| Władysław III | |
|---|---|
.PNG) Detail of Władysław's seal | |
| King of Poland Supreme Duke of Lithuania | |
| Reign | 1434–1444 |
| Coronation | 25 July 1434,Wawel Cathedral |
| Predecessor | Władysław II Jagiełło |
| Successor | Interregnum (1444–1447) Casimir IV Jagiellon (1447) |
| Regent | Zbigniew Oleśnicki (1434–1438) |
| King of Hungary andCroatia Contested byLadislaus the Posthumous | |
| Reign | 1440–1444 |
| Coronation | 17 July 1440,Székesfehérvár Basilica |
| Predecessor | Albert |
| Successor | Ladislaus the Posthumous |
| Born | 31 October 1424 Kraków,Kingdom of Poland |
| Died | 10 November 1444(1444-11-10) (aged 20) (presumed) Varna,Ottoman Empire (present-dayBulgaria) |
| Dynasty | Jagiellon |
| Father | Władysław II Jagiełło |
| Mother | Sophia of Halshany |
| Religion | Roman Catholic |
Władysław III of Poland[a] (31 October 1424 – presumably 10 November 1444), also known asLadislaus of Varna, wasKing of Poland andSupreme Duke[b] of theGrand Duchy of Lithuania from 1434, as well asKing of Hungary andCroatia asVladislaus I from 1440 until his presumed death at theBattle of Varna. He was the eldest son ofWładysław II Jagiełło (Jogaila) and the Lithuanian noblewomanSophia of Halshany.
Władysław succeeded his father shortly before turning ten in 1434 and was, therefore, deemed unfit to rule until coming of age. CardinalZbigniew Oleśnicki acted asregent and a temporaryprovisores council executed power in the king's name. However, Władysław's legitimacy to the crown was contested byLesser Polish nobles favouring the candidacy ofSiemowit V of Masovia, who was ofPiast lineage. In the aftermath of the coronation,Spytko III of Melsztyn accused Oleśnicki, the council and theCatholic Church of exploiting the king's youth to hold authority. A sympathiser with the CzechHussites, Spytko was killed at theBattle of Grotniki in 1439, thus ending the hostilities.
Władysław simultaneously faced the effects of thePolish–Teutonic War, which commenced under his father's reign in 1431. TheTeutonic Knights began supportingŠvitrigaila and theLivonian Order in a military struggle against Poland andSigismund Kęstutaitis of Lithuania in 1434, shortly after Władysław assumed the throne. Consequently, the king and the Polish Royal Council, thecuria regis, renewed their war efforts by fortifying the borderland regions and sending an army to Lithuania, which was engulfed in acivil war since 1432. Švitrigaila, the Livonians and their allies were ultimately defeated at theBattle of Wiłkomierz, and Władysław forced thePeace of Brześć Kujawski on theTeutonic State in December 1435, which curtailed Teutonic influence in East-Central Europe.
The policy of the Kingdom of Poland under Władysław and Oleśnicki was to reclaim lost territories such asSilesia orPomerania and expand its influence to neighbouring realms. In 1440, Władysław was electedKing of Hungary and Croatia following the death ofAlbert II of Germany. Albert's widow,Elizabeth of Luxembourg, spurned the outcome and advocated for her infant son,Ladislaus the Posthumous, to rule under the guardianship ofFrederick III Habsburg whilst purloining theHoly Crown of Hungary. Prolonged hostilities from theHabsburgs, the imminentOttoman advance into Hungary and Elizabeth's sudden death solidified Władysław's legitimacy to the Hungarian throne. Ruling much ofSoutheastern andCentral Europe, Władysław became compelled in confronting the Ottoman Empire.
With the Turkish grip over theBalkans weakened in the aftermath of theHungarian–Ottoman War (1437–1442), thepapacy and papal legateJulian Cesarini urged Władysław to launch theCrusade of Varna. After initial successes, the outnumbered Christian forces engaged in a decisivebattle atVarna, where Władysław was reportedly killed in a heroic cavalry charge against SultanMurad II. His body was never recovered and its disappearance led to numerous survival theories or legends, none of which have been confirmed. Władysław's legacy in Poland and Hungary is divisive, yet Władysław remains a notable figure in countries likeBulgaria, which were under Ottoman domination. He was succeeded in Poland by his younger brotherCasimir IV, and in Hungary-Croatia by his rivalLadislaus V the Posthumous.
Władysław was born inKraków on 31 October 1424, the first-born son ofWładysław II Jagiełło (his pagan name was Jogaila) andSophia of Halshany, both of whom wereLithuanian in origin.[1][2] His father was already an elderly man, having outlived three ofhis consorts, and the birth of a male successor was widely regarded as a miracle.[2] He was baptised atWawel Cathedral in mid-February 1425 byWojciech Jastrzębiec, Bishop of Gniezno andPrimate of Poland.[3] It took place in the presence ofAndrzej Łaskarz Laskary, Bishop of Poznań andZbigniew Oleśnicki, Bishop of Kraków as well as statesmen and royal emissaries from the surrounding realms.[3][4] The ceremony was unequivocally grandiose; the most probable day of thebaptism is 18 February, though this continues to be contested by historians and various sources.[5]
In 1427, thePolish nobility initiated anti-Jagiellonian opposition and attempted to have Jogaila's sons declared illegitimate to the Polish throne as they possessed no blood relation to theirPiast andAnjou predecessors. In the same year, Queen Sophia was accused ofadultery, which aggravated the conflict.[6] Despite the agreements signed between Jogaila and themagnates to ensure the succession for his sons, the opposing faction opted forFrederick II of Brandenburg, who was betrothed toHedwig Jagiellon, Jogaila's daughter by his second wife.[7] However, the conspiracy was resolved by the death of the princess in December 1431, rumoured to have been poisoned by Sophia.[7]
From a young age, Władysław was surrounded by advisors loyal toZbigniew Oleśnicki (known inLatin as Sbigneus), a cardinal who acted as royal guardian and aimed at maintaining his influence and high position at court.[8] Oleśnicki learned of Jogaila's death on 1 June 1434 inPoznań, whilst he was en route to theCouncil of Basel, but decided to remain in Poland and usurp the role ofinterrex.[9] He subsequently convened an assembly in Poznań with the assistance ofChancellor Jan Taszka Koniecpolski, and called for the nobles ofGreater Poland to warrant Władysław's right to the crown.[10] This arbitrary behaviour displayed by the assembly vexed the nobility ofLesser Poland, who were outmanoeuvred and excluded from the vote.[10]
There was growing antagonism in thedemesne and the challengers feared that crowning a young and inexperienced king would invest Oleśnicki with too much power over the affairs of state.[11] Others repudiated a son of formerly-pagan Jogaila on the Polish throne and yearned for a living descendant of thePiast dynasty. The candidacy ofSiemowit V remained a considerable threat to Władysław, especially that Siemowit was of royal Piast lineage and a member of a branch that ruled theDuchy of Masovia since theTestament of Bolesław III Wrymouth in the 12th century.[12]
Many opponents also attempted to counter the power of theCatholic clergy, notably under the influence ofHussitism from neighbouringBohemia. Among the chief adversaries wereAbraham Zbąski [pl], the judge royal of Poznań and a fierce propagator of the Hussites' proto-Protestant movement,Dziersław Rytwiański [pl], andSpytko III of Melsztyn, a supporter of pro-Hussite military expeditions led bySigismund Korybut to Bohemia in the years 1422–1427.[10][13] They received clandestine sponsorship from influentialmagnates and nobles from Lesser Poland, who persuaded Oleśnicki to delay the coronation until 25 July 1434.[10] This granted the opposition additional time to establish an independent assembly on 13 July inOpatów, where forthcoming actions were to be discussed.[14] Oleśnicki, having discovered their intent, arrived to the proceedings unannounced and successfully questioned its purpose, and the council hastily dissolved.[14] Negotiations were held in Kraków prior to 25 July with the dignitaries sent bySigismund Kęstutaitis and Spytko, who attempted to obstruct Władysław's accession.[14]Jan Głowacz Oleśnicki [pl],Crown Marshal of Poland and the brother of Zbigniew Oleśnicki, called for a decisive vote, which ended the dispute.[15]
Władysław was crowned at Wawel Cathedral on 25 July 1434 by the elderly Wojciech Jastrzębiec.[13][16][c] There is evidence that thecoronation was closely supervised by Oleśnicki, who was instrumental in determining how the investiture is conducted.[18] Changes were made to the order of formalities under Oleśnicki'sOrdo ad cornandum ad regem Poloniae, notably the young monarch was obliged to take anoath before theanointment and the handing over ofPolish royal insignia.[18] This act was to be seen as submission to the privileges of nobles; theking-elect's fulfillment of the elites' requirements, nothereditary rights, was a condition for obtaining the throne in the Kingdom of Poland.[17] Furthermore, the crown jewels were given to the officials, rather than being placed at thealtar, implying Władysław's minority and the officials' active participation in the coronation.[17] The act in which Władysław undertooksignum crucis with a sword in the direction of the four corners of the world was abandoned.[17]
The chroniclerJan Długosz (Latin: Johannes Longinus) writes that the boy king, dressed in royal garments and accompanied by bishops Oleśnicki andStanisław z Pawłowic [pl],Bishop of Płock, rode fromWawel Castle to greet the townsfolk.[19] However, a customaryfeudal homage by theburghers atKraków Town Hall came into effect because of a disagreement between the bishops andMasovia princes concerning theorder of precedence in the royalprocession and on sitting arrangements.[19]
Shortly after the coronation, senior nobles held both covert and open conventions to discuss the possibility of instituting aregency as the king was still a minor and could not govern.[20] Duke Siemowit, who was staying in the capital of Kraków at the time, remained a valid contender for the role of regent or caretaker because of his personal qualities and rank, however, the idea was soon dismissed. Many of the noble lords believed that Siemowit couldseize the crown for himself, rather than remain an inferior subject to the boy.[20] Queen Sophia's attempts to be named regent, in accordance with her late husband's instructions, also failed and the general indecisiveness caused the apex ofoligarch influence in medieval Poland.[21] As compromise, a regency council was formed comprising regional governors called theprovisores.[22] Długosz noted three members, each selected for merit and "wisdom",[d] which was possibly aimed at curtailing Zbigniew Oleśnicki's influence.[22][23] Nonetheless, Oleśnicki retained considerable control over Władysław's upbringing.[21]
It is believed that Władysław did not have a decisive voice in politics and the situation did not change even after theSejm, the Polish Parliament, had gathered inPiotrków in 1438 and declared the 14-year-old king to have attained his majority.[24]
Władysław faced certain challenges early in his reign, in particular the inherited situation in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was precarious and the ensuingLithuanian Civil War (1432–1438) threatened Polish interests there. The conflict began when Władysław's paternal uncle,Švitrigaila, refused to acknowledgefealty to his brother Jogaila and proclaimed political independence, jeopardising thePolish–Lithuanian union.[25] He subsequently battled against Polish–Lithuanian forces inVolhynia and established an anti-Polish coalition.[26] In June 1431, he reached an agreement with theTeutonic State, which declared a surprise war and marched its army into Polish territory.[27] Following atruce with theTeutonic Knights, the war resumed when Władysław became king. The situation swiftly transformed into a diplomatic struggle for Władysław and the Poles, who sought to turn Lithuanian nobles against Švitrigaila and have him ousted.[25]
A Polish retinue of approximately 4,000 men underJakub Kobylański assisted the Lithuanians headed by Sigismund Kęstutaitis andMichael Žygimantaitis; their joint army defeated Švitrigaila and his allies,Sigismund Korybut and theLivonian Order, on 1 September 1435 at theBattle of Wiłkomierz.[28] Švitrigaila fled eastward, but eventually lost the support of theRuthenians residing in the Grand Duchy and went into exile toMoldavia in 1438, thus ending civil war.[26] However, unrest re-emerged when Sigismund Kęstutaitis was assassinated on 20 March 1440 and Władysław's younger brother,Casimir, was proclaimed Grand Duke byJonas Goštautas and theLithuanian Council of Lords on 29 June 1440.[29][30] This was met with hostility at the Polish court, especially that Casimir was underage and that the Poles hoped for avicegerent that would submit to Poland.[30] Regardless of the outcome, Władysław continued to use the title of Supreme Duke of Lithuania until death under the conditions of the 1413Union of Horodło.[31][32]
The battle also proved momentous in combating the Livonian Order as itsGrand Master, Franco Kerskorff, andkomtur commanders were killed or taken prisoner.[25][33] TheLivonian Confederation agreement from 4 December 1435 officially terminated its crusading character, and aformal peace treaty was signed on 31 December 1435 inBrześć Kujawski whereby the Teutonic and Livonian Orders pledged not to intrude or disturb the internal affairs of both Poland and Lithuania.[2][34] That act concluded thePolish–Teutonic War (1431–1435).[34] Moreover, any association between the knights and thePope or theHoly Roman Emperor would violate the treaty.[35] His youth prevented Władysław from engaging directly in the peace talks, and the negotiations were predominantly undertaken by diplomats or theclergy.[36]
The successive years were marked by the extirpation of Polish Hussites under theEdict of Wieluń, signed earlier in 1424.[37][38] The initial hostilities eventually culminated in a minor rebellion during Władysław's reign.[39] On 3 May 1439, Spytko of Melsztyn formed a small but armedad hocconfederation in the town ofNowy Korczyn against Oleśnicki's desire to exterminate the Hussites and to challenge his authority over the young king.[39] Consequently, Spytko was accused ofhigh treason and maleficence.[40] The cardinal sent crown troops to pacify the movement and execute thedeath warrant.[40] Spytko was ultimately killed at theBattle of Grotniki.[40][41] His corpse pierced with arrows laid bare in the field for three days, however, Władysław personally ordered Spytko's body to be returned to his widow and restored the family's noble status and privileges.[41][42]
The court also devised the return of lost territories, most notably the southernDuchies of Silesia, which continued to be ruled by theSilesian Piasts.[38] In the north, thegentry of Greater Poland andKuyavia demanded the recovery ofPomerania.[43] Speaking on behalf of Władysław, the cardinal was opposed to the idea of reclaiming Pomerania and believed that peace between Poland and the Teutonic Order was critical, as the Teutonic Knights were no longer a tool of theHoly Roman Emperor and were wary of taking up arms.[43] He also dedicated himself to subtler diplomatic measures when addressing the issue ofSilesia, a large historical region within the Bohemian Crown, but was unwilling to support the Hussites militarily against Sigismund of Luxembourg and his son-in-law,Albert II of Germany.[43] The priority was diverted towards stabilising domestic affairs as well as maintaining Poland's status as a great power and a pillar of the Catholic Church inEast-Central Europe.[43]
The union with Lithuania remained impregnable, and adynastic union with theKingdom of Hungary was to be formed, as Sigismund had no male heirs.[43] The Polish Sejm and statesmen[e] hoped that by marrying Władysław to one of Sigismund's granddaughters, Poland could secure his accession in Hungary and foist Jagiellonian rule there.[43] That would restore aunion of Hungary and Poland, which had not been seen since the reign ofLouis I of Anjou (1370–1382).[43] The union would also allow Poland to renegotiate disputed territories between the Poles and the Hungarians, includingHalych (later constitutingGalicia) and Moldavia.[43] In response, Poland would propose a military alliance and vow the expulsion of theOttoman Turks from Hungarian lands.[43]
In October 1439, Albert II died and left theAustrian, Bohemian and Hungarian thrones unoccupied.[44] His only son, born in February 1440, became known asLadislaus the Posthumous.[44] Ladislaus' claim to theDuchy of Austria was acknowledged in accordance with Albert's testament.[45][46] Under the influence and pressure ofOldřich II of Rosenberg, the Catholic nobles were also inclined to endorse Ladislaus's hereditary right to Bohemia.[47][46] Conversely, the Hungarians were not willing to pass his candidacy and began dialogue with the Poles.[46] In early January 1440, the Hungarian Estates rejected the deceased king's testament at an assembly inBuda that would place the regency in the hands ofFrederick III Habsburg.[44]
The general animosity towards theHabsburg dynasty and the impending Ottoman threat prevented the Hungarians from accepting an infant as king and turned to Poland.[44] Ladislaus' widowed mother, QueenElizabeth of Luxembourg, was desperate to halt that and sent intermediaries to persuade the Hungarians to terminate all negotiations with Władysław.[46] Contrary to her efforts, the Hungarian nobles proved resolute and elected Władysław king on 8 March 1440.[48] Prior to his election, Władysław vowed to marry Elizabeth and protect her infant son's interests in Austria and Bohemia.[48] Simultaneously, Władysław was madeKing of Croatia as the Croatian dominion was in apersonal union with Hungary since 1102.[49]
Elizabeth did not approve of the Estates' election, and on 15 May 1440, she had her son crowned with theHoly Crown of Hungary, which one of Elizabeth'sladies-in-waiting (Helene Kottanner) had stolen from safekeeping at the fortress ofVisegrád.[44] The Hungarians soon decried the ceremony as an unlawful farce and utilised a reliquary crown for Władysław's coronation on 17 July 1440 at theBasilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary inSzékesfehérvár.[50] He had also received significant support fromPope Eugene IV, in exchange for his help in organising an anti-Muslimcrusade.[51] Although still young and king solely by title, Władysław became deeply involved in the struggle against the Ottomans, having been brought up in the standard of a piousChristian monarch.
Shortly after Władysław's accession the conflict with the supporters of Elizabeth deepened.[52] The western and northern parts of the country remained on the side of the queen and opposingmagnates, chiefly theCounts of Celje (Cilli), theGarai family andDénes Szécsi, Archbishop of Esztergom.[52] In turn, the eastern regions andTransylvania upheld Władysław and his partisans, among themJohn Hunyadi who became a leading political and military figure in Hungary.[53]
In order to assert her claim, Elizabeth had to maintain the wealthy mining counties in what now constitutesSlovakia and hired Hussitemercenaries from Bohemia commanded byJohn Jiskra.[54] Jiskra undertook a quick campaign and occupied much of the fortresses and defensive posts in northern Hungary, often with the support of local populations and devotees that held Jiskra in high regard because of his fight for religious freedoms.[54] As a benefactor to the mercenaries, Elizabeth had to pawn the Holy Crown and transfer tutelage over her newborn son to Frederick III.[54] However, this proved insufficient to fund the war against Władysław; she was then forced to handover her privately owned Austrian estates and the HungarianCounty ofSopron to the Habsburgs in late 1440 and early 1441.[54] This conduct alienated many of the lords that initially supported Elizabeth's cause, includingNicholas of Ilok,Ban of Croatia, who switched sides and allied himself with Władysław and John Hunyadi.[54]
The western territories as well as some 70 fortresses underUlrich II, Count of Celje in modern-day Austria, Croatia andSlovenia remained stalwart and loyal to the queen.[54] Before the end of 1440, Hunyadi attackedGyőr but was unable to take the garrisoned city.[55] He was, however, successful in capturing local townships and villages around Buda and Székesfehérvár to prevent the escape of nobles and designated traitors.[55] This proved paramount when Ulrich II made an attempt to flee toBratislava (Pozsony); he was caught by a Polish detachment and subsequently imprisoned at Władysław's behest.[55] Concurrently,Ladislaus Garai instigated a rebellion in the south.[56] Hunyadi, together with Nicholas of Ilok, annihilated Garai's army atBátaszék on 10 September 1440.[56] In January 1441, Ulrich was released from captivity, pledged an oath of loyalty to Władysław and freed the hostages held by his troops.[56]
Elizabeth prolonged her resistance until December 1442, when a peace treaty was signed at Győr under the auspices of CardinalJulian Cesarini.[57] Elizabeth died not long after meeting Władysław and exchanging gifts; her supporters claimed that she was poisoned on his orders to prevent their marriage.[58] Cesarini had the treaty ratified by Frederick under the pressure of Pope Eugene, though Frederick abstained from doing so until May 1444.[58] The internal unrest caused Hungary to become vulnerable militarily and was severely weakened for the Turkish campaign.[57]
The prelude to the crusade began when the Turks were defeated in theHungarian–Ottoman War of 1437–1442 and temporarily lost jurisdiction over thePrincipality of Wallachia.[59] In 1442, SultanMurad II sentMezid Bey into Transylvania with a largeakinji army, raiding cities, towns and villages from the border toSibiu (known in German as Hermannstadt and in Hungarian as Nagyszeben).[59] Hunyadi initially lost the skirmish and one of the Hungarian leaders, BishopGyörgy Lépes, was killed atSântimbru, Alba.[59] However, a few days later Hunyadi regrouped and attacked Ottoman positions with heavy cavalry at theBattle of Hermannstadt, capturing and beheading Mezid.[59][60] This empowered Hungary to coerce the Wallachians and Moldavians to change loyalty and turn into the vassals of Hungary. Murad sought revenge and entrustedHadım Şehabeddin, governor-general ofRumelia, with a new force to enter Wallachia; he too was defeated by Hunyadi near theIalomița River.[61]
Throughout the autumn of 1442, Cesarini and theRepublic of Venice were planning a crusade against the Turks, with the papacy pledging patronage and considerable funding.[62] The united force would set out from Hungary with an assembled fleet underFrancesco Condulmer stationed at theDardanelles Strait.[62][63] The objective was to isolate routes and communication fromAnatolia to Europe, protectConstantinople, and join with the land troops to capture Turkish defensive posts on theRiver Danube, thus leaving the Ottoman main army caught in Anatolia.[62] Cesarini, acting as papal legate and gathering support, disseminated slogans and propaganda that would incite the Christian army to act.[63] Moreover, Italian humanistFrancesco Filelfo wrote a personal letter to Władysław, describing him in Latin as thepropugnaculum, or the "bulwark of Christianity".[64] On the other hand,Vlad II Dracul tried to dissuade Władysław from waging war against the Ottomans.[65] Nevertheless, Vlad Dracul provided 7,000 (according to some accounts 4,000)[66] horsemen under the command of his son,Mircea, to fight against the Ottomans.[65]
On 15 April 1444, at thediet in Buda and in the presence of Cardinal Cesarini, Władysław swore to renew the war against Turkish infidels in the coming summer.[67] Similar promises were made to the Venetian delegates, theSignoria of Florence and to theKingdom of Bosnia.[68]Philip the Good of Burgundy was also a generous benefactor to the Christian cause.[69] Simultaneously, Władysław engagedStojka Gisdanić and dispatched him toEdirne as an envoy and mediator in peace talks with the Ottomans.[68] In June 1444, the fleet of Francesco Condulmer andAlvise Loredan was ready to sail and by mid-July arrived atMethoni, Messenia, in modern-dayGreece.[69] Murad already crossed intoAsia Minor by this time and the fleet was tasked with preventing re-entry by holding the strait against him.[69]
In August, a Polish assembly atPiotrków implored him to make peace with the Ottomans, dissatisfied with the level of taxes raised for the war and believing that Murad's terms could be lucrative.[69] The Poles were convinced that this would encourage Władysław to leave theBalkans, return to Poland and re-establish himself there as king.[70] Meanwhile, Cesarini sent letters of progress toCyriacus of Ancona, who was staying in Constantinople; he then translated them from Latin intoGreek forJohn VIII Palaiologos,Byzantine emperor.[70] The Byzantines were ecstatic of the news brought by Cesarini, as were theGenoese colonies and Pera (Galata).[70] Cyriacus also distributed letters toNeapolitan nobility and toAlfonso V of Aragon, urging them to join the campaign.[70] The victory ofJean de Lastic and hisKnights Hospitaller in theSiege of Rhodes contributed to the general euphoria surrounding the crusade.[70]
In mid-August 1444, thePeace of Szeged was ratified inOradea (Várad).[71] However, Władysławabjured his oath and the war continued; on 20 September 1444 the king and Hunyadi crossed the Danube, beginning the army's march to the shores of theBlack Sea to make contact with the allied fleet.[72] The Pope annulled and releasedGjergj Arianiti from peace he made with the Turks; Arianiti was then able to march with his troops toMacedonia and fight alongside the Christians if required.[72] At this time, Murad concluded a favourable peace treaty withIbrahim II of Karaman, who threatened Anatolia from the south.[73] It allowed the Turks to focus their attention and resources on advancing into Europe; in late October 1444 he crossed theBosphorus while the Christian fleet was stalled from adverse winds, and the Venetians did not make an effort to prevent that.[73] ScholarPoggio Bracciolini appraised that as the true cause of the crusade's early failure.[73] Genoese merchants and sailors were also accused ofcorruption and accepting bribes from Murad.[73] According to witnesses, the Ottoman troops outnumbered the combined Christian forces and quickly marched to the Black Sea without a delay.[74]
The Venetian treachery placed the large Ottoman army of around 60,000 men in proximity to the unsuspecting 16,000 crusaders, almost outnumbering the Christians by three to one.[75] The crusader fleet, largely manned by Venetian mercenaries and sailors, did not engage in direct combat and desisted from sailing into the Black Sea.[75] Thereafter, thebattle began on 10 November 1444 atVarna, Bulgaria; the crusaders were initially successful in defending against Ottoman assaults and Murad sustained heavy losses.[75] Acts ofheroism were abundant on the Christian side, almost making up for the lack of men; as was the courage displayed on the battlefield by John Hunyadi.[75] Murad was wary of the battle at first and contemplated escaping when the crusaders took the left flank, but theJanissaries restrained him.[75][76]
Hunyadi is purported to have proposed that the Christian left assists the right flank to move the Turks out of position, and stated that "the son of Osman's army shall be defeated".[77] The Ottoman troops under Hadım Şehabeddin of Rumelia began to break and some fled the battle, though the Turkish resistance was fierce.[77] One of the crusaders, Andreas de Pallatio, later wrote in his memoirs that Władysław seized the initiative on the Christian right flank and tore into Şehabeddin's ranks like "a newCaesar", pushing the Rumelians up the valley's slope.[77] Many of the novice yet still elite Janissaries andazebs were driven back.[78] Pallatio also notes that the size of Murad's army was too great to counter and it seemed as if the Christian offensive barely inflicted any major casualties.[79] Władysław's men quickly became exhausted, with many wounded by arrows and battered, including Hunyadi.[79] In spite of this, the majority of the Ottoman army either fled or was dead.[80] Consequently, Murad decided to seek refuge in his fortified encampment in the rear.[80]
Facing desperate circumstances and seeing Hunyadi's struggle against the Rumeliansipahis, Władysław decided to take a chance by directly charging the sultan's camp and his armed retinue withheavy cavalry.[80] Few men were able to see the charge and no one returned from the assault, which alarmed the crusaders.[81] The young king was most likely killed when his charge lost impetus and came to a standstill amongst the unyielding Janissaries protecting the sultan. It is possible that the king's horse fell into a trap;Pope Pius II writes that Władysław might have been dismounted from his horse by the Turks.[82] The Janissaries reportedly killed the king's bodyguard, beheaded Władysław and displayed his head on a lance, spear or pole,[82][83][84] however, records about Władysław's death come solely from Turkish side, with one account claiming even that he survived the battle but was executed in captivity; Polish relation of battle told by participantGrzegorz of Sanok states only that the King disappeared during battle and his fate remains unknown.[85] Records mention a severed male head candied in a bowl of honey by the Turks, but the head containedblonde hair, and Władysław was abrunette.[84] Disheartened by the presumed death of the king, the Hungarian Army fled the battlefield, and the remainder surrendered. On his return, Hunyadi tried frantically to salvage the king's body; neither Władysław's body nor his armour were ever found.[86]
Władysław was succeeded in Poland by his younger brother, DukeCasimir IV of Lithuania, in 1447, after a three-yearinterregnum.[87] In Hungary, he was succeeded by his former rival, the child-kingLadislaus the Posthumous.[87]
According to 19th-century sources based on medieval chronicles, Władysław was of medium height, with aswarthy (olive) complexion, dark hair, dark eyes, and possessed a graceful gaze.[88] There are no other accounts disclosing his physical appearance.[89] He did not indulge in overeating or excessive drinking, and was a person of extreme patience andpiety.[88] Furthermore, the king was known to be of strong character and merciful to his foes, when required.[88]
Władysław had no children and did not marry. Contemporary sources suggest that he washomosexual.[90] The chronicler Jan Długosz, known for his antipathy towards the Jagiellons, alleged that there was something unusual about the monarch'ssexuality.[91] Długosz did not specify the details behind that but stated "too subject to his carnal desires" and "he did not abandon his lewd and despicable habits".[91] On the other hand, Długosz noted later, "No age has ever seen and will never see a more Catholic and holy ruler who, according to his highest goodness, has never harmed any Christian. [...] Finally, like a holy king and a second angel on Earth, he lived an unmarried and virgin life at home and during the war".[92]
Władysław's legacy as King of Hungary was tarnished in existing records by theHabsburgs; the largely unrealistic picture of his reign presented in theAnnales chronicles were constructed as a consistentpolemic comprising the allegations of what is described as "Habsburg propaganda". Furthermore, Władysław's claim to Hungary was deemed illegitimate and he was often portrayed as a usurper, who unsuccessfully launched a crusade against the Turks. Rumours also spread that Władysław hadElizabeth of Luxembourg poisoned as her death occurred suddenly after their meeting in December 1442.
Following his death, Władysław III was commemorated in many songs and poems.[93]
A main boulevard and residential district inVarna are named after Władysław. In 1935 a park-museum, Władysław Warneńczyk, opened in Varna, with a symboliccenotaph built atop of an ancient Thracianmound tomb. There had been also a football team named after Vladislav in Varna, present day its inheritor is known asPFC Cherno More Varna.
The Hungarian book series aboutJohn Hunyadi was adapted into a televisionminiseries,Rise of the Raven, released in 2025. The series also depicts the rise of Vladislaus I to the throne of the Kingdom of Hungary and dramatizes events surrounding theBattle of Varna.[94][95]
According to aPortuguese legend Władysław survived the battle and then journeyed in secrecy to theHoly Land. He became a knight ofSaint Catharine of Mount Sinai (O Cavaleiro de Santa Catarina) and then settled onMadeira.[96] KingAfonso V of Portugal granted him lands in theMadalena do Mar district of the Madeira Islands for life.[96] He was known there asHenrique Alemão (Henry the German) and married Senhorinha Anes, with the King of Portugal acting as his best man.[97] The marriage produced two sons. He established a church of Saint Catherine and Mary Magdalene at Madalena do Mar in 1471.[98][99] There he was depicted in a painting asSaint Joachim meetingSaint Anne at the Golden Gate on a painting by Master of the Adoration of Machico (Mestreda Adoração de Machico) in the beginning of the 16th century.[96]
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{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Wladislaus III. (1424–1444), king of Poland and Hungary.....
Władysław III of Poland Born: 31 October 1424 Died: 10 November 1444 (?) | ||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | King of Poland 1434–1444 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | King of Hungary andCroatia disputed by Ladislaus V 1440–1444 | Succeeded by |
| House of Árpád |
|  | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| House of Přemysl |
| |||||
| House of Wittelsbach |
| |||||
| Capetian House of Anjou |
| |||||
| House of Luxembourg |
| |||||
| House of Habsburg |
| |||||
| House of Jagiellon |
| |||||
| House of Hunyadi |
| |||||
| House of Jagiellon |
| |||||
| House of Zápolya |
| |||||
| House of Habsburg |
| |||||
| House of Habsburg-Lorraine |
| |||||
Debatable or disputed rulers are initalics. | ||||||
