefire company for armed resistance. At the same time, ColonelRadu Golescu [ro] with the 2nd Line Infantry Regiment and the 7th Company of the 1st Line Infantry Regiment,[74] refused to hand over the barracks to the Ottomans. In theensuing battle [ro], the Wallachian soldiers managed to hold their lines. To try and break them, the Ottomans used their cannons, causing casualties among the defenders. The firemen rushed the two pieces of artillery and managed to turn them on the Ottomans. Due to the intervention of an Ottoman cavalry squadron, however, the Wallachians were pushed back. Seeing the determined defense of their opponents, the Ottomans went on to negotiate with them. In exchange for laying down their weapons, they were to be guaranteed safe exit from the barracks; however, once a group of unarmed soldiers left the barracks, the Turks opened fire. Eventually, the barracks were captured, and the rest of the city was pacified as well.[73]
In June 1853, Russian troops crossed into the two Danubian Principalities and occupied them without declaring war on the Ottoman Empire. The Russian administration decided to incorporate the Wallachian and Moldavian troops into theImperial Russian Army. At the same time, volunteer detachments were formed to fight against the Ottomans.[75] Due to the entry of theUnited Kingdom andFrance into the war on the side of the Ottomans, the Russians were forced to retreat from the Principalities.[76]
Following the Boiagi-Kioi agreement from 14 July 1854, the Principalities were to come under a jointAustrian-Ottoman occupation. An Ottoman and an Austrian brigade were to be stationed in Bucharest, and GeneralJohann Baptist Coronini-Cronberg was named commander of the occupation troops. The occupation lasted until 1857.[76]
The strategies used by Wallachia, as inMoldavia, were mostly defensive in nature. In order to disrupt an enemy's advance in the country, the population was often required to retreat to the wooded or mountainous regions, while the army engaged inhit-and-run tactics and avoided direct confrontations. This was done to delay the advance of an army and to try and lure the enemy into more defensible places likemarshes,wooded areas, ormountain passes.[2]
Like Moldavia, Wallachia predominantly usedlight cavalry, therefore they were lightly equipped with their defensive equipment mainly consisting of ashield of different shapes (round,triangular, orwinged).[3]Gambesons andmail armour were also used.[77] Theviteji and the boyars could be equipped with heavier equipment, includingbrigandines andplate armour. For example, according to the Italian chronicle "Cronaca Carrarese",Radu I of Wallachia acquired some 10,000 suits of armour from theRepublic of Venice around the year 1377.[16][23] In a document issued by John Zápolya to the Saxons of Brașov regarding a ban imposed bythe King on the arms trade with Wallachia in 1522, it is detailed that the Saxons were bringing many weapons and armour toTransylvania from Hungary, and then selling them to Wallachia.[78]
The equipment and weapons of the Wallachian soldiers during the Middle Ages were Western-like with melee weapons likelances,swords, andmaces. Later, with the influence of theOttoman Empire, eastern-stylesabers were adopted. Ranged weapons used were bows andcrossbows. Thebows were made ofhazel,hornbeam,ash orelm wood and their string was made offlax,hemp, orbowels. According to historianRadu Rosetti, the Wallachian archers could shoot about 10-12 arrows per minute, up to a distance of 220 m (720 ft). The use ofguns in Wallachia was first mentioned in the mid-15th century whenVlad Dracul used twobombards during the siege ofGiurgiu in 1445 as part of theBurgundian crusade led by Walerand de Wavrin.[2] A prior mention from 1432 of the purchase of firearms fromBrașov also exists, whilearcheological evidence suggests that the first guns of Wallachia date to the rule ofMircea the Elder.[79] The use ofwagon forts by Wallachia was first noted during thebattle of the Vodna stream [ro] in November 1473, whenRadu the Handsome used one against the army ofStephen the Great of Moldavia. After the battle, the Moldavians captured this fort.[80]
By the 17th century, almost all the infantry was armed witharquebuses while the cavalry also made use ofpistols carried insaddleholsters. Thegunpowder, as well as some of the firearms were provided by the state. Theammunition, however, often had to be acquired by the individual soldier due to varyingcalibers. The use ofspears and bows continued throughout the century and into the early 1700s.[81] Throughout the 18th century, the troops were armed withyatagans or sabers besidesmuskets.[82]
After its establishment, the standing army of Wallachia was to be equipped in a similar way to the Russian military, withmuzzleloadingflintlock muskets andbayonets for the infantry; pistols, sabers, and lances for the cavalry;fascine knives (tesace) for thesub-officers anddrummers. The initial armament consisted of old Austrian and Russian firearms. Due to the poor condition of these weapons, new guns were acquired fromSaint Petersburg in 1833, after a previously agreed intervention of General Kiselyov. More muskets and sabers were purchased from Russia in 1844. After the revolution of 1848 and the end of the occupation, the army started to be reequipped.[68]
The transition topercussion cap firearms began in 1851 with an order for 3,000 "standard French model"rifles placed inLiège.Carbines were also purchased for the cavalry. After the Crimean War and the confiscation of firearms by the retreating Russian forces, new rifles and bayonets were bought from Liège by order of PrinceBarbu Știrbei in 1856. At the same time, 600 Früwirth model carbines were acquired fromVienna to equip the newly formedtirailleur units. The cavalry also received new Austrian rifles and pistols.[68]
From theMiddle Ages through theearly modern period, the soldiers (voinici) of the Wallachian army were organized in three types ofmilitary units:[83]
From the late 16th century, the army began a reorganization process with the formation of theslujitori (lit. 'servants'). During the 17th century, the army relied heavily on theslujitori. These soldiers were recruited from the free peasants and thetownsfolk and organized into military-fiscalguilds (bresle militare) grouped by village or town. For their duty, they received payment, exemption from certain taxes, and the right to work the land belonging to the Prince. The main categories (guilds) ofslujitori were theDorobanți and theCălărași.[87]
Transitioning from theold system based on small armies of land owners, in the 17th century, the army was divided into three categories: theroșii (curteni), theslujitori, and the mercenaries (calledlefegii).[87] The guilds orcete were placed under the command of somecourt officials (dregători): the cavalry was commanded by theSpătar, who was also considered the commander of the army (căpetenia oștirii), while the infantry was led by theAga. The soldiers were organized insteaguri and were further grouped into units led bycaptains (căpitani). Subordinated to these captains were theiuzbași orsutași (equivalent tolieutenants), theceauși (equivalent tosergeants orcorporals), and thestegari (standard-bearers).[88]
.png)
The Wallachian Army used various units between the 14th and the 19th centuries:
The first mention of Wallachia's use of ships for military operations comes fromJean de Wavrin, who wrote about the 1445 Burgundian expedition in Wallachia. During this expedition led by Walerand de Wavrin, the Wallachian VoivodeVlad Dracul offered to guide the Burgundian fleet on theDanube. A number of 40 or 50monoxyles with 500 soldiers were sent to aid the eight crusadergalleys.[95] These kinds of boats might have also been used byVlad the Impaler during his 1462 campaign south of the Danube.[40]
During the reign ofMichael the Brave, the voivode constructedșăici of various sizes to arm his fleet. These were used to harass Ottoman commercial ships on the river. According to Turkish chroniclerMustafa Selaniki, in 1596 the Wallachians used some 200șăici to transport an army of over 2,000 soldiers and attack Ottoman positions in theBabadag region. In 1598, these ships were also used to attackVidin, transporting soldiers, horses, artillery, and ammunition. Theșaica, along with other boats, was further used in the attack against Nicopolis.[96]
VoivodeConstantin Brâncoveanu also encouraged naval construction, at the same time establishing a river fleet in 1697. During his reign, the so-called Brâncoveancaïques were built at theGiurgiu shipyard.[97] These caïques were similar to galleys, being crewed by 28oarsmen, one or two gunners, ahelmsman, and a commander, and could transport up to 100 soldiers.[98]
In 1793,Alexander Mourouzis obtained the approval ofThe Porte to build a smallflotilla of "bolozane,șăici, caïques, and other vessels, to carry out theemperor's orders". For this, he issued the "Hrisov for the country's ships, which are to sail on the waters of the Danube" (Hrisov pentru corăbiile țărei, ce sunt a umbla pe apa Dunărei). In 1794, 5 largesailing ships and 16 smaller vessels were built, followed by twogunboats a year later.[7]
With the establishment of the regular armies of Wallachia and Moldavia, each state created a flotilla of 26row boats. The Wallachian boats were constructed inGiurgiu. These were crewed by army soldiers and tasked with patrolling theport areas. Between 1844 and 1845, the river police corps was equipped with three gunboats built in Austria and another 42 boats. Of the three, one was armed with two 3-pounder guns and two 1-pounder guns, and the other two were armed with one 3-pounder. The gunboats patrolled the ports ofBrăila,Giurgiu, andCalafat. In 1851, another gunboat was purchased.[8]