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| Wa | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Chinese name | |||||||||||||||
| Chinese | 倭 | ||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | submissive, distant, dwarf | ||||||||||||||
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| Korean name | |||||||||||||||
| Hangul | 왜 | ||||||||||||||
| Hanja | 倭 | ||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | dwarf | ||||||||||||||
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| Japanese name | |||||||||||||||
| Kanji | 倭 / 和 | ||||||||||||||
| Kana | わ | ||||||||||||||
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Wa[a] is the oldest attestedname of Japan[b] andethnonym of theJapanese people. Fromc. the 2nd century AD Chinese and Korean scribes used theChinese character倭; 'submissive', 'distant', 'dwarf' to refer to the various inhabitants of theJapanese archipelago, although it might have been just used totranscribe thephonetic value of aJaponic ethnonym with a respectively differingsemantic connotation. In the 8th century, the Japanese started using the character和,wa, 'harmony', 'peace', 'balance' instead due to the offensive nature of the former.
Although the etymological origins ofWa remain uncertain, Chinese historical texts recorded an ancient people residing in the Japanese archipelago (perhapsKyūshū), named something like *ɁWâ, transcribed with Chinese character 倭, pronounced *ʔuɑi < *ʔwɑi inEastern Han Chinese.[1] In modern Chinese dictionaries, Carr surveys prevalent proposals forWa's etymology ranging from a transcription of the Japanese first-person pronounswaga 我が "my; our" andware 我 "I; oneself; thou" toWa as 倭 implying "dwarf barbarians", and summarizes interpretations for *ʼWâ "Japanese" into variations on two etymologies: "behaviorally 'submissive' or physically 'short'".[2]
The first "submissive; obedient" explanation began with the (121 CE)Shuowen Jiezi dictionary. It defines 倭 asshùnmào順皃 "obedient/submissive",[3] graphically explains the "person; human' radical with awěi 委 "bent" phonetic, and quotes the aboveShi Jing poem.According to the 1716Kangxi Dictionary (倭又人名 魯宣公名倭), 倭 was the name of King Tuyen (魯宣公) of Lu (Chinese: 魯國; pinyin: Lǔ Guó,c. 1042 – 249 BCE). "Conceivably, when Chinese first met Japanese," Carr suggests "they transcribedWa as *ʼWâ 'bent back' signifying 'compliant' bowing/obeisance. Bowing is noted in early historical references to Japan."[4] Examples include "Respect is shown by squatting",[5] and "they eithersquat or kneel, with both hands on the ground. This is the way they show respect.".[6] Koji Nakayama interpretswēi 逶 "winding" as "very far away" and euphemistically translatesWō 倭 as "separated from the continent".
The second etymology ofwō 倭 meaning "dwarf; short person" has possible cognates inǎi 矮 "short (of stature); midget, dwarf; low",wō 踒 "strain; sprain; bent legs", andwò 臥 "lie down; crouch; sit (animals and birds)". Early Chinese dynastic histories refer to aZhūrúguó 侏儒國 "pygmy/dwarf country" located south of Japan, associated with possiblyOkinawa Island or theRyukyu Islands. Carr cites the historical precedence of construingWa as "submissive people" and the "Country of Dwarfs" legend as evidence that the "little people" etymology was a secondary development.
Since early Chinese information about Wo/Wa peoples was based largely on hearsay, Wang Zhenping[7] says, "Little is certain about the Wo except they were obedient and complaisant."
According to Whitman theWei Shu states that "Chinhan men and women are close to Wa (男女近倭)" the ethnonym for the contemporary inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago and like the Wa tattoo their bodies. TheHou Han Shu identifies this as a feature ofByeonhan, stating that "their country is close to Wa, therefore they frequently have tattoos." Wa like toponyms have been found in Byeonhan andJinhan confederacies, hinting at a possible presence ofJaponic speaking populations who were albeit grouped together with theKoreanic speaking 韓Han.[8]
The JapaneseendonymWa 倭 "Japan" derives from the ChineseexonymWō 倭 "Japan, Japanese", agraphic pejorative Chinese character that had some offensive connotation, possibly "submissive, docile, obedient", "bowing; bent over", or "short person; dwarf" in modern times.
倭理 is read as *YEli inOld Korean and appears to have been the Korean word for "Japanese" and was attested as 예〯 yěy inMiddle Korean. Itsmorphological quality is unknown along with the differing phonetic value of the first syllable.
The Chinese character 倭 combines the人 or亻"human, person"radical and awěi委 "bend"phonetic. Thiswěi phonetic element depictshé禾 "grain" overnǚ女 "woman", whichBernhard Karlgren[9] semantically analyzes as: "bend down, bent, tortuous, crooked; fall down, throw down, throw away, send away, reject; send out, delegate – to bend like a 女 woman working with the 禾 grain." The oldest written forms of 倭 are inSeal script, and it has not been identified inBronzeware script orOracle bone script.
Most characters written with thiswěi 委 phonetic are pronouncedwei inStandard Chinese:
The unusualWō 倭 "Japan" pronunciation of thewěi 委 phonetic element is also present in:
A third pronunciation is found in the reading of the following character:
Nara period Japanese scholars believed that Chinese character forWō 倭 "Japan", which they used to write "Wa" or "Yamato", was graphically pejorative in denoting 委 "bent down" 亻 "people". Around 757 CE, Japan officially changed its endonym fromWa 倭 toWa和 "harmony; peace; sum; total". This replacement Chinese characterhé 和 combines ahé 禾 "grain" phonetic (also seen in 倭) and the"mouth" radical 口. Carr explains:
Graphic replacement of the 倭 "dwarf Japanese" Chinese logograph became inevitable. Not long after the Japanese began using 倭 to writeWa ~Yamato 'Japan', they realized its 'dwarf; bent back' connotation. In a sense, they had been tricked by Chinese logography; the only written name for 'Japan' was deprecating. The chosen replacementwa 和 'harmony; peace' had the same Japanesewa pronunciation as 倭 'dwarf', and - most importantly - it was semantically flattering. The notion that Japanese culture is based uponwa 和 'harmony' has become an article of faith among Japanese and Japanologists.[10]
In current Japanese usage,Wa 倭 "old name for Japan" is avariant Chinese character forWa 和 "Japan", excepting a few historical terms like theFive kings of Wa,wakō (ChineseWōkòu 倭寇 "Japanese pirates"), andWamyō Ruijushō dictionary. In marked contrast,Wa 和 is a common adjective inSino-Japanesecompounds likeWashoku 和食 "Japanese cuisine",Wafuku 和服 "Japanese clothing",Washitsu 和室 "Japanese-style room",Waka 和歌 "Japanese-style poetry",Washi 和紙 "traditional Japanese paper",Wagyu 和牛 "Japanese cattle".
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| Chinese | 倭 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Korean name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hangul | 왜 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hanja | 倭 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Japanese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Kanji | 倭, 和 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Kana | わ, やまと | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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In Chinese, the character 倭 can be pronouncedwēi "winding",wǒ "an ancient hairstyle", orWō "Japan". The first two pronunciations are restricted toClassical Chinese bisyllabic words.Wēi 倭 occurs inwēichí 倭遲 "winding; sinuous; circuitous; meandering", which has numerous variants includingwēiyí 逶迤 and 委蛇. The oldest recorded usage of 倭 is theShi Jing (162) description of awēichí 倭遲 "winding; serpentine; tortuous" road; compare (18) usingwēituó 委佗 "compliant; bending, pliable; graceful".Wǒ 倭 occurs inwǒduòjì 倭墮髻 "a woman's hairstyle with a bun, popular during theHan dynasty". The third pronunciationWō 倭 "Japan; Japanese" is more productive than the first two, as evident in Chinese names for "Japanese" things (e.g.,Wōkòu 倭寇 "Japanese pirates" above) or "dwarf; pygmy" animals.
Reconstructed pronunciations ofwō 倭 inMiddle Chinese (c. 6th–10th centuries CE) includeʼuâ (Bernhard Karlgren),ʼua (Zhou Fagao), andʼwa (Edwin G. Pulleyblank). Reconstructions inOld Chinese (c. 6th–3rd centuries BCE) include *ʼwâ (Karlgren), *ʼwər (Dong Tonghe), and *ʼwər (Zhou).
In Japanese, the Chinese character 倭 has Siniticon'yomi pronunciations ofwa orka from Chinesewō "Japan" andwǒ "an ancient hairstyle", orwi ori fromwēi "winding; obedient", and nativekun'yomi pronunciations ofyamato "Japan" orshitagau "obey, obedient". Chinesewō 倭 "an old name for Japan" is aloanword in otherEast Asian languages includingKorean 왜wae orwa,Cantonesewai1 orwo1, andTaiwanese Hokkiene2.[citation needed]
In modern dictionaries, an article by Michael Carr[11] "compares how Oriental and Occidental lexicographers have treated the fact that Japan's first written name was a ChineseWō < *ʼWâ 倭 'short/submissive people' insult." It evaluates 92 dictionary definitions of ChineseWō 倭 to illustrate lexicographical problems with defining ethnically offensive words. In modern dictionaries, this corpus of monolingual and bilingual Chinese dictionaries includes 29 Chinese-Chinese, 17 Chinese-English, 13 Chinese to other Western Languages, and 33 Chinese-Japanese dictionaries. To analyze how Chinese dictionaries deal with the belittling origins ofWō, Carr divides definitions into four types, abbreviated withGreek alphabet letters Alpha through Delta.
For example, Alpha (A) type includes both overt definitions like "The land of dwarfs; Japan" (Liushi Han-Ying cidian 劉氏漢英辭典 [Liu's Chinese-English Dictionary] 1978) and more sophisticated semantic distinctions like "(1) A dwarf. (2) Formerly, used to refer to Japan" (Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage 1972). Beta (B) "compliant; Japanese" is illustrated by "demütig [humble; submissive; meek],gehorchen [obey; respond]"Praktisches zeichenlexikon chinesisch-deutsch-japanisch [A Practical Chinese-German-Japanese Character Dictionary] (1983). Gamma (Γ) "type definitions such as "depreciatingly Japanese" (e.g.,A Beginner's Chinese-English Dictionary of the National Language (Gwoyeu) 1964) include usage labels such as "derogatory", "disparaging", "offensive", or "contemptuous". Some Γ notations are restricted to subentries like "Wōnú 倭奴 (in modern usage, derogatively) the Japs" (Zuixin shiyong Han-Ying cidian 最新實用和英辭典 [A New Practical Chinese-English Dictionary] 1971). Delta (Δ) "Japanese" is the least informative type of gloss; for instance, "an old name for Japan" (Xin Han-Ying cidian 新漢英詞典 [A New Chinese-English Dictionary] 1979).
Carr evaluates these four typologies for defining the Chinese 倭 "bent people" graphic pejoration.
From a theoretical standpoint, A "dwarf" or B "submissive" type definitions are preferable for providing accurate etymological information, even though it may be deemed offensive. It is no transgression for an abridged Chinese dictionary to give a short Δ "Japan" definition, but adding "an old name for" or "archaic" takes no more space than adding a Γ "derogatory" note. A Δ definition avoids offending the Japanese, but misleads the dictionary user in the same way as theOED2 definingwetback andwhite trash without usage labels.[12]
The table below (Carr 1992:31, "Table 8. Overall Comparison of Definitions") summarizes how Chinese dictionaries defineWō 倭.
| Definition Type | Chinese–Chinese | Chinese–English | Chinese–Other | Chinese–Japanese |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Α "dwarf; Japanese" | 3 (10%) | 10 (59%) | 5 (38%) | 4 (12%) |
| Β "compliant; Japanese" | 0 | 0 | 1 (8%) | 4 (12%) |
| Γderogatory Japanese | 0 | 1 (6%) | 3 (23%) | 11 (33%) |
| Δ "Japanese" | 26 (90%) | 6 (35%) | 4 (31%) | 14 (42%) |
| Total Dictionaries | 29 | 17 | 13 | 33 |
Today, half of the Western language dictionaries note that ChineseWō 倭 "Japanese" means "little person; dwarf", while most Chinese-Chinese definitions overlook the graphic slur with Δ type "ancient name for Japan" definitions. This demeaning A "dwarf" description is found more often in Occidental language dictionaries than in Oriental ones. The historically more accurate, and ethnically less insulting, "subservient; compliant" B type is limited to Chinese-Japanese and Chinese-German dictionaries. The Γ type "derogatory" notation occurs most often among Japanese and European language dictionaries. The least edifying Δ "(old name for) Japan" type definitions are found twice more often in Chinese-Chinese than in Chinese-Japanese dictionaries, and three times more than in Western ones.
Even the modern-dayUnicode universal character standard reflects inherent lexicographic problems with this ancient ChineseWō 倭 "Japan" affront. The Unihan (UnifiedCJK characters) segment of Unicode largely draws definitions from two online dictionary projects, the ChineseCEDICT and JapaneseEDICT. The former lists Chinesewo1 倭 "Japanese; dwarf",wokou4 倭寇 "(in ancient usage) the dwarf-pirates; the Japs", andwonu2 倭奴 "(used in ancient times) the Japanese; (in modern usage, derogatively) the Japs". The latter lists Japaneseyamato 倭 "ancient Japan",wajin 倭人 "(an old word for) a Japanese", andwakou 倭寇 "Japanese pirates."
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The earliest textual references to Japan are in theChinese classic texts. Within the official Chinese dynasticTwenty-Four Histories, Japan is mentioned among the so-called 'Eastern barbarians'.
The historian Wang Zhenping summarizes Wa contacts from the Han dynasty to theSixteen Kingdoms period:
When chieftains of various Wo tribes contacted authorities atLelang, a Chinese commandery established in northern Korea in 108 B.C. by the Western Han court, they sought to benefit themselves by initiating contact. In A.D. 57, the first Wo ambassador arrived at the capital of the Eastern Han court (25–220); the second came in 107.
Wo diplomats never called on China on a regular basis. A chronology of Japan–China relations from the first to the ninth centuries reveals this irregularity in the visits of Japanese ambassadors to China. There were periods of frequent contacts as well as of lengthy intervals between contacts. This irregularity clearly indicated that, in its diplomacy with China, Japan set its own agenda and acted on self-interest to satisfy its own needs.
No Wo ambassador, for example, came to China during the second century. This interval continued well past the third century. Then within merely nine years, the female Wo rulerHimiko sent four ambassadors to theWei court (220–265) in 238, 243, 245, and 247, respectively. After the death of Himiko, diplomatic contact with China slowed.Iyoo, the female successor to Himiko, contacted the Wei court only once. The fourth century was another quiet period in China–Wo relations except for the Wo delegation dispatched to the Western Jin court (265–316) in 306. With the arrival of a Wo ambassador at theEastern Jin court (317–420) in 413, a new age of frequent diplomatic contact with China began. Over the next sixty years, ten Wo ambassadors called on the Southern Song court (420–479), and a Wo delegation also visited theSouthern Qi court (479–502) in 479. The sixth century saw only one Wo ambassador pay respect to theSouthern Liang court (502–557) in 502. When these ambassadors arrived in China, they acquired official titles, bronze mirrors, and military banners, which their masters could use to bolster their claims to political supremacy, to build a military system, and to attempt to expand its influence towards southern Korea.[13]
In the section on the Goryeo kingdom, within the sixth volume of his圖畵見聞志;Táng yánlìběn wáng huì tú; 'Depicted Records of Things Seen and Heard'—also known asExperiences in Painting—Guo Ruoxu (郭若虛) writes:
The Kingdom of Wa is also Japan [日本]. Its original name was Wa [倭], but became ashamed of that name. They claim themselves Japan [Origin of the Sun] because they are in the extremity of the East. Now they are vassal to Goryeo.[A]
This could be referring to the numerous tributary missions sent to Goryeo by theMuromachi shogunate during theNanboku-chō period to gain international recognition to establish legitimacy over thesouthern court, which originally had the better claim to legitimacy as it possessed theimperial regalia of Japan and the originalEmperor Go-daigo. (In the later war-tornSengoku period, various daimyowould send tributes to Goryeo to gain legitimacy over their rivals, even into the Joseon dynasty.)
The Wa kingdoms onKyushu were documented in theCivil war of Wa, which originated from a power struggle or political situation in the mid-2nd century CE.[14][15] There were over 100 chiefdoms before the civil war.[nb 1] Afterward there were around 30 chiefdoms left that were ruled by shaman queenHimiko ofYamatai-koku (邪馬台国).[16][17] Himiko restored peace and gained control of the region around 180 CE.[nb 2][14][18][19]
Possibly the earliest use ofWa occurs in theShan Hai Jing. The actual date of this collection of geography and mythological legends is uncertain, but estimates range from 300 BCE to 250 CE.The《海內北經》;Haineibei jing; 'Classic of Regions Within the North Sea' chapter includesWa among foreign places both real (such as Korea) and legendary (e.g.Penglai Mountain).
The State of Gai is south of Great Yan and north of Wo. Wo belongs to Yan. Chaoxian [Chosŏn, Korea] is east of Lieyang, south of Haibei Mountain. Lieyang belongs to Yan.[B][20]
Nakagawa notes that the label鉅燕;Ju Yan refers to the kingdom ofYan (c. 1000–222 BCE), and that Wa ("Japan was first known by this name.") maintained a "possible tributary relationship" with Yan.
TheLunheng (論衡; 'Discourses Weighed in the Balance') is a compendium of essays written byWang Chongc. 70–80 CE, on subjects including philosophy, religion, and the natural sciences.
The chapter within theLunheng's titled《儒増》;Rŭzēng; 'Exaggerations of the Literati' mentions both 'Wa people' and越裳;Yuèshāng, a people in the southern part ofGuangdong province, near theAnnamese frontier, presenting tribute during theZhou dynasty. While disputing legends that ancient Zhou bronzeding tripods possessed magical power to ward off evil spirits, Wang says:
During the Zhou time there was universal peace. The [Yueshang] offered white pheasants to the court, the [Japanese] odoriferous plants.[C] Since by eating these white pheasants or odoriferous plants one cannot keep free from evil influences, why should vessels like bronze tripods have such a power?[21]
Another chapter titled《恢國》;Huīguó; 'Restoring the Nation' similarly records thatEmperor Cheng of Han (r. 51–7 BCE) was presented tributes of Vietnamese pheasants and Japanese herbs.[22]
Thec. 82 CEHan Shu (Book of Han) covers theFormer Han dynasty (206 BCE – 24 CE) period. Near the conclusion of the Yan entry in theDilizhi 地理志 ("Treatise on Geography") section, it records that "[Wa] encompassed over 100 [nations]".
Beyond Lo-lang in the sea, there are the people of Wo. They comprise more than one hundred communities.[D] It is reported that they have maintained intercourse with China through tributaries and envoys.[23]
Emperor Wu of Han established this KoreanLelang Commandery in 108 BCE. HistorianEndymion Wilkinson saysWa was used originally in theHanshu, "probably to refer to the inhabitants of Kyushu and the Korean peninsula. Thereafter to the inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago."[24]
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Thec. 297 CE魏志;Weìzhì; 'Records of Wei', the first of theRecords of the Three Kingdoms, covers the history ofCao Wei (220–265 CE). The "Encounters with Eastern Barbarians" section describes the Wa people based upon detailed reports from Chinese envoys to Japan. It contains the first records ofYamatai-koku, shaman-queenHimiko, and other Japanese historical topics.
The people of Wa dwell in the middle of the ocean on the mountainous islands southeast of [the prefecture] of Tai-fang. They formerly comprised more than one hundred communities. During the Han dynasty, [Wa envoys] appeared at the Court; today, thirty of their communities maintain intercourse [with us] through envoys and scribes.[E][25]
ThisWeizhi context describes sailing from Korea to Wa and around the Japanese archipelago. For instance:
A hundredli to the south, one reaches the country of Nu, the official of which is calledshimako, his assistant being termedhinumori. Here there are more than twenty thousand households.[26]
Tsunoda suggests this ancient奴國;Núguó; 'slave country', JapaneseNakoku, was located near present-dayHakata in Kyushu.[27]
Some 12,000li to the south of Wa is狗奴國;Gǒunúguó; 'dog slave country' [JapaneseKunakoku], which is identified with theKumaso tribe that lived aroundHigo andŌsumi Provinces in southern Kyushu. Beyond that:
Over one thousandli to the east of the Queen's land, there are more countries of the same race as the people of Wa. To the south, also there is the island of the dwarfs where the people are three or four feet tall. This is over four thousandli distant from the Queen's land. Then there is the land of the naked men, as well of the black-teethed people.[F] These places can be reached by boat if one travels southeast for a year.[28]
OneWeizhi passage records that in 238 CE the Queen of Wa sent officials with tribute to the Wei emperorCao Rui, who reciprocated with lavish gifts including a goldseal with the official title "Queen of Wa Friendly to Wei".[29]
Another passage relates Watattooing with legendary KingShao Kang of theXia dynasty.
Men great and small, all tattoo their faces and decorate their bodies with designs. From olden times envoys who visited the Chinese Court called themselves "grandees". A son of the ruler Shao-k'ang of Hsia, when he was enfeoffed as lord of K'uai-chi, cut his hair and decorated his body with designs in order to avoid the attack of serpents and dragons. The Wa, who are fond of diving into the water to get fish and shells, also decorated their bodies in order to keep away large fish and waterfowl. Later, the designs became merely ornamental.[30]
'Grandees' translates Chinese大夫;dàfu; 'great man', 'senior official', 'statesman' (cf. modern大夫;dàifu; 'physician', 'doctor'), which mistranslates Japanese imperial大夫,taifu, '5th-rank courtier', 'head of administrative department', 'grand tutor'. (TheNihongi records that the envoy Imoko was ataifu.)
A second Wei history, thec. 239–265 CEWeilüe is no longer extant, but some sections are quoted in the 429 CEAnnotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms byPei Songzhi. He quotes theWeilüe, that "[Wa] people call themselves posterity of Tàibó".[G] Taibo was the uncle ofKing Wen of Zhou, who ceded the throne to his nephew and founded the ancientstate of Wu (585–473 BCE). TheRecords of the Grand Historian has a section titled "Wu Taibo's Noble Family", and his shrine is located in present-dayWuxi. Researchers have noted cultural similarities between the ancient Wu state and Wō Japan including ritual tooth-pulling, backchild carriers, and tattooing (represented with red paint on JapaneseHaniwa statues).
Thec. 432 CEHou Han Shu (Book of the Later Han) covers theLater Han dynasty (25–220 CE), but was not compiled until two centuries later. The 'Wa people' are included under the "Encounters with Eastern Barbarians" section.
The Wa dwell on mountainous islands southeast of Tai-fang in the middle of the ocean, forming more than one hundred communities.[H] From the time of the overthrow of Chao-hsien [northern Korea] by Emperor Wu (B.C. 140-87), nearly thirty of these communities have held intercourse with the Han [dynasty] court by envoys or scribes. Each community has its king, whose office is hereditary. The King of Great Wa resides in the country of Yamadai [邪馬台国].[31]
Comparing the opening descriptions of Wa in theWei Zhi andHou Han Shu clearly reveals that the latter is derivative. Their respective accounts of the dwarf, naked, and black-teethed peoples provide another example of copying.
Leaving the queen's land and crossing the sea to the east, after a voyage of one thousandli, the country of Kunu [狗奴國] ("Country of Dog-slaves") is reached, the people of which are of the same race as that of the Wa. They are not the queen's subjects, however. Four thousandli away to the south of the queen's land, the dwarf's country is reached; its inhabitants are three to four feet in height. After a year's voyage by ship to the southeast of the dwarf's country, one comes to the land of naked men and also to the country of black-teethed people;[I] here our communication service ends.[32]
ThisHou Han Shu account of Japan contains some historical details not found in theWei Zhi.
[In 57 CE], the Wa country Nu [倭奴國] sent an envoy with tribute who called himselfta-fu [大夫]. This country is located in the southern extremity of the Wa country. Kuang-wu bestowed on him a seal. In ... [107 CE], during the reign of An-ti (107-125), the King of Wa presented one hundred sixty slaves, making at the same time a request for an imperial audience.[33]
Tsunoda notes support for the Hakata location of Nu/Na country in the 1784 discovery atHakata Bay of a gold seal bearing the inscription漢委奴國王, usually translated "Han [vassal?] King of the Wa country Nu".[27] Although the name of the King of Wa in 107 CE does not appear in the above translation, his name isSuishō (帥升) according to the original text.
The 488 CESong Shu ("Book of Song") covers the brief history of theLiu Song dynasty (420–479) during the chaoticSix Dynasties period. Under the "Eastern and Southern Barbarians" section, right afterBaekje, Japan is listed as "Wa country", and is said to be located offGoguryeo. In contrast with the earlier histories that describe theWa as a 'people', this Song history describes them as a "country".
The country of Wa is in the midst of the great ocean, southeast ofGoguryeo. From generation to generation, [the Wa people] carry out their duty of bringing tribute.[J] [In 421,] the first Emperor said in a rescript: "Ts'an [贊,Emperor Nintoku (r. 313–319)] of Wa sends tribute from a distance of tens of thousands ofli 里. The fact that he is loyal, though so far away, deserves appreciation. Let him, therefore, be granted rank and title." ... In [438] Ts'an died and his brother, Chen [珍,Emperor Hanzei (r. ca. 406–411)], came to power, the latter sent an envoy to the Court with tribute. Self-proclaiming as King of Wa, Overseer of All Military Affairs in the Six Countries of Wa, Baekje, Silla, Imna, Jin-han and Mok-han; andGrand Peacekeeper-General of the East (安東大將軍). He presented amemorial requesting that these [self-proclaimed] titles be formally confirmed. An imperial edict was issued [only recognizing him as] King of Wa and Peacekeeper-General of the East. ... In the twentieth year [443], Sai [濟,Emperor Ingyō (r. ca. 412–453)], King of Wa, sent an envoy with tribute and was reaffirmed as King of Wa; and Peacekeeper-General of the East. In the twenty-eighth year [451], the additional title was granted of Peacekeeper-General of the East; Overseer of All Military Affairs in the Six Countries of Wa, Silla, Imna, Gaya, Jin-han and Mok-han. ... Sai died, his crown prince Kou [興,Emperor Ankō (r. ca. 453–456)] sends tribute... In [468] Kou dies, his younger brother Bu [武,Emperor Yūryaku (r. ca. 456–479)] comes to power, self-proclaiming himself as Peacekeeper-General of the East; Overser of All Military Affairs in the Seven Countries of Wa, Baekje, Silla, Imna, Gaya, Jin-han and Mok-han. ... In [478] offered a letter saying, "Our landed country is far, forming a vassalage far away, we have had no comfort since we had to arm ourselves with helmet and armor and trek across mountains and streams. ... "[34]
It should be noted, this period in Chinese history was whenChina was split roughly into North and South and fiercely competing for legitimacy themselves, and so were eager to accept as many foreign countries and land as many foreign monarchs as possible.
TheSong Shu gives details Japan visiting Liu Song often, indicating that theWa kings were desperate for their political legitimization from the Chinese emperors, asking for confirmation of titles every time the throne was succeeded. Liu Song itself has not recognized Japan's exaggerated claims over Baekje, as it had already had diplomatic ties with and in 420 already recognized Baekje'sJeonji as the Grand Suppressor-General of the East (鎮東大將軍). Liu Song recognized the emperors as the self-proclaimed title Kings of Wa but refused to recognize them by their likewise self-proclaimed title of 安東大將軍, which is a position in Grade 2 (二品) in the Liu Song hierarchy, but instead as a grade lower, as Grade 3 (三品) Peacekeeper-General of the East.
Wang Jianqun (王健群), pointed out that Wa's frequent requests for recognition undermine credence to their claim; many of their self-proclaimed titles were rejected and they were given a lower grade title. Noh Jungkuk (노중국) further pointed out many of the Wa requests seem to originate from a monarch who does not even know the situation of the places he claims to rule. He asks for redundant recognition of command overImna andGaya which probably describe the same area; he proclaims rulership of Mok-han, which had been annexed intoBaekje 100 years prior, rendering the Wa claim redundant; and proclaims rule overJinhan, which was a confederacywhose constituents had been individually annexed into Silla between 200 and 400 years prior. This is also redundant alongside laying claim to Silla (traditionally a bitter enemy with Wa).
In 479, as a celebratory gesture and to establish legitimacy through the diplomatic position as granter of titles in thesinosphere, the newbornSouthern Qi dynasty would give out titles without being prompted, such as voluntarily entitling the King of Wa to what Baekje was already entitled by Liu Song in 420, the Grand Suppressor-General of the East (鎮東大將軍). In 502, the newbornLiang dynasty would make similar celebratory gestures, giving out titles such as Conqueror-General of the East (征東將軍) to the King of Wa, while entitlingDongseong of Baekje to Grand Conqueror-General of the East (征東大將軍) the same year, unaware that both have deceased.
The 635 CELiang Shu 梁書 "Book of Liang", which covers history of theLiang dynasty (502–557), records the Buddhist monkHui Shen's trip to Wa and the legendaryFusang. It refers to Japan asWa without a 'people' or 'country' suffix, under the "Eastern Barbarians" section, and begins with theTaibo legend.
The Wa say of themselves that they are posterity of Tàibó. According to custom, the people are all tattooed. Their territory is over 12,000li fromDaifang. It is located approximately east ofKuaiji [onHangzhou Bay], though at an extremely great distance.[K]
Later texts repeat this myth of Japanese descent from Taibo. The 648 CEJin Shu ("Book of Jin") about theJin dynasty (266–420 CE) uses a different "call" verb,wèi謂 "say; call; name" instead ofyún云 "say; speak; call", "They call themselves the posterity of Tàibó [自謂太伯之後]". The 1084 CE Chineseuniversal historyZizhi Tongjian speculates, "The present-day Japan is also said to be posterity of Tàibó of Wu; perhaps when Wu was destroyed, [a member of] a collateral branch of the royal family disappeared at sea and became Wo.".[L]
The 636 CESui Shu ("Book of Sui") records the history of theSui dynasty (581–618) when China was reunified.Wōguó/Wakoku is entered under "Eastern Barbarians", and said to be located off ofBaekje andSilla (seeHogong), two of theThree Kingdoms of Korea.
Wa-kuo is situated in the middle of the great ocean southeast of Baekje and Silla, three thousandli away by water and land. The people dwell on mountainous islands.[M] During the Wei dynasty, over thirty countries [of Wa], each of which boasted a king, held intercourse with China. These barbarians do not know how to measure distance byli and estimate it by days. Their domain is five months' journey from east to west, and three months' from north to south; and the sea lies on all sides. The land is high in the east and low in the west.[35]
In 607 CE, theSui Shu records that "King Tarishihoko" (a mistake forEmpress Suiko) sent an envoy, Buddhist monks, and tribute toEmperor Yang. Her official message is quoted using the wordTiānzǐ天子 'Son ofHeaven', 'emperor'.
"TheSon of Heaven in the land where the sun rises addresses a letter to the Son of Heaven in the land where the sun sets. We hope you are in good health." When the Emperor saw this letter, he was displeased and told the chief official of foreign affairs that this letter from the barbarians was discourteous, and that such a letter should not again be brought to his attention.[36]
In 608, the Emperor dispatched Pei Ching as envoy to Wa, and he returned with a Japanese delegation.
The JapaneseNihongi also records these imperial envoys of 607 and 608, but with a differing Sino-Japanese historical perspective. It records more details, such as naming the envoy Imoko Wono no Omi and translator Kuratsukuri no Fukuri, but not the offensive Chinese translation.[37] According to theNihongi, when Imoko returned from China, he apologized to Suiko for losing Yang's letter because Korean men "searched me and took it from me". When the Empress received Pei, he presented a proclamation[38] contrasting ChineseHuángdì皇帝 'emperor' withWōwáng 倭王 'Wa king', "The Emperor greets the King of Wa." According to theNihongi, Suiko gave Pei a different version of the imperial letter, contrasting JapaneseTennō天皇 'Japanese emperor' andKōtei 皇帝 'emperor' (Chinesetiānhuáng andhuángdì) instead of using "Son of Heaven".
The Emperor of the East respectfully addresses the Emperor of the West. Your Envoy, P'ei Shih-ch'ing, Official Entertainer of the Department of foreign receptions, and his suite, having arrived here, my long-harbored cares were dissolved. This last month of autumn is somewhat chilly. How is Your Majesty? We trust well. We are in our usual health.[39]
Aston quotes the 797 CEShoku Nihongi history that this 607 Japanese mission to China first objected to writingWa with the Chinese character倭.
"Wono no Imoko, the Envoy who visited China, (proposed to) alter this term into Nippon, but the Sui Emperor ignored his reasons and would not allow it. The term Nippon was first used in the period [...] 618–626." Another Chinese authority gives 670 as the date when Nippon began to be officially used in China.[40]
The custom of writing "Japan" asWa ended during theTang dynasty. Japanese scribes coined the nameNihon orNipponc. 608–645 and replacedWa with a more flattering和,Wa, 'harmony,peace'c. 756–757 CE.[41] This linguistic change is recorded in two official Tang histories. The 945 CEOld Book of Tang (199A) has the oldest Chinese reference to日本;Rìběn. The "Eastern Barbarians" section lists bothWakoku andNipponkoku, giving three explanations: Nippon is an alternate name forWa, or the Japanese dislikedWakoku because it was不雅; 'inelegant', 'coarse', or Japan was once a small part of oldWakoku. The 1050 CENew Book of Tang which has a日本;Rìběn heading for Japan under the "Eastern Barbarians", gives more details.
Japan in former times was called Wa-nu. It is 14,000li distant from our capital, situated to the southeast of Silla in the middle of the ocean. It is five months' journey to cross Japan from east to west, and a three-month journey from south to north.[N][42]
Regarding the change in autonyms, theXin Tang Shu says.
[In 670], an embassy came to the Court [from Japan] to offer congratulations on the conquest of Koguryŏ. Around this time, the Japanese who had studied Chinese came to dislike the name Wa and changed it to Nippon. According to the words of the [Japanese] envoy himself, that name was chosen because the country was so close to where the sun rises.[O] Some say, [on the other hand,] that Japan was a small country which had been subjugated by the Wa, and that the latter took over its name. As this envoy was not truthful, doubt still remains.[P] [The envoy] was, besides, boastful, and he said that the domains of his country were many thousands of squareli and extended to the ocean on the south and on the west. In the northeast, he said, the country was bordered by mountain ranges beyond which lay the land of the hairy men.[43]
Subsequent Chinese histories refer to Japan as日本;Rìběn and only mentionWa as an old name.
The earliest Korean reference to JapaneseWa (Wae in Korean) is the 414 CEGwanggaeto Stele that was erected to honor KingGwanggaeto the Great ofGoguryeo (r. 391–413 CE). This memorial stele, which has the oldest usage ofWakō (倭寇, "Japanese pirates",Waegu in Korean), recordsWa as a military ally ofBaekje in their battles with Goguryeo andSilla. Some scholars interpret these references to mean not only 'Japanese' but also 'Gaya peoples' in the southernKorean Peninsula. For instance, Lee suggests:
If Kokuryo could not destroy Baekje itself, it wished for someone else to do so. Thus, in another sense, the inscription may have been wishful thinking. At any rate, Wae denoted both the southern Koreans and people who lived on the southwest Japanese islands, the same Kaya people who had ruled both regions in ancient times. Wae did not denote Japan alone, as was the case later.[44]
"It is generally thought that theseWae were from the archipelago," write Lewis and Sesay, "but we as yet have no conclusive evidence concerning their origins".[45]
