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Vishishtadvaita (IASTViśiṣṭādvaita;Sanskrit:विशिष्टाद्वैत) is a school of Hindu philosophy belonging to theVedanta tradition. Vishishta Advaita means "non-duality with distinctions" and recognizesBrahman (ब्रह्म) as the primordial quality while also acknowledging itsexistential multiplicity. This philosophy can be characterized as a form of qualifiedmonism, or a qualifiednon-dualism. It upholds the belief that all diversity ultimately stems from a fundamental underlying unity.
According to Vishishtadvaita vedanta,Vishnu (Narayana) is Brahman (Param Brahman), Supreme Lord (Ishvara), Supreme Person (Paramatman) and has noble attributes such asomniscience,omnipotence,omnipresence, andomnibenevolence. The universe depends upon God (Ishvara) for its being as well as for its qualities.[1]
Ramanuja, the 11–12th century philosopher and the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy, contends that thePrasthanatrayi ("The three sources"), namely theUpanishads, theBhagavad Gita, and theBrahma Sutras are to be interpreted in a way that shows thisunity in diversity, for any other way would violate their consistency.Vedanta Desika, another major scholar who significantly helped expand the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita, definesVishishtadvaita using the statement,Aseṣa Chit-Achit Prakāram Brahmaikameva Tatvam :Brahman, as qualified by the sentient and insentient modes (or attributes), is theUltimate reality.
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The earliest Vishishtadvaita works are no longer available.[2] However, the earliest philosophers who are thought to have developed the system are named in Ramanuja'sVedarthasamgraha: Bodhayana, Dramida, Tanka, Guhadeva, Kapardi, and Bharuci.[3]
Bodhayana is considered to have written an extensivevritti (commentary) on thePurva andUttara Mimamsas. Tanka is attributed with having written commentaries onChandogya Upanishad and Brahma Sutras.Nathamuni of the ninth century AD, the foremostAcharya of theVaishnavas, collected the Tamilprabandhas, classified them, made the redaction, set the hymns to music, and spread them everywhere. He is said to have received the divine hymns straight fromNammalvar, the foremost of the twelveAlvars, by yogic insight in the temple at Alwar Thirunagari, which is located nearTirunelveli in SouthIndia.Yamunacharya renounced kingship and spent his last days in the service of the deity atSrirangam and in laying the fundamentals of the Vishishtadvaita philosophy by writing four basic works on the subject.[4]
Ramanuja is the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy.[5] Ramanuja continues along the line of thought of his predecessors while expounding the knowledge expressed in the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita.Vedanta Desika andPillai Lokacharya, disciples in the tradition of Ramanuja, had minor disagreements not on thephilosophy, but on some aspects of thetheology, giving rise to theVadakalai andTenkalai schools of thought.[6]
Viśiṣṭa means most exclusive (not equal/different from the rest).
There are three key principles of Vishishtadvaita:[7]
Pramana ("sources of knowledge", Sanskrit) refers to factual knowledge obtained through reasoning of any object.
In Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, only the following threepramanas are accepted as valid means of knowledge:
There are three rules of hierarchy when there is apparent conflict between the three modes of acquiring knowledge:
Vishishtadvaita ontology outlines three entities: Chit (sentient beings), achit (insentient entities), andIshvara (Parabrahman):
In Vishishtadvaita, chit is synonymous withjiva andatman.[8]Chit includes all beings with sentience, consciousness, and individual self-awareness. A jiva has both knowledge as its nature and is a knower. This is likened to a flame which illuminates itself and other objects.[9] It is similar to thePurusha of Samkhya system.
There are three types ofjivas:
Characteristics of thejiva include:
Achit is the world of insentient entities as denoted by matter or, more specifically, the non-conscious Universe. It is similar to thePrakriti of the Samkhya system.
There are three achit entities.
Ishvara (denoted byVishnu (Narayana)) is the Supreme Cosmic Spirit who maintains complete control over the Universe and all the sentient beings, which together also form the pan-organistic body of Ishvara. The triad of Ishvara, along with the universe and the sentient beings, is Brahman, which signifies the completeness of existence. Ishvara is Parabrahman endowed with innumerable auspicious qualities (Kalyana Gunas). Ishvara is perfect, omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, the creator of the universe, its active ruler, and also its eventual destroyer.[15] He is causeless, eternal, and unchangeable—and is yet the material and the efficient cause of the universe and sentient beings. He is both immanent (like whiteness in milk) and transcendent (like a watch-maker independent of a watch). He is the subject of worship. He is the basis of morality and the giver of the fruits of one's Karma. He rules the world with His Maya—His divine power.[citation needed]
The inner controller (antar-yāmin) is the thread connecting everything, governing this world, the next, and all beings from within (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.7.3-23).[16]
"He who inhabits water, yet is within water, whom water does not know, whose body water is and who controls water from within—He is your Self, the Inner Controller, the Immortal."
"He who inhabits the sun, yet is within the sun, whom the sun does not know, whose body the sun is and who controls the sun from within—He is your Self, the Inner Controller, the Immortal" —Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.7.4–14
There is a subtle difference between Ishvara and Brahman. Ishvara is thesubstantive part of Brahman, whileJivas andjagat are its modes (also secondary attributes), and kalyana-gunas (auspicious attributes) are the primary attributes. The secondary attributes become manifested in the effect state when the world is differentiated by name and form. The kalyana-gunas are eternally manifest.
Brahman is the description of Ishvara when comprehended in fullness—i.e., a simultaneous vision of Ishvara with all his modes and attributes.
Cit and acit are completely dependent on Brahman.[17] The following examples illustrate the relationship between Brahman andjivas:
These relationships can be experienced holding Brahman as the father, son, mother, sister, wife, husband, friend, lover and lord. Hence, Brahman is a personal being.
Ramanuja argues vehemently against understanding Brahman as one without attributes. Brahman is Nirguna in the sense that impure qualities do not touch it. He provides three valid reasons for making such a claim:
Shruti/Shabda Pramana: All shrutis and shabdas denoting Brahman always list either attributes inherent to Brahman or not inherent to Brahman. The shrutis only seek to deny Brahman from possessing impure and defective qualities, which affect the world of beings. There is evidence in the shrutis in this regard. The shrutis proclaim Brahman to be beyond the tri-gunas, which are observed. However, Brahman possesses an infinite number of transcendental attributes, the evidence of which is given in vakhyas like "satyam jnanam anantam Brahma" (Taittiriya Upanishad).
Pratyaksha Pramana: Ramanuja states that "a contentless cognition is impossible". And all cognition must necessarily involve knowing Brahman through the attributes of Brahman.
Anumana Pramana: Ramanuja states that "Nirgunatva" itself becomes an attribute of Brahman on account of the uniqueness of no other entity being Nirguna.Ramanuja had simplified the relationship between Brahman andsoul. According to him, though the soul (Atman) is an integral part of Brahman, it hasindependent existence.[19]
Like the Samkhya system, Vishishtadvaita upholds the theory ofSatkaryavada as opposed toAsatkaryavada. Persatkaryavada, effects are not new entities, but modifications of the cause.
The Vishishtadvaita theory is called Brahma-parinama-vada, with "parinama-vada" meaning the evolution of the effect from the cause. Brahman is both the cause and the effect, but the underlying entity is the same in all forms.
Brahman is assigned twokāraṇatvas (ways of being the cause):
According to Vishishtadvaita, the Universe and Sentients always exist. However, they begin from a subtle state and transform. The subtle state is called a causal state, while the transformed state is called the effect state. The causal state is when Brahman is internally not distinguishable by name and form.
It can be said that Vishishtadvaita follows Brahma-Prakara-Parinama Vada. That is to say, it is the modes (Jivas and Jagat) of Brahman which is under evolution. The cause and effect only refer to the pan-organistic body transformation. Brahman, as the Universal Self, is unchanging and eternal.
Brahman, having the subtle (sūkṣma) chit and achit entities as hisŚarīra/Prakāra(body/mode) before manifestation, is the same Brahman having the expanded (sthūla) chit and achit entities asŚarīra/Prakāra(body/mode) after manifestation.[citation needed]
The purpose or goal of human existence is calledpurushartha. According to the Vedas, there are four goals namelyartha (wealth),kama (pleasure),dharma (righteousness) andmoksha (permanent freedom from worldly bondage). According to this philosophy, the first three goals are not an end by themselves but need to be pursued with the ideal of attaining moksha.[20]
Moksha means liberation or release fromsamsara, the cycle of rebirth. In Vishishtadvaita,baddha (bounded)jiva is only self-aware and is in a state of ignorance ofsharira-shariri relationship. Karma loaded with countless births and deaths insamsara keeps thejiva fromdharma-bhuta-jnana (attributive consciousness) of God. With the creation process ofIsvara, evolving through different bodies,jiva attains a human body in which it puts effort to gain the true nature of self and true knowledge of God throughBhakti and attains a liberated state with the grace of God. Liberation simply means gaining true knowledge of God and serving God inVaikuntha (God's abode). In liberation,jiva keeps its individuality and has infinite knowledge and bliss likeBrahman, but doesn't become one withBrahman. Unlike Advaita, liberation is only after death (videhamukti) and there is no concept ofjivanmukti.[21]
The Vadakalai school accepts the importance of God's grace in gaining liberation alongside individual effort, similar to how a baby monkey must hold onto its mother. The Tenkalai school sees God's grace as the only requirement for liberation, similar to how a cat will carry a kitten without any effort from the kitten.[22]
Bhakti is the sole means of liberation in Vishishtadvaita. Through Bhakti (devotion), aJiva ascends toVaikuntha, where it continues to delight in His service in a body which issat-cit-ananda.Karma Yoga andJnana Yoga are sub-processes of Bhakti, total surrender, as the devotee acquires the knowledge that the deity is the inner self. A devotee realizes his own state as dependent on, supported by, and led by the deity, who is the Master. One is to lead a life as an instrument of the deity, offering all histhought, word, and deed to the feet of the deity. One is to see the deity in everything and everything in Him. This is the unity in diversity achieved through devotion.[23]
Ramanuja accepts Sharanagati, total surrender at the Lord's lotus feet, as the sole means to moksha. Wherein, moksha is defined as liberation from samsara and going to Vaikuntha to serveNarayana (Balaji) in a spiritual body. This is a distinguishing feature of this school of philosophy, as both Adi Shankara's Advaita andMadhvacharya's Dvaita accept bhakti for two different concepts of moksha. Ramanuja has supported this opinion with various citations directly from the Vedas, and various incidents that highlight sharanagati as a means to attain personal stay in the realm of Vaikuntha. Observing total surrender at the Lord's feet guarantees moksha at the end of this birth, and in the time between sharanagati and death, the surrendered soul must spend his time performing thenine forms of devotion.[24]
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