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Vijayanagara literature was produced in theVijayanagara Empire during a golden age of literature inSouth India in general. The rulers patronisedKannada,Telugu,Sanskrit andTamil scholars who wrote in theJain,Virashaiva andVaishnava traditions. The period produced hundreds of works on all aspects of Indian culture, religion, biographies,prabhandas (stories), music, grammar, poetics and medicine. An attempt is made in this section to list the various poets and saints and their most famous works.
Kannada literature took a strong Hindu bent with the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings.[1][2][3][4] Some eminent names wereKumara Vyasa, Narahari, BhimaKavi, Padmanaka, Mallanarya, Singiraja andChamarasa.
AmongJaina poets, Madhura patronised byHarihara II andDeva Raya I wroteDharmanathapurana, Vritta Vilasa wroteDharmaparikshe andSastrsara, Bhaskara of Penugonda who wroteJinadharacharite (1424), Bommarasa of Terkanambi wroteSantakumaracharite and Kotesvara ofTuluvadesa wrote on the life ofJivandharaja in Shatpadi metre (seven line metre). Bahubali Pandita (1351) of Sringeri wrote theDharmanathapurana. Jainism flourished inTuluva country and there Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda wroteKavyasara, Salva wrote Jaina version ofBharata in Shatpadi metre andRasaratnakara, Nemanna wroteJnanabhaskaracharite, Ratnakaravarni wroteBharatesha Vaibhava,Triloka Sataka,Aparajitasataka andSomeswara Sataka, Ayatavarma wroteRatnakarandaka in Champu style (mixed prose-verse form), Vrittivilasa wroteDharmaparikshe andSastrasara, Kalyanakirti wrote theJnanachandrabhyudaya (1439) and Vijayanna wrote theDvadasanuprekshe (1448), Mangarasa III wroteJayanripa-Kavya and other writings, Santarasa wroteYogaratnakara.
Veerashaiva literature saw a renaissance during this period. Singiraja wroteSingirajapurana andMalabasavaraja Charitra, Mallanarya of Gubbi who was patronised byKrishnadevaraya wroteVeerasaivamrita Purana (1530),Bhavachintaratna (1513) andSatyendra Cholakathe.Deva Raya II patronised several Virashaivas like Lakkana Dandesa who wroteShivatatwa Chintamani, Chamarasa who wrotePrabhulinga Leele, Jakkanarya wroteNurondushthala. Guru Basava wrote seven works, six in Shatpadi metre calledSaptakavya including theShivayoganga Bhushana and theAvadhutagite. Shivagna Prasadi Mahadevayya and Halageyadeva were famous for theirShunya Sampadane.
Kallumathada Prabhuva,Jakkanna,Maggeya Mayideva, andTontada Siddalingayati were other notedVachanakaras (writers of Vachana poetry).Bhimakavi wroteBasavapurana (1369) andPadmanaka authoredPadmarajapurana. Tontada Siddesvara, guru ofVirupaksha Raya II authored 700Vachanas calledShatsthalajnanamrita. Virakta Tontadarya wroteSiddhesvarapurana,Nijaguna Shivayogi wroteAnubhavasara,Sivayogapradipika andVivekacintamani. Viruparaja wrote aSangatya (literary composition to be sung with a musical instrument) on life of King Cheramanka, Virabhadraraja wrote fiveSatakas, a Virashaiva doctrine and morals andVirabhadra-Vijaya. Sarvajnamurti wroteSarvajnapadagalu, Chandra Kavi wroteVirupakshasthana, Bommarasa wroteSaundara purana, Kallarasa wroteJanavasya (also calledMadanakatilaka), Nilakhantacharya wroteAradhyacharitra, Chaturmukha Bommarasa wroteRevanasiddhesvara Purana, Suranga Kavi wrote theTrisashti-Puratanara-Charitre giving an account of the 63 devotees of Shiva, Cheramanka wrote theCheramankavya, Chennabasavanka wrote theMahadeviyakkana-Purana, Nanjunda of Kikkeri wrote theBhairavesvara Kavya, Sadasiva Yogi wrote theRamanatha vilasa and Viarkta Tontadarya wrote theSiddesvara-Purana and other works, Virupaksha Pandita wroteChennabasava-Prurana (1584).
AmongVaishnava scholars,Kumara Vyasa patronised byDeva Raya II wroteGadugina Bharata. This was later completed by Timmanna Kavi asKrishnaRaya Bharata (patronised by kingKrishnadevaraya), Narahari wroteTorave Ramayana. Other important works wereBhagavatha by Chatu Vittalanatha who was patronised by Krishnadevaraya andAchyuta Raya,Nala Charite,Haribhakthisara,Mohana Tarangini andRamadhanya Charitre by the great saintKanakadasa,Dasa Sahithya andKeerthanas and thousands ofDevaranama byPurandaradasa Kanakadasa,Sripadaraya,Vyasatirtha andVadirajatirtha. Nanjunda wroteKumara Rama Charita, Kereya Padmarasa wrotePadmaraja Purana. Kanakadasa'sRamadhanya Charitre is considered a unique work on class struggle. Linganna wroteKeladinripavijayam and Kavi Malla wroteManmathavijaya, Madhava wroteMadahaalankara (a translation of Dandi's SanskritKayvadarsha), Isvara Kavi also known as Bana Kavi wroteKavijihva-Bandhana (a work on prosody), Sadananda Yogi wrote portions ofBhagavata andBharata, Tirumala Bhatta wrote theSivagite and Thimma wroteNavarasalankara, Ramendra wrote theSaundarya-Katharatna (a metrical version in tripadi metre of Battisaputtalikathe).Krishnadevarayana Dinachari is a recent discovery. The Vijayanagara period continued the ancient tradition of Kannada literature.
KingDeva Raya II was a poet and authored, in Kannada, theSobagina Sone, a collection of romantic stories in the form of a narration by the author to his wife.[5] Manjaraja I, a Jain, authored a book on toxicology calledKhagendramanidarpana, Abhinava Chandra wrote on veterinary sciences inAsva-vaidya, Sridharadeva wrote a medical work calledVaidyamrita, Deparaja, a Virashiava, wrote a collection of romances calledSobagina-sone, Brahmin poet Manjaraja II wroteManjaraja-Nighantu (1398), a metrical lexicon giving Kannada meanings of Sanskrit words, Lingamantri authored the lexiconKabbigarakaipidi, Viarkta Tontadarya wrote the lexiconKarnatakasabdamanjari, and Devottama, a Jain, wrote a lexiconNanartharatnakara.
The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature.[1][4][6]Srinatha, who was respected asKavi Sarvabhouma(king of poets) in Telugu, and patronised by many kings including the Kondavidu Reddy Kings, Velamas of Rachakonda andDeva Raya II of Vijayanagara wroteMarutratcharitra,Salivahana Saptasati,Panditaaradhyacharita,Sivaratri Mahatmya,Harivilasa,Bhimakanda,Kashikhandam,Shringara Naishadham,Palanati Veeracharitra,Sringaradipika andKridabhiramam over the subjects of history and mythology.
Bammera Potana translatedBhagavata purana into Telugu and wroteBhogini Dhandaka andVirabhadraVijaya.Vemana wroteSatakas, moral and social poems, that became colloquial Telugu phrases.Annamacharya, who was also patroned by Saluva Narasingaraya wrote hundreds ofkirtanas in praise of Venkateswara ofTirupati.,[7] that became popular Telugu prayer songs. His wife and the first known Telugu poet,Tallapalka Timmakka wroteSubhadra Parinaya.
Mallayya and Singayya together wroteVarahapuranamu andPrabodhacandrodaya while Vishvanatha Nayani wroteRayavachakamu. Nachanna Soma was patronised byBukka Raya I. Virabhadra Kavi translated theJaimini Bharata andSringara Shakuntala. Prema Raju Jakkana wroteVikramarkacharita, a eulogy of the great king of Ujjain, Duggapalli Duggaya wroteNaciketapakhyana, Durgagupta wroteVishnupurana and Gaurana wroteHarishchandrapakhyana.
During the reign ofKrishnadevaraya Telugu culture and literature flourished and reached their heyday. The great emperor was himself a poet having composedAmuktamalyada. In his court, eight Telugu poets were regarded as the eight pillars of the literary assembly. In the olden days, it was believed that eight elephants were holding the earth in eight different directions. The titleAshtadiggajas celebrates this belief and hence the court was also called Bhuvana Vijayam (Conquest of the World). The period of the Empire is known as "Prabandha Period," because of the quality of the prabandha literature produced during this time.
Among these eight poets,Allasani Peddana is considered to be the greatest and is given the title ofAndhra Kavita Pitamaha (the father of Telugu poetry).Svarocisha Sambhava orManucharita is his popular prabandha work and was dedicated to Krishnadevaraya.Nandi Thimmana wrote Parijathapaharanam.Madayyagari Mallana wroteRajasekhara Charitramu.Dhurjati wroteKalahasti Mahatyamu andAyyalaraju Ramabhadrudu wroteSakalakatha Sangraha andRamaabhyudayamu.Pingali Surana wroteRaghava Pandaviyamu,Kalapurnodayam,Prabhavate Pradyamana.Raghavapandaveeyamu is a dual work with double meaning built into the text, describing both theRamayana and theMahabharata. Kalapurnodayam(means full bloom of art) has been treated as the first original poetic novel in Telugu literature. Battumurthy aliasRamarajabhushanudu wroteKavyalankarasangrahamu,Vasucharitra,Narasabhupaliyam andHarischandranalopakhyanamu. Among these works the last one is a dual work which tells simultaneously the story of KingHarishchandra andNala andDamayanti.Tenali Ramakrishna first wroteUdbhataradhya Charitramu, aShaivite work. However, he converted toVaishnavism later and wrote Vaishnava devotional textsPanduranga Mahatmyamu, andGhatikachala Mahatmyamu. Tenali Rama remains one of the most popular folk figures in India today, a quick-witted courtier ready even to outwit the all-powerful emperor.
Other well-known poets were Sankusala Nrisimha Kavi, who wroteKavikarnaRasayana, Chintalapudi Ellaya, who wroteRadhamadhavavilasa andVishnumayavilasa,Molla, a poet wrote a version ofRamayana, Kamsali Rudraya wroteNirankusopakhyana, and Addanki Gangadhara wroteBasavapurana. Manumanchi Bhatta wrote a scientific work calledHayalakshana Sastra.
Sanskrit literature was given patronage by the Vijayanagara kings.[1][4][8] The early kings of the Sangama dynasty patronised theSringeri saints while the Saluva andTuluva kings patronised theMadhva saints ofUdupi.
The Sangama dynasty patronised theAdvaita saints of theSringeri order. Some important works from this period wereSayana'sVedartha Prakasha,Yajnatantra Sudhanidhi,Prayaschitra Sudhanidhi,Alankara Sudhanidhi,Yajnatantra Sudhanidhi,Sarvadarshanasangraha,Purushartha Sudhanidhi, many lesser manuals calledSudhanidhis treating expiation (Prayaschitta),Yagnatantra (vedic ritual) andPurushartha (aims of human endeavour). MadhvaVidyaranya, the spiritual force behind the founding empire wroteParasara – Madhaviya,Rajakatenirnaya,Vivaranapremayasangarha andJivanmuktiviveka, Bharathitirtha wrotePancadasi,Sangitasara. Anandapurna wrote commentaries onKhandanaKhandakhadya,Brahmasiddhi,Vivarana andNyayachandrika. . Isavara Dikshita patronised by Krisnhadevaraya wrote two commentaries on theRamayana, aLaghu and aBrihad Vivarana in Hemakuta.
Appaya Dikshita(1554–1626), a devotional poet wrote commentaries on various schools of philosophies including Srikantha's Saivite Advaita. He was patroned by king Chinna Bomman of Vellore, a subject of emperor Aliya Rama Raya.[9] Some of his works are Siva Karnamitra and Sivarka Manideepiaka.
Vallabhacharya(1479–1531), a great poet-philosopher and the fame of theMadhurastakam was patroned by Krishnadevarya and had written many other works likeVyasa Sutra Bhashya,Jaimini Sutra Bhasya,Bhagavata Tika Subodhini,Pushti Pravala Maryada andSiddhanta Rahasya in Sanskrit.[10] He also stayed at Kashi and other places in India, and so it is not known whether all of his works were done during his stay at Vijayanagara.
Many of theMadhwa haridasas of theUdupi order not only held positions of "rajguru" to Vijayanagara kings, they also wrote several works ofdvaitavedanta. Among them wereJayatirtha,Sripadaraya,Vyasatirtha.
Vyasatirtha (1460–1539), saint, esteemed master of religious discourse, follower of Tattvavada, philosophical school of thought (disciple of Srimad Ananda Tîrtha) wrote several works includingNyayamrita,Tarkatandava, andTatparyachandrika, collectively known asVyasa-Traya. Some other notable works from him areBhedojjivana andMandaramanjari commentaries. He was patronized by Saluva Narasimha at Chandragiri and later became a "rajguru" to Krishnadevaraya. He was also the Guru ofPurandaradasa andKanakadasa, two outstanding luminaries of theHaridasa tradition, the former also the founder of modernCarnatic music.[11]
Vadirajatirtha who wasrajguru toSaluva Narasimha Deva Raya wroteYuktimallika (a doctrine meant to critique the works of Sankaracahrya). Other prominentharidasas were Jayatirtha who earned the titleTikacharya (wrote two polemics namelyNyayasudha,Vadavali), Raghottamatirtha and Vijayindratirtha.
Vidyaranya of Sringeri wrote Sangitasara, a treatise on music. Kallinatha patronised byMallikarjuna Raya wrote on music and his grandson Rama Amatya who was patronised byAliya Rama Raya also wroteSvaramelakalanidhi on music.
Praudha Devaraya wroteRatiratna Pradipika, a book on erotics.Sayana wroteDhātuvṛtti, a book of Sanskrit grammar. Sayana also wroteAyurveda Sudhanidhi, on traditional Indian medicine.Lakshmana Pandita wrote another medicine bookVaidyaraja Vallabham.
Anandapurana Vidyasagara ofGokarna wroteVyakhyaratnavali during the rule ofHarihara II. Peda komati of Kondavidu wrote two works on poetics and music calledSahityachintamani andSangitachintamani. Komati's predecessor Kumaragiri of Kondavidu, whose wife Lakumadevi is a dancer, wroteVasantarajeeyam, a work on dance. Simhabhupala of Rachakonda wroteRasarnavasudhakara a treatise onrasa and rules of dramaturgy. His court poet Visvesvara wroteChamatkarachandrika a work on rhetoric. Vamana Bhatta wroteSabhda Ratnakara, a dictionary with phonetics. Vallabhacharya wroteLilavati Ganita, a treatise on mathematics.
A family of poets called Dindimas from north Arcot flourished from Harihara I to Achuta Devaraya. Rajanatha Dindima II wroteSaluvabhyudayam (poems on the wars of Saluva Narasimha), Rajanatha Dindima III wroteAchyutabhyudaya (also called asAchyutarayabhyudaya) on king Achyuta Raya. Gowda Dindima was a well-known poet during this time and was defeated bySrinatha, scholar in Telugu as well as Sanskrit.
Devanna Bhatta wroteSmriti Chandrika.Gangamba Devi, a poet and queen wroteMadhura Vijayam, on her husband Kamparayalu's victory overMadurai Sultanate.Tirumalamba Devi, also a poet wroteVaradambika Parinayam on Achyutadevaraya's marriage.
Some of the kings themselvers are scholars.Krishnadevaraya who patronised many poets, himself an accomplished scholar wroteMadalasa Charita,Satyavadu Parinaya andRasamanjari andJambavati Kalyana. King Devaraya I wroteMahanataka Sudhanidhi. king Saluva Narasimha wroteRamabhyudayam.
Vamana Bhatta Bana patronised by Reddy king Pedda Komati Vema of Kondavidu wroteVemabhupalacharita,Nalabhyudaya,Raghunathacharitakavya,Parvathiparaniya andKanakalekha Kalyana. Pedda Komati himself authoredAmarusataka andSaptasati sara (a selection of 100 verses from king Hala's Prakrit anthology). Katayavema wrote commentaries on plays by Kalidasa.
Krishnadevaraya also patronised Tamil poet Harihara who wroteIrusamaya vilakkam (an exposition on saivism and Vaishnavism).[1][12] Other Tamil poets of the Vijayanagara era wereArunagirinathar who some scholars believe was a descendant of Dindima Kavis.[13] Oottukkadu Venkata Kavi (1700–65) actually salutes him as Dindima Kavi in his composition, Bhajanamrta paramananda in Nattai. Arunagirinathar wroteTiruppukal containing more than 1360 songs in various meters and several songs in praise ofMurugan, Svarupananda Deshika who wrote an anthology on the philosophy ofAdvaita in hisSivaprakasap Perundirattu and many poems likePaduturai,Nanavinoda Kalambakam,Mohavadaipparani andAnnavadaipparani. His pupil Tattuvaraya who wrote a short anthology calledKurundirattu, Pugalendi, Jnanprakashar, Andari, Kacchiyappa Shivacharya wroteKandapuranam and Ilanjuriyar were also patronised.