Vihāra generally refers to aBuddhist temple orBuddhist monastery forBuddhist renunciates, mostly in theIndian subcontinent. The concept is ancient and in earlyPali texts, it meant any arrangement of space or facilities for dwellings.[1][2] The term evolved into an architectural concept wherein it refers to living quarters for monks with an open shared space or courtyard, particularly inBuddhism. The term is also found inJain monastic literature, usually referring to temporary refuge for wandering monks or nuns during the annual Indian monsoons.[1][3][4] In modern Jainism, the monks continue to wander from town to town except during the rainy season (chaturmasya), and the term "vihara" refers to their wanderings.[5][6]
Vihara or vihara hall has a more specific meaning in thearchitecture of India, especially ancientIndian rock-cut architecture. Here it means a central hall, with small cells connected to it, sometimes with beds carved from the stone. Some have a shrine cell set back at the centre of the back wall, containing astupa in early examples, or a Buddha statue later. Typical large sites such as theAjanta Caves,Aurangabad Caves,Karli Caves, andKanheri Caves contain several viharas. Some included achaitya or worship hall nearby.[7] The vihara originated as a shelter for monks when it rains.
The word means a form of rest house, temple or monastery in ascetic traditions of India, particularly for a group of monks.[1] It particularly referred to a hall that was used as a temple or where monks met and some walked about.[1][8] In the context of the performative arts, the term means the theatre, playhouse, convent or temple compound to meet, perform or relax in. Later it referred to a form of temple or monastery construction in Buddhism and Jainism, wherein the design has a central hall and attached separated shrines for residence either for monks or for deities and sacred figure such asTirthankaras,Gautama Buddha. The word means aJain orBuddhist temple or "dwelling, waiting place" in many medieval era inscriptions and texts, fromvi-har which means "to construct".[3][4]
It contrasts withSanskrit:araṇya orPali:arañña, which means "forest".[8][9] In medieval era, the term meant any monastery, particularly for Buddhist monks.[8][10]Matha is another term for monastery in the Buddhist tradition,[11] today normally used for Hindu establishments.
The eastern Indian state ofBihar derives its name fromvihāra due to the abundance of Buddhist monasteries in that area. The word has also been borrowed inMalay asbiara, denoting a monastery or other non-Muslim place of worship. It is called awihan (วิหาร) inThai, andvĭhéar (វិហារ[ʋihiə]) inKhmer. InBurmese,wihara (ဝိဟာရ[wḭhəɹa̰]), means "monastery", but the native Burmese wordkyaung (ကျောင်း[tɕáʊɰ̃]) is preferred. Monks wandering from place to place preaching and seekingalms often stayed together in thesangha.[citation needed] In thePunjabi language, an open space inside a home is called avehra.
InKorea,Japan,Vietnam andChina, the word for a Buddhist temple or monastery seems to have a different origin.[12] The Japanese word for a Buddhist temple isTera (寺), it was anciently also written phonetically 天良tera, and it is cognate with theModern KoreanChǒl fromMiddle KoreanTiel, theJurchenTaira and the reconstructedOld Chinese*dɘiaʁ, all meaning "Buddhist Monastery".[12] These words are apparently derived from theAramaic word for "monastery"dērā/ dairā/ dēr (from the rootdwr "to live together"), rather than from the unrelated Indian word for monasteryvihara, and may have been transmitted to China by the first Central Asian translators of Buddhist scriptures, such asAn Shigao orLokaksema.[12]
During the 3rd-century BCE era ofAshoka,vihara yatras were travel stops aimed at enjoyments, pleasures and hobbies such as hunting. These contrasted withdharma yatras which related to religious pursuits and pilgrimage.[2] After Ashoka converted to Buddhism, states Lahiri, he starteddharma yatras around mid 3rd century BCE instead of hedonistic royalvihara yatras.[2]
The early history of viharas is unclear. Monasteries in the form of caves are dated to centuries before the start of the common era, forAjivikas,Buddhists andJainas. The rock-cut architecture found in cave viharas from the 2nd-century BCE have roots in theMaurya Empire period.[14] In and around theBihar state of India are a group of residential cave monuments all dated to be from pre-common era, reflecting the Maurya architecture. Some of these have Brahmi script inscription which confirms their antiquity, but the inscriptions were likely added to pre-existing caves.[14] The oldest layer of Buddhist and Jain texts mention legends of the Buddha, the Jain Tirthankaras orsramana monks living in caves.[14][15][16] If these records derived from anoral tradition accurately reflect the significance of monks and caves in the times of the Buddha and the Mahavira, then cave residence tradition dates back to at least the 5th century BCE. According to Allchin and Erdosy, the legend of First Buddhist Council is dated to a period just after the death of the Buddha. It mentions monks gathering at a cave near Rajgiri, and this dates it in pre-Mauryan times.[14] However, the square courtyard with cells architecture ofvihara, state Allchin and Erdosy, is dated to the Mauryan period. The earlier monastic residences of Ajivikas, Buddhists, Hindus, and Jains were likely outside rock cliffs and made of temporary materials and these have not survived.[17]
The earliest known gift of immovable property for monastic purposes ever recorded in an Indian inscription is credited to Emperor Ashoka, and it is a donation to the Ajivikas.[18] According to Johannes Bronkhorst, this created competitive financial pressures on all traditions, including the Hindu Brahmins. This may have led to the development of viharas as shelters for monks, and evolution in theAshrama concept toagraharas or Hindu monasteries. These shelters were normally accompanied by donation of revenue from villages nearby, who would work and support these cave residences with food and services. The Karle inscription dated to the 1st century CE donates a cave and nearby village, states Bronkhorst, "for the support of the ascetics living in the caves at Valuraka [Karle] without any distinction of sect or origin". Buddhist texts from Bengal, dated to centuries later, use the termasrama-vihara oragrahara-vihara for their monasteries.[18]
Buddhist viharas or monasteries may be described as a residence for monks, a centre for religious work and meditation and a centre of Buddhist learning. Reference to five kinds of dwellings (Pancha Lenani) namely,Vihara, Addayoga, Pasada, Hammiya andGuha is found in the Buddhist canonical texts as fit for monks. Of these only theVihara (monastery) andGuha (Cave) have survived.
At some stage of Buddhism, like other Indian religious traditions, the wandering monks of theSangha dedicated to asceticism and the monastic life, wandered from place to place. During the rainy season (cf.vassa) they stayed in temporary shelters. In Buddhist theology relating to rebirth and merit earning, it was considered an act of merit not only to feed a monk but also to shelter him, sumptuous monasteries were created by rich lay devotees.
The only substantial remains of very early viharas are in the rock-cut complexes, mostly in north India, theDeccan in particular, but this is an accident of survival. Originally structural viharas of stone or brick would probably have been at least as common everywhere, and the norm in the south. By the second century BCE a standard plan for a vihara was established; these form the majority of Buddhist rock-cut "caves". It consisted of a roughly square rectangular hall, in rock-cut cases, or probably an open court in structural examples, off which there were a number of small cells. Rock-cut cells are often fitted with rock-cut platforms for beds and pillows. The front wall had one or more entrances, and often averandah. Later the back wall facing the entrance had a fairly small shrine-room, often reached through an ante-chamber. Initially these heldstupas, but later a large sculptedBuddha image, sometimes withreliefs on the walls. The verandah might also have sculpture, and in some cases the walls of the main hall. Paintings were perhaps more common, but these rarely survive, except in a few cases such as Caves 2, 10, 11 and 17 at theAjanta Caves. As later rock-cut viharas are often on up to three storeys, this was also probably the case with the structural ones.[19]
As the vihara acquired a central image, it came to take over the function of the chaitya worship hall, and eventually these ceased to be built. This was despite the rock-cut vihara shrine room usually offering no path for circumambulation orpradakshina, an important ritual practice.[20]
In early medieval era, Viharas became important institutions and a part of Buddhist Universities with thousands of students, such asNalanda. Life in "Viharas" was codified early on. It is the object of a part of thePali canon, theVinaya Pitaka or "basket of monastic discipline".Shalban Vihara in Bangladesh is an example of a structural monastery with 115 cells, where the lower parts of the brick-built structure have been excavated.Somapura Mahavihara, also in Bangladesh, was a larger vihara, mostly 8th-century, with 177 cells around a huge central temple.[citation needed]
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Usually the standard form as described above is followed, but there are some variants. Two vihara halls, Cave 5 atEllora and Cave 11 atKanheri, have very low platforms running most of the length of the main hall. These were probably used as some combination of benches or tables for dining, desks for study, and possibly beds. They are often termed "dining-hall" or the "Durbar Hall" at Kanheri, on no good evidence.[21]
Cave 11 at the Bedse Caves is a fairly small 1st-century vihara, with nine cells in the interior and originally four around the entrance, and no shrine room. It is distinguished by elaborategavaksha and railing relief carving around the cell-doors, but especially by having a rounded roof andapsidal far end, like achaitya hall.[22]
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The earliest Buddhist rock-cut cave abodes and sacred places are found in the western Deccan dating back to the 3rd century BCE.[23] These earliest rock-cut caves include theBhaja Caves, theKarla Caves, and some of theAjanta Caves.
Vihara with central shrine containing devotional images of the Buddha, dated to about the 2nd century CE are found in the northwestern area ofGandhara, in sites such asJaulian,Kalawan (in theTaxila area) orDharmarajika, which states Behrendt, possibly were the prototypes for the 4th century monasteries such as those atDevnimori in Gujarat.[24] This is supported by the discovery of clay and bronze Buddha statues, but it is unclear if the statue is of a later date.[24] According to Behrendt, these "must have been the architectural prototype for the later northern and western Buddhist shrines in the Ajanta Caves,Aurangabad,Ellora,Nalanda,Ratnagiri and other sites".[24] Behrendt's proposal follows the model that states the northwestern influences and Kushana era during the 1st and 2nd century CE triggered the development of Buddhist art and monastery designs. In contrast, Susan Huntington states that this late nineteenth and early twentieth century model is increasingly questioned by the discovery of pre-Kushana era Buddha images outside the northwestern territories. Further, states Huntington, "archaeological, literary, and inscriptional evidence" such as those in Madhya Pradesh cast further doubts.[25] Devotional worship of Buddha is traceable, for example, to Bharhut Buddhist monuments dated between 2nd and 1st century BCE.[25] TheKrishna or Kanha Cave (Cave 19) at Nasik has the central hall with connected cells, and it is generally dated to about the 1st century BCE.[26][27]
The early stone viharas mimicked the timber construction that likely preceded them.[28]
Inscriptional evidence on stone and copper plates indicate that Buddhist viharas were often co-built with Hindu and Jain temples. TheGupta Empire era witnessed the building of numerous viharas, including those at the Ajanta Caves.[29] Some of these viharas and temples though evidenced in texts and inscriptions are no longer physically found, likely destroyed in later centuries by natural causes or due to war.[29]
As more people joined Buddhist monasticsangha, the senior monks adopted a code of discipline which came to be known in thePali Canon as the Vinaya texts.[30] These texts are mostly concerned with the rules of thesangha. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. Each major early Buddhist tradition had its own variant text of code of discipline for vihara life. Major vihara appointed avihara-pala, the one who managed the vihara, settled disputes, determined sangha's consent and rules, and forced those hold-outs to this consensus.[30]
Three early influential monastic fraternities are traceable in Buddhist history.[31] The Mahavihara established by Mahinda was the oldest. Later, in 1st century BCE, King Vattagamani donated the Abhayagiri vihara to his favored monk, which led the Mahavihara fraternity to expel that monk.[31] In 3rd century CE, this repeated when King Mahasena donated the Jetavana vihara to an individual monk, which led to his expulsion. The Mahinda Mahavihara led to the orthodox Theravada tradition.[31] The Abhayagiri vihara monks, rejected and criticized by the orthodox Buddhist monks, were more receptive to heterodox ideas and they nurtured the Mahayana tradition. The Jetavana vihara monks vacillated between the two traditions, blending their ideas.[31]
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A range of monasteries grew up during the Pāla period in ancient Magadha (modern Bihar) and Bengal. According to Tibetan sources, five greatmahaviharas stood out:Vikramashila, the premier university of the era;Nalanda, past its prime but still illustrious,Somapura,Odantapurā, andJagaddala.[33] According to Sukumar Dutt, the five monasteries formed a network, were supported and supervised by the Pala state. Each of the five had their own seal and operated like a corporation, serving as centers of learning.[34]
Other notable monasteries of thePala Empire were Traikuta, Devikota (identified with ancient Kotivarsa, 'modern Bangarh'), andPandit Vihara. Excavations jointly conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India and University of Burdwan in 1971–1972 to 1974–1975 yielded a Buddhist monastic complex at Monorampur, near Bharatpur via Panagarh Bazar in theBardhaman district of West Bengal. The date of the monastery may be ascribed to the early medieval period. Recent excavations atJagjivanpur (Malda district, West Bengal) revealed another Buddhist monastery (Nandadirghika-Udranga Mahavihara)[35] of the ninth century.
Nothing of the superstructure has survived. A number of monastic cells facing a rectangular courtyard have been found. A notable feature is the presence of circular corner cells. It is believed that the general layout of the monastic complex at Jagjivanpur is by and large similar to that of Nalanda. Beside these, scattered references to some monasteries are found in epigraphic and other sources. Among them Pullahari (in western Magadha),Halud Vihara (45 km south of Paharpur), Parikramana vihara and Yashovarmapura vihara (in Bihar) deserve mention. Other important structural complexes have been discovered atMainamati (Comilla district, Bangladesh). Remains of quite a few viharas have been unearthed here and the most elaborate is theShalban Vihara. The complex consists of a fairly large vihara of the usual plan of four ranges of monastic cells round a central court, with a temple in cruciform plan situated in the centre. According to a legend on a seal (discovered at the site) the founder of the monastery wasBhavadeva, a ruler of the Deva dynasty.[citation needed]
As Buddhism spread in Southeast Asia, monasteries were built by local kings. The termvihara is still sometimes used to refer to the monasteries/temples, also known aswat, but in Thailand it also took on a narrower meaning referring to certain buildings in the temple complex. Thewihan is a building, apart from the mainubosot (ordination hall) in which a Buddha image is enshrined.[36] In many temples, thewihan serves as a sermon hall or an assembly hall where ceremonies, such as thekathina, are held.[37][38] Many of these Theravada viharas feature a Buddha image that is considered sacred after it is formally consecrated by the monks.[37]
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