Viktor Amazaspovich Ambartsumian[b] (Russian:Виктор Амазаспович Амбарцумян;Armenian:Վիկտոր Համազասպի Համբարձումյան,Viktor Hamazaspi Hambardzumyan; 18 September [O.S. 5 September] 1908 – 12 August 1996) was a Soviet and Armenianastrophysicist and science administrator.[3] One of the 20th century's leadingastronomers, he is widely regarded as the founder oftheoretical astrophysics in the Soviet Union.
Educated atLeningrad State University (LSU) and thePulkovo Observatory, Ambartsumian taught at LSU and founded the Soviet Union's first department of astrophysics there in 1934. He subsequently moved toSoviet Armenia, where he founded theByurakan Observatory in 1946. It became his institutional base for the decades to come and a major center of astronomical research. He also co-founded theArmenian Academy of Sciences and led it for almost half a century—the entire post-war period. One commentator noted that "science in Armenia was synonymous with the name Ambartsumian." In 1965 Ambartsumian founded the journalAstrofizika and served as its editor for over 20 years.
Ambartsumian began retiring from the various positions he held only from the age of 80. He died at his house in Byurakan and was buried on the grounds of the observatory. He was awarded the title ofNational Hero of Armenia in 1994.
Ambartsumian's parents married in 1904.[14] He had a brother, Levon, and sister, Gohar.[15] Levon, ageophysics student, died at 23-24 while on an expedition in theUrals.[16][4]Gohar (1907–1979) was a mathematician and Chair of Probability Theory and Mathematical Statistics atYerevan State University towards the end of her life.[17]
Ambartsumian developed an early interest in mathematics and was able to multiply by the age of 4. His interest in astronomy began with reading a Russian translation of a book byOrmsby M. Mitchel at 11. By his own account, he considered himself an astronomer by the age of 12.[4] Between 1917 and 1924 he studied at Tiflisgymnasiums, where schooling was conducted in Russian and Armenian. In 1921 he transferred to gymnasium #4 to study under Nikolay Ignatievich Sudakov, a Moscow-educated astronomer, whom Ambartsumian called a "very serious teacher of astronomy." Ambartsumian worked with Sudakov at the school observatory the latter had built.[4] At school, Ambartsumian wrote several papers on astronomy[18] and delivered lectures on the origin of theSolar System andextraterrestrial life at "first in school and then in the various clubs and houses of culture" beginning at 12–13.[4] In 1924 Ambartsumian delivered a lecture atYerevan State University about thetheory of relativity. He also metAshot Hovhannisyan andAlexander Miasnikian, Armenia's communist leaders.[19]
In 1924 Ambartsumian moved to Leningrad, where he began attending theHerzen Pedagogical Institute. Shakhbazyan suggests that his non-peasant, non-proletarian background prevented him from enteringLeningrad State University (LSU).[6] However, Ambartsumian explained in an interview that by the time he arrived in August, LSU's admissions were already closed. To avoid losing a year, he opted to study in the physics and mathematics department of the pedagogical institute.[4] After one year, he transferred to LSU's physics and mathematics department.[16][6][20] At university, Ambartsumian was interested in both astronomy and mathematics. "I loved mathematics, but at the same time I felt that my profession would be astronomy. Mathematics was like a hobby, but I did complete the full mathematics curriculum. Thus you could say that I graduated with a major in mathematics, but in fact it is recorded that I graduated as an astronomer," he said in an interview in 1987.[4] At LSU among his professors were the physicistOrest Khvolson and mathematicianVladimir Smirnov. He studied alongside other major Soviet scientists such asLev Landau,Sergei Sobolev,Sergey Khristianovich andGeorge Gamow.[16] In 1926 he published the first of his 16 scholarly papers as a student.[20][16] He graduated in 1928, although he received his diploma only fifty years later—in 1978.[4] His undergraduate thesis was "devoted to a study of radiative transfer radiative equilibrium."[4] He completed his postgraduate[21][22] studies at thePulkovo Observatory underAristarkh Belopolsky between 1928 and 1931.[20][6][23]
After completing his postgraduate studies in 1931, Ambartsumian began working at the Pulkovo Observatory and teaching part-time at LSU.[4][1] In 1931 Ambartsumian began reading the first course on theoretical astrophysics in the Soviet Union.[16] He also served as Pulkovo's scientific secretary in 1931–32, which involved mostly administrative work.[4][2] Ambartsumian later characterized Pulkovo as being a "very old institution, and for this reason there were certain elements of ossification and stagnation. Nevertheless, this was the best qualified astronomical institution in the Soviet Union."[4]
In 1934 Ambartsumian was fired by Pulkovo directorBoris Gerasimovich for alleged "laziness." Gerasimovich viewed Ambartsumian and other young astrophysicists as "undisciplined and in too much of a rush to publish untested theories and poorly documented research." Gerasimovich himself had a "tendency to non-cooperativeness."[24] Gerasimovich was not taken seriously by them. When in 1934Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar visited Leningrad, he was told by Ambartsumian, "Look here, here is a set of papers by Gerasimovich. I turn to an arbitrary paper and to an arbitrary line. I am sure you will find a mistake."[25] Chandrasekhar stated in 1977 that during his visit in 1934 Ambartsumian "was very free and very open. He was extremely critical of his seniors."[26]
After leaving Pulkovo, Ambartsumian founded the first department of astrophysics in the Soviet Union at Leningrad State University in 1934.[27][20][4][16] In 1934 he was named professor at LSU and in 1935 he was named doctor of physical-mathematical sciences without having to defend a thesis[1][28][29] "based on his scientific work through that date."[2] He headed the department until 1946[6] or 1947.[20][16]
Many of Ambartsumian's colleagues and friends suffered during theGreat Purge underStalin, most notablyNikolai Aleksandrovich Kozyrev (1908–83), with whom he became close friends in the mid-1920s.[4] Kozyrev was sentenced to ten years in aforced-labor camp, but survived the repressions. Others such asMatvei Petrovich Bronstein and Pulkovo directorBoris Gerasimovich did not survive. Ambartsumian's relations with Kozyrev were "strained for the remainder of his life." McCutcheon notes that while in the West some have questioned Ambartsumian's possible role in the terror, "there is no hard evidence to suggest that he was guilty of anything more serious than surviving at a time when others did not."[2]
World War II
Ambartsumian led the evacuation of part of the faculty of Leningrad State University toElabuga,Tatarstan in 1941, after theNazi invasion of the Soviet Union. There a branch of LSU operated under Ambartsumian's leadership until 1944.[20][2][16] He served as thedean of the branch.[23]
Since 1943 Ambartsumian served as director of the Yerevan Astronomical Observatory.[33] The small observatory was affiliated with Yerevan State University. Ambartsumian had secured a nine-inch telescope from Leningrad for the observatory. Ambartsumian said that before the war "this observatory did not rise significantly above the level of amateur variable star observations. During the war they also carried out photographic observations of variable stars using a small camera."[4] In 1945–1946 Ambartsumian founded the department of astrophysics atYerevan State University (YSU).[34][29] He was named professor of astrophysics at YSU in 1947.[21] He served as chair of the department until 1994.[34][d]
In 1965 Ambartsumian founded the journalAstrofizika (Armenian: Աստղաֆիզիկա, Russian: Астрофизика), which has been published by the Armenian Academy of Sciences since then. It was originally published in Russian, subsequently articles in English began to appear. He served as its editor-in-chief until 1987.[2] The journal has also been published since the first issue in English bySpringer in the US asAstrophysics.[35][36]
In 1946 Ambartsumian founded theByurakan Astrophysical Observatory in the village ofByurakan, at an altittude of 1,405 m (4,610 ft), on the slopes ofMount Aragats, some 35 km (22 mi) fromYerevan.[2][33][37][38] The first buildings were completed in 1951,[38] though the official inauguration took place in 1956.[39] Observations began to be carried out simultaneous with the construction of the observatory. "Our instruments stood under the open sky, covered withtarpaulin," said Ambartsumian.[4] Ambartsumian initially lived at a house in the village ofByurakan then build a house within the observatory grounds with the money awarded with the 1950Stalin Prize.[31] Ambartsumian directed the Byurakan Observatory until 1988 and was named its honorary director that year.[2][40] From 1946 until his death in 1996, the Byurakan Observatory served as Ambartsumian's "institutional base."[37]
In 1960 Ambartsumian secured aSchmidt telescope with 40І (102 cm) correcting plate and 52І (132 cm) mirror for Byurakan.[38] The telescope was reportedly made byCarl Zeiss AG in Nazi Germany in the 1930s and was transferred to Leningrad as spoils of war. It was completed in Leningrad and sent to Armenia.[41] Beginning with 1965, on Ambartsumian's initiative,[42]Benjamin Markarian started the First Byurakan Survey that resulted in the discovery of theMarkarian galaxies.[38] A number of international symposiums and meetings were held at Byurakan under Ambartsumian's supervision.[38] In 1968 the observatory was awarded theOrder of Lenin, the Soviet Union's highest civilian order for its great merit to the development of science.[38] In 1961 Ambartsumian supervised the establishment of an astrophysical station of Leningrad State University, his alma mater, within the grounds of the Byurakan Observatory.[16] It is where graduate students of the LSU did their summer internships until the late 1980s. It was shut down in 1993.[43]
Ambartsumian and his disciples at the Byurakan Observatory became known in the scholarly literature as the "Byurakan School."[37][44][45][46] From 1977 to 1996 Ambartsumian headed a specialized council for theses defenses at Byurakan. Over 50 scientists defended their PhD (Candidate) and Doctoral theses on astronomy, astrophysics and theoretical physics in those years under Ambartsumian.[38] Though most of the students were graduates of the astrophysics department of Yerevan State University,[39] many came from Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Hungary, Bulgaria, and elsewhere.[47] Several symposiums of theInternational Astronomical Union and numerous conferences were held in Byurakan in attendance ofJan Oort,Fritz Zwicky,Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar,Pyotr Kapitsa,Vitaly Ginzburg, and others. It was also visited by Soviet leadersNikita Khrushchev andLeonid Brezhnev.[47]
With the Byurakan Observatory, Ambartsumian "put Armenia on the astronomical map"[48] and made Soviet Armenia "one of the world's centers for the study of astrophysics."[49] By the time of his death in 1996,The New York Times described Byurakan as "one of the world's leading astronomical research centers."[50] As of 1960 the Byurakan Observatory maintained regular contact with 350 research institutions and with scientists from 50 countries.[51]
In 1947 Ambartsumian discoveredstellar associations, a new type ofstellar system, which led to the conclusion thatstar formation continues to take place in theMilky Way galaxy.[53][4][54][50][55][56] At the time the "idea of star formation as an ongoing process was regarded as very speculative."[57] His discovery was announced in a short publication[58] by the Armenian Academy Sciences.[47] Ambartsumian's discovery was based on his observation of stars ofO and B spectral types andT Tauri andflare stars that cluster very loosely.[47] This is significantly different fromopen clusters, which have a higher density of stars, while stellar associations have lower than average density.[47] Ambartsumian divided stellar associations into OB and T groups[57] and concluded that the "associations have to be dynamically unstable configurations, and must expand subsequently, dissolving to form field stars."[47] He thus argued that star forming is ongoing in thegalaxy and that stars are born explosively[59] and in groups.[23][47]
Ambartsumian's concept was not immediately accepted. Chandrasekhar noted the "early scepticism with which this discovery was received by the astronomers of the 'establishment' when I first gave an account of [Ambartsumian's] paper at the colloquium at theYerkes Observatory in late 1950."[60] Chandrasekhar noted that Ambartsumian's discovery of stellar associations had "far-reaching implications for subsequent theories relating to star formation."[61] McCutcheon noted that the discovery "opened an entirely new field of astrophysical research."[2]
Ambartsumian began studying nuclei of galaxies in the mid-1950s.[62] He found that clusters of galaxies are unstable and that galaxy formation is still ongoing.[2] At the 1958 Solvay Conference on Physics in Brussels he gave a famous report in which he emphasized the extraordinary character of theactivity of galactic nuclei (AGN).[62] He claimed "enormous explosions take place in galactic nuclei and as a result a huge amount of mass is expelled. In addition, if this is so, these galactic nuclei must contain bodies of huge mass and unknown nature."[57] Lynden-Bell and Gurzadyan note that Ambartsumian was "perhaps the first to emphasize explosive phenomena in galactic nuclei."[62] Evidence for the activity included theMarkarian galaxies, discovered at Byurakan.[62] The concept of AGN was widely accepted some years later,[57] especially afterquasars were discovered in 1963.[62] Ambartsumian developed and summarized his views on activity of galaxies in the 1960s.[62]
Ambartsumian discovered basic results inradiative transfer in astronomy.[59] He was the first or one of the first to study stellar radiation transfer in gaseousnebulae.[4][53] He devised techniques for calculating the rates of star cluster decay and the time needed to reach statistical equilibrium in double star systems.[53][4]
In 1943 he introduced the principle of invariance, a method introduced by Ambartsumian in a theory of radiation transfer.[57] Lynden-Bell and Gurzadyan describe it as the "law that diffuse reflection by a semi-infinite, plane-parallel atmosphere must be invariant to the addition or subtraction of layers of arbitrary thickness to the atmosphere."[39] It has been applied in other areas, includingoptics,mathematical physics,[57]radiophysics,geophysics,oceanology,[39] "allowing people to handle easily very complex mathematical problems."[57] It was further developed by Chandrasekhar in hisRadiative Transfer (1950).[57][39] According to Chandrasekhar, the formulation of the principles of invariance in the theory of radiative transfer is a "theoretical innovation that is of the greatest significance." He admitted that Ambartsumian's ideas influenced his own.[61]
Ambartsumian was a "pioneer of astronomical research from Soviet spacecraft."[59] The program was directed by his discipleGrigor Gurzadyan and was launched in 1961. In April 1971 theSalyut 1 space station carriedOrion 1, the "first space telescope with an objective prism, into orbit." In December 1973 the crewedSoyuz 13 mission operated the "Orion-2 ultravioletCassegrain telescope with a quartz objective prism built in the Byurakan Observatory. Spectra of thousands of stars to as faint as thirteenth magnitude were obtained, as was the first satellite ultraviolet spectrogram of a planetary nebula, revealing lines of aluminium and titanium-elements not previously observed in planetary nebulae."[63]
These activities, especially the space missions, when for example a special crewed spaceship had to be devoted to an experiment from the smallest Soviet republic, needed powerful backing, both in Kremlin corridors and within the top-secret rocket industry establishment. This was achieved due to Ambartsumian's political skills, with the active support of Mstislav Keldish, the then President of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.[36]
Ambartsumian also made contributions to mathematics, most notably with his 1929 paper inZeitschrift für Physik,[64][1] where he first introduced the inverseSturm-Liouville problem.[65][66][67] He proved that "among all vibrating strings only the homogeneousvibrating string haseigenvalues that are specific to it—that is, homogeneous vibrating strings have a spectrum of eigenvalues."[2] It was only in the mid-1940s when his paper received attention and became a "significant research topic in the ensuing decades."[2] He commented: "when an astronomer is publishing a mathematical paper in a physical journal, he cannot expect to attract too many readers."[1]
Ambartsumian had made an independent discovery ofRadon's problem in 1936. He did so in a three dimensional velocity space rather than ordinary space and gave the solution in two and three dimensions.Allan MacLeod Cormack, the 1979 Nobel Prize Laureate in Physiology or Medicine for his work on X-raycomputed tomography, noted that it is the "first numerical inversion of the Radon transform" and suggested that it disproves the "often made statement that computed tomography would be impossible without computers." Ambartsumian's calculations, Cormack argued, "suggest that even in 1936 computed tomography might have been able to make significant contributions to, say, the diagnosis of tumors in the head." Ambartsumian told Cormack that he was informed of Radon's results two years after he published his work.[68]
"As well as being one of the giants of astronomical research in the 20th century, Viktor Ambartsumian was also a great leader and organizer of science in Armenia, in Russia, and on the international level."
Ambartsumian was electedcorresponding member of theUSSR Academy of Sciences in 1939 and full member (academician) in 1953.[20][2] In 1955 he became a member of the academy's presidium, the governing body.[2][70] He also chaired the Academy's Joint Coordinating Scientific Council on astronomy, which was responsible for the priorities and all major decisions in all of astronomy.[36] He was also chairman of the academy's commissions on astronomy (1944–46) andcosmogony (1952–64).[2][70]
In these positions, Ambartsumian was "one of the most powerful scientists of his time."[59] McCutcheon noted that Ambartsumian's "towering authority as an astrophysicist combined with his position in the Soviet establishment made him arguably the most powerful Soviet astronomer of his day."[2] He was often the "official head of Soviet delegations at many conferences, not only on astronomy but also on natural philosophy."[36]
Although the Armenian branch of the Soviet Academy of Sciences was established in 1935, it was not until 1943 that the National Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR was found. Ambartsumian was one of its original co-founders along with other prominent scholars and scientists, includingHovsep Orbeli, who became its first president. Ambartsumian initially served as vice president[2][31] and in 1947 he became the academy's second president, serving for 46 years until 1993.[32][2] When he stepped down, Ambartsumian was declared honorary president of the academy.[27]
Rouben Paul Adalian wrote that Ambartsumian "exercised enormous influence in the advancement of science in Soviet Armenia, and was revered as his country's leading scientist."[49] McCutcheon went on to note that "From that point forward, science in Armenia was synonymous with the name Ambartsumian."[2] As president of the principal coordinating body for scientific research in Soviet Armenia, Ambartsumian played a significant role in promoting the sciences in the country.[31] He actively promoted thenatural andexact sciences, includingphysics andmathematics, radioelectronics, chemistry, mechanics and engineering.[29]Artashes Shahinian noted that Ambartsumian played a significant role in the development of the physical and mathematical sciences.[71] He played an instrumental role in the establishment and development of theYerevan Scientific Research Institute of Mathematical Machines (YerNIIMM) in 1956,[70] popularly known as the "Mergelyan Institute" after its first director, mathematicianSergey Mergelyan.[72] Apoyan rejects that Ambartsumian had a direct involvement in its creation and characterizes his role as "favorable neutrality."[73] Overall, Apoyan criticizes Ambartsumian's role in science administration, arguing that he had a tendency to "fail projects that did not directly serve his fame."[73] He went as far as call Ambartsumian a "tyrant."[73]
Ambartsumian and Mergelyan had a complicated relationship. In 1971 Ambartsumian persuaded him to return to Armenia from Moscow and become vice president of the Armenian Academy of Sciences. However, in 1974 Mergelyan was not reelected to the presidium of the academy and was forced to leave it. Some academicians called for a revote, but Ambartsumian rejected any such attempts. Oganjanyan and Silantiev note that Ambartsumian was rumored to have seen Mergelyan as a rival for the academy's president and decided to "get rid of the competitor forever."[72]
According toJean-Claude Pecker Ambartsumian "had a very strong influence on worldastropolitics" and is one of the few astronomers who have had such a "deep influence on the life of the international bodies devoted to the promotion and defense of astronomy and science in general."[76]
International Astronomical Union
Ambartsumian was a member of theInternational Astronomical Union (IAU) since 1946. He served as vice-president of the IAU from 1948 to 1955, then as president from 1961 to 1964.[77][2][40] As Vice President Ambartsumian attempted to have the IAU General Assembly be held in Leningrad in 1951, however, the IAU Executive Committee canceled the assembly, increasing tensions within the IAU. An IAU General Assembly eventually took place in Moscow in 1958.[77] Ambartsumian headed the organizing committee.[36] Blaauw noted that "During these years, Ambartsumian, although violently opposing the IAU's policy, remained loyal to the Executive Committee's majority decisions for the sake of safeguarding international collaboration, an attitude that contributed to his election as President of the IAU in 1961."[77] He continued to support it as "the world-wide organization embracing astronomers from all countries. His election as President of the IAU in 1961 reflected both the appreciation for his efforts in this respect and his outstanding scientific achievements."[21]
Ambartsumian was outspoken about the importance of international cooperation. At the 1952 IAU General Assembly in Rome he declared: "We believe that the joint study of such large problems as that of the evolution of celestial bodies will contribute to the cultural rapprochement of different nations, and to a better understanding among them. This is our modest contribution to the noble efforts toward maintaining peace throughout the world."[78] At the 1963 IAU symposium in Sydney he stated that while competition between nations is important, it should be associated with co-operation.[79]
Ambartsumian made "philosophical excursions",[82] and published several books and articles onphilosophy, includingPhilosophical Questions About the Science of the Universe (1973).[83] In a 1968 paper Ambartsumian wrote that he believes in a close collaboration of philosophy and thenatural sciences to solve the main scientific problems aboutnature.[84] Ambartsumian became a member of the administration of thePhilosophical Society of the Soviet Union when it was established in 1971. In 1990 he became honorary president of the Philosophical Society of Armenia, which was created through his efforts.[83]
Ambartsumian was anatheist[85] and believed that science and religion areirreconcilable.[78] Ambartsumian wrote in 1959 that the "idea of theexistence of God, the idea ofworld-creation has been defeated entirely."[86] In an interview months before his death, Ambartsumian said that "God is an idea [...] the embodiment of morality [...] an idea that gives meaning to life, profound meaning, and thus, it must be acknowledged that it exists."[87]
For over four decades,[e] he headedGitelik, the Armenian branch of the all-Soviet organizationZnaniye (Knowledge), founded in 1947 to continue the pre-war atheist work of theLeague of Militant Godless.[89][90] The organization engaged in what it called "scientific-atheistic propaganda"[91] by publishing atheist novels and journals, producing films and organizing lectures on the supremacy of science over religion.[92] As of 1986, the society had around 20,000 members.[93]
According to one associate, Ambartsumian self-identified as an "Armenian Christian" but was not religious.[94] He felt that Christianity has been important in preserving Armenian identity.[95] Ambartsumian had friendly relations withVazgen I, the long-time head (Catholicos) of theArmenian Apostolic Church, especially since at least the late 1980s.[f] In 1969 Ambartsumian visitedSan Lazzaro degli Armeni in Venice, home of theArmenian Catholic congregation of theMekhitarists and was declared an honorary member of its academy.[99][100]
Ambartsumian accepted and followedMarxist-Leninist philosophy[78] and staunchly promoteddialectical materialism and projected it on his astrophysical interpretations.[2]Helge Kragh described Ambartsumian as a "convincedMarxist."[78] He wrote on Marxism–Leninism and dialectical materialism in 1959:[101][g]
The history of the development of human knowledge, each step forward in science and technology, each new scientific discovery, irrefutably attests to the truth and fruitfulness of dialectical materialism, affirms the correctness of the Marxist-Leninist teaching concerning the knowability of the world, the magnitude and transforming power of the human mind, which is penetrating ever deeper into the secrets of nature. At the same time the achievements of science convincingly demonstrate the complete unsoundness of idealism and agnosticism, and the reactionariness of the religious world view.
Dialectical materialism influenced Ambartsumian'scosmological views and ideas.[78] According toLoren Graham, "perhaps no great Soviet scientist has made more outspoken statements in favor of dialectical materialism" than Ambartsumian.[103] Mark H. Teeter wrote in a 1981 report that Ambartsumian is "one of a rather limited group of Soviet scholars of international stature who claim that dialectical materialism has assisted them in their work."[104] Kragh noted that Ambartsumian was not acosmologist, but an astrophysicist, and that "his ideas of the universe were influenced both by his background in astrophysics and his adherence to Marxist–Leninist philosophy."[78] Graham notes that his "praise of dialectical materialism has been voiced again and again over the years; these affirmations have come when political controls were rather lax as well as when they were tight. We have every reason to believe that they reflect, at root, his own approach to nature."[103]
Ambartsumian is often referred to as apolitician;Donald Lynden-Bell called him a skillful one.[48] In a 1977 interviewSubrahmanyan Chandrasekhar went as far as to opine that Ambartsumian has been "much more of a politician than an astronomer" since the mid-1940s.[26]
Ludvig Mirzoyan [hy], a colleague and friend, wrote that "Ambartsumian was a true patriot of his native land, Soviet Armenia and all the Soviet Union, and simultaneously, he was a convincedinternationalist."[105] He was described by a Soviet-run magazine as an "ardent advocate of the widest possible international scientific exchange."[51]
McCutcheon noted that Ambartsumian's life was "shaped and directed by the Soviet system" and he was politically loyal to the Soviet regime.[2]Adriaan Blaauw wrote that "his political views harmonized to a considerable degree with those of Soviet rulers."[77]Loren Graham argued that, simultaneously, he was "not afraid to reprimand the Communist Party ideologues when they obstructed his research."[106] In favor with the Communist Party, he enjoyed the freedom to regularly travel to the West.[107] McCutcheon noted that Ambartsumian's "scientific genius combined with his political loyalty took him to the heights of the Soviet scientific establishment."[2]
Ambartsumian often signedopen letters in support of the official line of the Soviet authorities. In 1971 he was among leading 14 Soviet scientists who signed a letter to U.S. PresidentRichard Nixon in support ofAngela Davis and appealed him to "give her an opportunity of continuing her scientific work."[109] In 1983 Ambartsumian was among 244 Soviet scientists who signed a statement attacking U.S. PresidentRonald Reagan'sStrategic Defense Initiative ("Star Wars"), namely Reagan's plan for an effective defense against nuclear attack. The scientists stated that Reagan is "creating a most dangerous illusion that may turn into an even more threatening spiral of the arms race."[110]
Ambartsumian's relationship with dissidents was complicated. In 1973 he refused to meetYuri Orlov, nuclear physicist and a prominent dissident, after having offered him a job in Yerevan. Ambartsumian told him through subordinate that "there are situations when even an Academy member is helpless."[111] In 1975 he was among 72 Soviet scientists who denounced the award of theNobel Peace Prize to Soviet physicist and dissidentAndrei Sakharov.[112]
Ambartsumian revered the Armenian language and supported its usage.[113][114][115] He insisted all internal communication of the Armenian Academy of Sciences be done in Armenian when he became president in 1947.[113] As president of the Armenian Academy of Sciences, Ambartsumian often gave speeches at major events, such as during the commemorations of the 1600th anniversary ofMesrop Mashtots, the inventor of theArmenian alphabet, in 1962[116] and the 100th anniversary ofHovhannes Tumanyan, Armenia's national poet, in 1969.[117] Ambartsumian stated: "The history of our culture has given many outstanding figures, but of all these figures, the Armenian people owe the most to Mashtots."[118]
Ambartsumian delivered a speech on 24 April 1965, on the 50th anniversary of theArmenian genocide, describing it as "extermination of the Armenian population ofWestern Armenia." He linked it to the 45th anniversary of Soviet Armenia and the revival of the Armenian people as a result of theOctober Revolution.[119][120] In an article published inPravda on 24 April 1975 Ambartsumian linked theArmenian genocide to the Holocaust and blamedGerman imperialism duringWorld War I for inspiring theYoung Turks and the capitalist states for failing to defend the innocent Armenian population and praised the October Revolution for saving the Armenian nation.[121]
In September 1990 Ambartsumian and four other Armenians, including writerZori Balayan and actorSos Sargsyan, went on ahunger strike at theHotel Moskva in Moscow to protest the military rule overNagorno-Karabakh declared byMikhail Gorbachev.[123][124] Ambartsumian celebrated his 82nd birthday hunger striking.[125][126] He insisted that Gorbachev had violated the Soviet constitution by keeping Nagorno-Karabakh under direct rule from Moscow. "This is a bad thing when a government does not abide by its own laws," he argued. He also stated: "My desire is that Karabakh be part of Armenia. This is a problem that has to be solved with a long process and with concessions."[125] Ambartsumian stated that his only demand is that the "elected leaders of Nagorno-Karabakh regain control."[123] Ambartsumian called the hunger strike a "modest step" aimed at making a "huge resonance in the world—to let the world know."[126] The Soviet authorities "totally ignored" the strike.[127] He ended it after 9 days only when CatholicosVazgen I persuaded him to do so.[128][113][127]
On 11 May 1991 Ambartsumian and a number of members of the Armenian Academy of Sciences wrote a letter to Soviet PresidentMikhail Gorbachev expressing their concern with the forced expulsion of ethnic Armenians from parts of NKAO and Shahumian rayon as part ofOperation Ring.[129]
In June 1991 the session of the Armenian Academy of Sciences issued a statement on its views on Armenian independence and the future of the Soviet Union. The Academy stated its unconditional support for the independence of Armenia, pushed at the time by thePan-Armenian National Movement (HHSh). However, it argued that because Armenia is economically interconnected with and dependent on other Soviet republics, an abrupt disruption in the existing relations would result in "unimaginable levels of economic collapse, unemployment and emigration." Thus, they called for Armenia to join theNew Union Treaty proposed by Gorbachev. The session also argued that leaving the Soviet Union would mean to abandon Nagorno-Karabakh.[129]
As a communist, Ambartsumian reportedly regretted thecollapse of the Soviet Union, but voted for Armenia's independence in the1991 referendum. He appreciated independent Armenia, but reminded Armenians that they will be paying a high price for it.[130] In 1995 he congratulated Armenians worldwide with Armenia's independence and stated that the newly independent republic is "moving forward."[131] According to Yuri Shahbazyan, a friend and biographer of Ambartsumian, he remained sympathetic towards theCommunist Party of Russia and was critical of Western-sponsoredeconomic liberalization in Russia and other post-Soviet countries.[132]
Ambartsumian's house-museum in Byurakan, where he lived since around 1950 and died in 1996.A memorial in front of Ambartsumian's house in Yerevan'sBaghramyan Avenue
When Ambartsumian was referred to by foreigners as a Russian scientist, he corrected them by saying he was Armenian. He spoke perfect Armenian, albeit with an accent.[41]
Between 1946 and 1996 Ambartsumian mostly divided his time between Yerevan and Byurakan. He built himself a house within the Byurakan Observatory with the award money that came with his secondStalin Prize in 1950.[31] Since 1960 he also maintained a house next to the building of the Academy of Sciences in Yerevan, onBaghramyan Avenue.
Donald Lynden-Bell characterized Ambartsumian as a "broad-shouldered thickset man of medium height, quick intellect and strong character."[48] Lynden-Bell andVahe Gurzadyan wrote that Ambartsumian was modest in private life and behaved simply in public.[127]Fadey Sargsyan described Ambartsumian as an "extremely modest" man.[133] Anthony Astrachan wrote inThe New Yorker that Ambartsumian is "by all reports an engaging human being."[134] Ambartsumian admitted to not having any hobbies: "My only passion is science, astronomy. Like a jealous wife, it expects a man to give all of himself."[135] However, he loved poetry and music,[48] and "could enliven even the most abstract mathematical lectures with quotations from classical and contemporary poets."[55]
In 1930 or 1931 Ambartsumian married Vera Fyodorovna (née Klochikhina), an ethnic Russian, who was the niece and the adopted daughter ofPelageya Shajn, the wife ofGrigory Shajn, both Russian astronomers.[4][136][137][138] She was an English teacher who taught him to read his papers in English when he visited the U.S. and Britain. However, she could not reconcile with his "barbarous pronunciation," as she described it.[135] He was deeply depressed by her death in 1995.[127] They had four children: daughters Karine (b. 1933) and Yelena (b. 1936) and sonsRafayel (b. 1940) andRouben (b. 1941). All four became either mathematicians or physicists.[136][55] As of 1987 he had eight grandchildren.[4]
Ambartsumian began retiring from the various positions he held in 1988, at 80. He left the position of the director of the Byurakan Observatory that year. In 1993 he stepped down as president of the Armenian Academy of Sciences and in 1994 as chair of astrophysics at Yerevan State University.[27][34]
Ambartsumian died at his Byurakan house on August 12, 1996, a month short of his 88th birthday.[2][50][83] He was buried at the observatory grounds, next to his wife and parents.[139] His funeral was attended by thousands of people, including Armenia's presidentLevon Ter-Petrosyan.[127]
His house was inaugurated as a museum in August 1998.[83]
Ambartsumian was one of the 20th century's leading astrophysicists[h] and astronomers.[141][142][i] He was the leading astronomer of the Soviet Union[j] and is universally recognized as the founder of the Soviet school oftheoretical astrophysics.[146][54][k] Ambartsumian was also well-regarded internationally.[147][l]Loren Graham called him "one of the best-known abroad of all Soviet scientists."[103] He was an honorary or foreign member of academies of sciences of over 25 countries.[57]
In 1977Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar stated: "My own impression has always been that he was, when he was in his prime, one of the most perceptive and elegant of astronomers."[26] Chandrasekhar opined in 1988:[61]
Academician Ambartsumian’s realm does not divide astronomy and astrophysics into its conventional parts: theoretical and observational. He is an astronomerpar excellence. [...] There can be no more than two or three astronomers in this century who can look back on a life so worthily devoted to the progress of astronomy.
After his visit to Armenia in 1971,William H. McNeill wrote that Ambartsumian enjoys "enormous local prestige."[153] One of the "modern icons of Armenian pride,"[154] Ambartsumian is recognized as the most prominent scientist in 20th century Armenia,[155] and the most important since the seventh century polymathAnania Shirakatsi.[41][156]Fadey Sargsyan, Ambartsumian's successor as President of the Armenian Academy of Sciences, stated in 1998 that he went "beyond the limits of his scientific fields and in his own lifetime [became] a great national figure."[83]
On 11 October 1994 Armenia's PresidentLevon Ter-Petrosyan awarded Ambartsumian the title of aNational Hero of Armenia[157] for his scientific work of international significance, science administration and patriotic activism.[158] His officialobituary was signed by Armenia's president, government and parliament.[158]
Ambartsumian appeared on the 100-dram banknote (1998–2004)[159]
In 1998 Ambartsumian's 90th anniversary was celebrated in Armenia; theInternational Astronomical Union held a symposium at the Byurakan Observatory[83] and theCentral Bank of Armenia issued a 100dram banknote depicting Ambartsumian and the Byurakan Observatory.[159] The Byurakan Observatory was officially named after him that year.[38] Other things named after Ambartsumian include Chair of General Physics and Astrophysics atYerevan State University,[34] a street, park, and public school in Yerevan,[162][163] and the Pedagogical Institute ofVardenis.[164]
In 2009 a 3.2-metre (10 ft) bronzestatue of Ambartsumian was unveiled in Yerevan at the park around theYerevan Observatory in attendance of PresidentSerzh Sargsyan and other officials.[165] Busts of Ambartsumian stand at the Byurakan Observatory, the city ofVardenis (1978),[166] and at the central campus of Yerevan State University.[29]
In 2009 Armenian PresidentSerzh Sargsyan established an international prize in Ambartsumian's memory.[167] It was first awarded in 2010 and is awarded every two years. The prize was initially $500,000, but was reduced to $300,000 in 2018.[168] It is considered one of the prestigious awards in astronomy and related fields.[169]
Ambartsumian served as editor and senior author of the 1952 bookTeoreticheskaia Astrofizika (Теоретическая астрофизика).[1] It is an extended[77] version of his 1939 book on theoretical astrophysics—the first systematic textbook on the subject in Russian—based on his lectures at Leningrad State University.[171][1] It was translated into a number of languages, including English, German, and Chinese.[1] The English translation appeared in 1958 asTheoretical Astrophysics.[185][2] It became a bible for a generation of astronomers and astrophysicists[57][2] and was well received by reviewers.Roderick Oliver Redman called it "a welcome addition to the comparatively few general texts of solid worth which are now available"[186] and noted that in a short time it had found "many appreciative readers in both German and English speaking countries."[171]Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin wrote that it is the "only advanced book of this scope in English, it will be of the greatest value."[187]George B. Field described the book as "comprehensively and competently constructed."[188]A. David Andrews described it as a "valuable textbook", which "contains examples of [Ambartsumian's] unique and fruitful approaches to stubborn astronomical problems."[55]Leonard Searle lauded the sections on stellar atmospheres, but criticized the section on interstellar material, especially the constitution of stars as outdated for ignoring fundamental post-war western contributions.[143]
^Ambartsumian did not defend a doctoral thesis.[1] He was awarded a doctoral degree in 1935 based on his scientific work hitherto.[2]
^Ambartsumian is the most commonly accepted spelling of his last name in English. It comes from the Russified version of his Armenian last name, which, using thestandard romanization, is transliterated asHambardzumyan (-ian). Less common spellings of his last name includeAmbarzumian (used until the 1930s) andAmbartsumyan (commonly used in Soviet publications).
^The departments of astrophysics and general physics merged in 2009.[34]
^The organization effectively ceased to operate during thedissolution of the Soviet Union in 1990, when the last of its publications were made.[88]
^In 1988 Vazgen I publicly congratulated Ambartsumian's 80th anniversary in 1988.[96] Ambartsumian and the four other prominent Armenians hunger striking in Moscow sent a letter to Vazgen I on his birthday on 20 September 1990 expressing their admiration for him. "Your holy faith and your sublime example of selflessly serving the nation give us strength and endurance," read the statement.[97] Vazgen I was made honorary member of the Ambartsumian-led Armenian Academy of Sciences in 1991.[98]
^"...recognized as one of the giants of twentieth-century astrophysics..."[2] "Victor Ambartsumian, a giant of world astrophysics, alive..."[140]
^Geoffrey Burbidge: "...one of the giants of astronomical research in the 20th century..."[69]
^Leonard Searle, 1958: "The authors are prominent Soviet astrophysicists and the complete volume is edited by the most eminent of them, V. A. Ambartsumyan."[143]
Walter Sullivan, 1964: "The observatory is the headquarters of Viktor A. Ambartsumian, Russia's foremost astronomer..."[144]
Jaan Einasto, 2013: "I visited in autumn 1977 Byurakan Observatory and discussed the idea with Viktor Ambartsumian, the most influential astronomer of the USSR."[145]
^Russian Academy of Sciences: "основоположник советской школы теоретической астрофизики"[20] Andrei Severny andViktor Sobolev: "V. A. Ambartsumyan is considered to be, by right, the founder of Soviet theoretical astrophysics."[23] Garik Israelian: "It is commonly accepted that V.A. Ambartsumian was a father of the Soviet school of Theoretical Astrophysics."[57] A. David Andrews: "This eminent founder of astrophysics in the former Soviet Union..."[55]
^The authors of a 1981 US government report described him as "among the Soviet Union's best-known and most respected scientists abroad."[104]
^"the first Soviet Scientist since World War II to become a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences."[150] "The National Academy of Sciences announced today that Viktor A. Ambartsumyan, a Soviet astronomer, had been made a foreign associate of the academy -- the first Soviet scientist to be so honored in over a decade."[151]
^Hacikyan, Agop Jack; Basmajian, Gabriel; Franchuk, Edward S.; Ouzounian, Nourhan (2005).The Heritage of Armenian Literature: From the eighteenth century to modern times. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 622.ISBN9780814332214.
^Khachikian, E. Ye. (1979). "On the Activity of the Nuclei of Galaxies". In Westerlund, Bengt E. (ed.).Stars and Star Systems. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 75.D. Reidel Publishing Company. p. 109.doi:10.1007/978-94-009-9440-9_10.ISBN978-94-009-9442-3.The history of objects with UV-excess originated in the midsixties when, on Ambartsumian's initiative, Markarian began to make a successful survey of the sky with a view to detecting galaxies with anomalous spectra (Markarian 196'7), in Byurakan, using a 40-inch telescope of the Schmidt system provided with an objective prism of the same diameter.
^Chronology at Astronomy at St. Peteresburg University (in Russian).1961: Начала создаваться Бюраканская станция. ;1993: В октябре-ноябре Т.А. Полякова последней из сотрудников Астрономического института проводит наблюдения на нашей Бюраканской станции. С тех пор станция законсервирована.
^"Symposium on the Philosophical Problems of Astronomy in the USSR Academy of Sciences".Soviet Physics Uspekhi.16 (4): 579. 1974.doi:10.1070/PU1974v016n04ABEH005362.These ideas, which are being developed by the Byurakan school of Astronomers...
^abcLankford, John, ed. (2011) [1997]. "Ambartsumian, Viktor Amazaspovich (b. 1908)".History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia.Routledge. p. 10.ISBN9781136508349.
^Bardakjian, Kevork B. (2000).A Reference Guide to Modern Armenian Literature, 1500-1920: With an Introductory History. Wayne State University Press. p. 615.ISBN9780814327470.
^"«Գիտելիք»".Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. Volume III (in Armenian). 1977. p. 81.ՀՍՍՀ-ում «Գիտելիք» ընկերությունը ևս հիմնադրվել է 1947-ին ... Հիմնադրման օրից նախագահն է ակադեմիկոս Վ. Համբարձումյանը։
^Laitila, Teuvo (2016). "Russia: Atheism, 'Blasphemy', State and Orthodox Christianity". In Tomlins, Steven; Tomlins, Steven (eds.).The Atheist Bus Campaign: Global Manifestations and Responses. Leiden: BRILL. p. 263.ISBN9789004328532.
^abTeeter, Mark H. (1981). "Philosophy". In Teeter, Mark H.; Sutter, Eleanor B.; Ruble, Balir A. (eds.).Soviet Research Institutes Project. Volume III: The Humanities.United States International Communication Agency. p. 646.
^Badalyan, Melanya (15 November 2019)."Հայոց լեզուն - հայ ինքնության, հայ էության ընդերքը..."Azg (in Armenian). Archived fromthe original on 12 December 2019.Վիկտոր Համբարձումյանը հայ եւ համաշխարհային գիտական մտքի պատմության մեջ թողեց մեծ ժառանգություն, բայց իր վերջին խոսքիՙ Կտակի մեջ ժողովրդի մեծագույն առաքինությունը մայրենի լեզվի տիրապետումն ու դրա պահպանումն է համարում:
^Gregersen, Erik, ed. (2009).The Universe: A Historical Survey of Beliefs, Theories, and Laws.Rosen Publishing Group. p. 163.ISBN9781615300266.He was also the founder of the school of theoretical astrophysics in the Soviet Union.
^Detre Centennial Conference: Proceedings (2006).Hungarian Academy of Sciences. p. 22 "This agreement obviously was a tribute of Victor Ambartsumian, the president of the Armenian Academy of Sciences and an astronomer of very high international reputation."
^"Soviet Rule Has Bestowed Upon Science all the Authority of Which it Deprived Religion".Time. Vol. 71. 2 June 1958. p. 23., reproduced in"Congressional Record—House".Congressional Record.U.S. Government Printing Office:9922. 1958.The new Biurakan Observatory in Armenia has one of the world's largest telescopes, and one of the world's finest libraries in the field. The observatory's head, Viktor Ambartsumian, the first Soviet Scientist since World War II to become a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
^McNeill, William H. (May 1972). "Journey from Common Sense: Notes of a conference on communication with extraterrestrial intelligence, Byurakan, Armenia, September, 1971".University of Chicago Magazine.64 (5):5.
^Derluguian, Georgi; Hovhannisyan, Ruben (Fall 2018)."The Armenian Anomaly: Toward an Interdisciplinary Interpretation".Demokratizatsiya.26 (4): 454....a small Soviet republic that was linked to a parade of world luminaries and modern icons of Armenian pride: the composer Aram Khachaturian, the painter Martiros Sarian, the astrophysicist Victor Ambartsumian, the mathematician Sergei Mergelian, and the chess champion Tigran Petrosian, among others.
^"Большая золотая медаль им. М.В.Ломоносова".ras.ru (in Russian). Russian Academy of Sciences. Archived fromthe original on 20 December 2019.1971 Амбарцумян Виктор Амазаспович за выдающиеся достижения в области астрономии и астрофизики
^Hartkopf, Werner (1992). "Ambarzumjan, Viktor".Die Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften: Ihre Mitglieder und Preisträger 1700–1990 (in German).Walter de Gruyter. p. 6.ISBN9783050068633.1971 Helmholtz-Medaille der Akademie
^"Cothenius Medal".leopoldina.org. Archived fromthe original on 20 December 2019.1974 Viktor A. Ambarcumjan (1908 - 1996) Erevan Astronomie
^"Les membres du passé dont le nom commence par A".academie-sciences.fr (in French). Archived fromthe original on 20 December 2019.Ambartsumian (Victor, Amazaspovitch) 18 septembre 1908 à Tbilissi, Géorgie, Russie - 20 août 1996 Élu correspondant le 22 décembre 1958 (section d'astronomie), puis associé étranger le 12 juin 1978
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