Aviceroy (/ˈvaɪsrɔɪ/) is an official who reigns over apolity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory.
The term derives from theLatin prefixvice-, meaning "in the place of" and theAnglo-Normanroy (Old Frenchroi,roy), meaning "king". This denotes the position as one who acts on behalf of a king or monarch.[1][2][3][4] A viceroy's territory may be called aviceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. Theadjective form isviceregal,[5] less oftenviceroyal.[6] The termvicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroysuo jure, althoughviceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term.[7] Vicereine is more commonly used to indicate a viceroy's wife, known as theviceregal consort.[7]
The term has occasionally been applied to thegovernors-general of theCommonwealth realms, who areviceregal representatives of the monarch.
The position of a viceroy is by royal appointment rather than a noble rank. An individual viceroy often also held a separate noble title, such asBernardo de Gálvez, 1st Viscount of Galveston, who was alsoViceroy of New Spain.
The title was originally used by theCrown of Aragon, where, beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors ofSardinia andCorsica. After the unification, at the end of the 15th century, laterkings of Spain came to appoint numerous viceroys to rule over various parts of the increasingly vastSpanish Empire in Europe, the Americas, and overseas elsewhere.
In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys ofAragon,Valencia,Catalonia,Navarre,Portugal during the brief period known as the Iberian Union,Sardinia,Sicily, andNaples. With the ascension of theHouse of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by newcaptaincies general. At the end ofWar of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions. These Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time; Naples until 1734, Sicily until 1816 and Sardinia until 1848.
The Americas were incorporated into theCrown of Castile. With theSpanish colonization of the Americas, the institution of viceroys was adapted to govern the highly populated and wealthy regions of the north overseas:New Spain (Mexico and Philippines) and the south overseas:Peru and South America. The viceroys of these two areas had oversight over the other provinces, with most of the North American, Central American,Caribbean andEast Indian areas supervised by the viceroy inMexico City and the South American ones by the viceroy inLima, (with the exception of most of today'sVenezuela, which was overseen by the high court, orAudiencia of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola for most of the colonial period). These large administrative territories became known asviceroyalties (Spanish term:virreinatos). There were only twoNew World viceroyalties until the 18th century, when the newBourbon dynasty established two additional viceroyalties to promote economic growth and new settlements on South America. New viceroyalties were created forNew Granada in 1717 (capital,Bogotá) andthe Río de la Plata in 1776 (capital,Buenos Aires).
The viceroyalties of the Spanish Americas and the Spanish East Indies were subdivided into smaller, autonomous units, theaudiencias (tribunal with the authority to judge), and thecaptaincies general (military districts), which in most cases became the bases for the independent countries of modernHispanic America. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, acorregidor (sometimesalcalde mayor) or by acabildo or town council. Audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. Captaincies general were primarily military districts set up in areas with a risk of foreign orIndian attack, but the captains general were usually given political powers over the provinces under their command. Because the long distances to the viceregal capital would hamper effective communication, both audiencias and captains general were authorized to communicate directly with the crown through theCouncil of the Indies. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of theintendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues.
See also:
From 1505 to 1896Portuguese India – including, until 1752, all Portuguese possessions in the Indian Ocean, from southern Africa to Southeast Asia and Australasia – was governed alternatively by either a viceroy (Portuguesevice-rei) or governor and commission located in the capital ofGoa. The government started seven years after the discovery of sea route to India byVasco da Gama, in 1505, under the first viceroy,Francisco de Almeida (b.1450–d.1510). Initially, KingManuel I of Portugal tried to distribute power with three governors in different areas of jurisdiction: a government covering the area and possessions in East Africa,Arabian Peninsula andPersian Gulf, overseeing up toCambay (Gujarat); a second one ruling the possessions inIndia (Hindustan) andCeylon; and a third one fromMalacca to the Far East.[8] However, GovernorAfonso de Albuquerque (1509–1515) centralized the post into a plenipotentiary office, which it remained after his tenure. The typical duration in office was usually three years, although powerful viceroys might extend their tenure; of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century, only six had longer mandates.[9]
During some periods of theIberian Union, between 1580 and 1640, theking of Spain, who was alsoking of Portugal, appointedviceroys to govern Portugal itself, as the king had multiple realms throughout Europe and delegated his powers to various viceroys.
After the end of theIberian Union in 1640, the governors ofBrazil that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy.[10] Brazil became a permanentViceroyalty in 1763, when the capital of theState of Brazil (Estado do Brasil) was transferred fromSalvador toRio de Janeiro.[11]
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Following adoption of theGovernment of India Act 1858, which transferred control of India from theEast India Company to theBritish Crown, the Governor-General as representing the Crown became known as the Viceroy. The designationViceroy, although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed byParliament. Although the Proclamation of 1858 announcing the assumption of the government of India by the Crown referred toLord Canning as "first viceroy and governor-general", none of the warrants appointing his successors referred to them asviceroys, and the title, which was frequently used in warrants dealing with precedence and in public notifications, was basically one of ceremony used in connection with the state and social functions of the sovereign's representative. The governor-general continued to be the sole representative of the Crown, and the government of India continued to be vested in the Governor-General-in-Council.[12]
The viceroys reported directly to thesecretary of state for India in London and were advised by theCouncil of India. They were largely unencumbered in the exercise of their authority and were among the most powerful men on earth in theVictorian andEdwardian eras, ruling over an entiresubcontinent with a large military force at their disposal in the form of theIndian Army.[13] Under the terms of theGovernment of India Act 1919, viceroys shared some limited aspects of their authority with theCentral Legislative Assembly, one of the first steps in the establishment of Indianhome rule. This process was accelerated by theGovernment of India Act 1935 and ultimately led to the independence ofIndia andPakistan asdominions in 1947. Both countries finally severed complete ties with Britain when they becamerepublics – India as asecular republic in 1950 and Pakistan as anIslamic republic in 1956.
Alongside theCommander-in-Chief, India, the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. As the representative of theemperors and empress of India, who were also the kings and queens of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the viceroy served as the grand master of the two principalorders of chivalry of British India: theOrder of the Star of India and theOrder of the Indian Empire.During the office's history, the governors-general of India were based in two cities:Calcutta until 1911 and New Delhi afterwards. Additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of India,[14] the viceroys spent the summer months atSimla. The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand: theViceroy's House in New Delhi andGovernment House in Kolkata. They are used today as the official residences of thepresident of India and thegovernor of West Bengal, respectively. The portraits of the governors-general still hang in a room on the ground floor of the Presidential Palace, one of the last vestiges of both the viceroys and the British Raj.[15]
Notable governors-general of India includeWarren Hastings,Lord Cornwallis,Lord Curzon,The Earl of Minto,Lord Chelmsford, andLord Mountbatten. Lord Mountbatten served as the last Viceroy of India,[16] but continued on as the first governor-general of theDominion of India.
Thelords lieutenant of Ireland were often referred to asviceroy after 1700 until 1922, even though theKingdom of Ireland had been merged in 1801 into theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
The term has occasionally been applied to thegovernors-general of theCommonwealth realms, for exampleGough Whitlam in 1973 told theAustralian House of Representatives: "The Governor-General is the viceroy of the Queen of Australia".[17]
TheAustralia Act 1986 also provide that all royal powers in Australia, except the actual appointment of the governor-general and the governors, are exercisable by the viceregal representatives. The nounviceroy is rarely used, but the adjectiveviceregal is standard usage.
Namestnik (Russian:наме́стник,Russian pronunciation:[nɐˈmʲesʲnʲɪk]) was an official position in the history of theRussian Empire. It can be translated as "viceroy", "deputy", "lieutenant" (in the broadest sense of the word) orin placeappointee. The term has two periods of usage, with different meanings.[18][19][20][21]
TheTsarPaul I's 1799 formation of theRussian-American Company obviated viceroys in thecolonization of the northwestern New World.
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New France, in present Canada, had a single governor:
Thereafter it hadlieutenants-general and viceroys:
Next were a series ofviceroys (resident in France) from 8 October 1611 to 1672. Later there were governors and governors-general.
Thepresident of France retains,ex officio, the title ofCo-Prince in the neighboringmicrostate ofAndorra (a post previously occupied by the king of France) and continues to send apersonal representative, ade facto viceroy to rule on their behalf (as does their co-ruler, theBishop of Urgell).
The French position of "adjunctdépartement director, delegate for the sea and coast of theAtlantic Pyrenees andLandes" carries the title of "viceroy ofPheasant Island".Pheasant Island is a French-Spanish condominium on the riverBidasoa.[26][27]
In Italianviceré: The highest colonial representatives in the "federation" ofItalian East Africa (six provinces, each under a governor; togetherEthiopia,Eritrea andSomaliland) were no longer styledhigh commissioner, butviceroy and governor-general from 5 May 1936, when Italian forces occupied theEthiopian Empire (todayEthiopia), until 27 November 1941, when the last Italian administrator surrendered to the Allies.
On 7 April 1939,Italy invaded theAlbanian Kingdom (todayAlbania). Asviceré of Albania ofVictor Emmanuel III of Italy were the MarcheseFrancesco Jacomoni di San Savino and after his departure GeneralAlberto Pariani.
Ban Borić was the first ruler and viceroy of Bosnia, appointed byGéza II of Hungary by 1154. His war affairs are documented as he fought several notable battles.[28][full citation needed] He also maintained ties with knightsTemplar and donated lands inBosnia andSlavonia to their order.[29] His own biological brother Dominic was on record as aKnight Templar.[30][full citation needed]
Due to his vast powers over Bosnian politics and essentialveto powers, the modern-day position of thehigh representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina has been compared to that of a viceroy.[31][32]
From the earliest medieval period in theKingdom of Croatia, the position of viceroy was held byBan of Croatia who acted as king's representative in Croatian lands and supreme commander of Croatian army. In the 18th century, Croatian bans eventually become chief government officials in Croatia. They were at the head of Ban's Government, effectively the first prime ministers of Croatia. The last ban held his position until 1941 and the collapse of Yugoslavia in World War II.
An equivalent office, called theExarch, was created in theByzantine or Eastern Roman Empire towards the end of the sixth century for governors of important areas too far from the imperial capital ofConstantinople to receive regular instruction or reinforcement. The chosen governors of these provinces were empowered to act in place of the monarch (henceex- "outside",arch "ruler") with more discretion and autonomy than was granted other categories of governor. This was an extraordinary break from the centralized traditions of theRoman Empire and was an early example of the principle of viceroyalty.
As with many princely and administrative titles, viceroy is often used, generally unofficially, to render somewhat equivalent titles and offices in non-western cultures.
In cultures all over the continent of Africa, the role of viceroy has been subsumed into a hereditary noble as opposed to strictly administrative position. In the Arabo-Berber north, for example, the title ofKhalifa is often used by individuals who derive their authority to rule from someone else in much the same way as a viceroy would. Elsewhere, subordinateinkosis under the rule of aparamount chief like theKing of the Zulu Nation ofSouthern Africa or subordinatebaales in the realms of the reigningobas ofWest AfricanYorubaland continue to occupy statutorily recognized positions in the contemporary countries ofSouth Africa andNigeria as the customary representatives of their respective principals in the various areas that are under their immediate control.
The viceroy in theMagadha Empire was calledUparaja (lit. vice king).[33]
TheMughal Empire had a system of administration which involved both official governors appointed from the capital, and local feudal lords (zamindars).Subahdars were the former, and can be seen as equivalents of viceroys, governing the provinces (subahs) by appointment from the capital.Mansabdars were military governors who were also appointed to provincial government, but they were appointed for military rather than civilian government.
TheKhedive of Egypt, especially during the reign ofMuhammad Ali Pasha (1805–1848). This officer established an almost autonomous regime in Egypt, which officially still was under Ottoman rule. Although Mehemet Ali/Muhammad Ali used different symbols to mark his independence from theSublime Porte, he never openly declared himself independent. Adopting the title of viceroy was yet another way to walk the thin line between challenging the Sultan's power explicitly and respecting his jurisdiction. Muhammad Ali Pasha's grandson,Ismail Pasha, subsequently received the title ofKhedive which was almost an equivalent to viceroy.[34]
Other titles, such asSharif (as in theSharifate of Mecca), orKhan (as in theCrimean Khanate or theKhanate of Kazan), denoted hereditary rulers of Ottoman vassal states, under the Sultan's titles ofCaliph andGreat Khan, respectively.
Titles such aspasha,beylerbey,bey, andagha denote officials who were, at least nominally, appointed to their positions by theSublime Porte rather than hereditary privilege.Pashas andbeylerbeys were appointed to govern provinces calledeyalets, until the promulgation of theVilayet Law in 1867 ended the eyalet system, replacing it with more centrally-controlledvilayets. The beylerbey of theRumelia Eyalet was the only provincial governor entitled to a seat in theImperial Council, but only when a matter fell within his jurisdiction.
The post of Tổng Trấn (governor of all military provinces) was a political post in the early period of theVietnameseNguyễn dynasty (1802–1830). From 1802, under the reign of emperorGia Long, there were twoTổng Trấn who administered Vietnam's northern part namedBắc thành with administrative center inHanoi and the southern partGia Định thành with administrative center inGia Định, while Nguyen emperors ruled only the central regionKinh Kỳ from capitalPhú Xuân.Tổng Trấn is sometimes translated to English as viceroy.[35] In 1830, emperorMinh Mạng abolished the post in order to increase the imperial direct ruling power in all over Vietnam.
During theHan,Ming andQing dynasties, there existed positions of viceroys having control over various provinces (e.g.,Liangguang =Guangdong andGuangxi,Huguang =Hubei andHunan).
In Siam before 1885, the title was used for the heir-apparent or heir presumptive (Thai: กรมพระราชวังบวรสถานมงคล) The title was abolished and replaced with that of theCrown Prince of Siam.
The series of images of English kings from Edward the Confessor to Edward I in London, British Library, Cotton MS Vitellius A. XIII/1 is widely familiar from television, textbooks, websites, and exhibitions. In spite of this, the origins and context of this set of four leaves are mysterious. The limited attention given to them has focused on the images rather than the Anglo-Norman captions attached to them, which forms a genealogy of the kings, derived from earlier sources. "Sir Lowys fiz le Roy Phylippe de Fraunce en Engletere. Le Roy Jon regna .xvii. aunz e demy..." "Sir Louis, the son of Philip king of France, came into England.... King John reigned for seventeen and a half years..."
C16: from French, from vice3 + roy king, from Latin rex
Languages: Anglo-Norman "Edward III and Henry, Duke of Lancaster, of the Order of the Garter "Roy Edward"
...the kings of England have retained the custom of using the Old Norman language when they give the royal assent... as: Le roy le veult;
This presidency comprises the lower basins of the Ganges and Mahanuddy. Its chief towns are Calcutta, on the Hooghly, an arm of the Ganges, the capital of India, its seat of government, and the residence of the governor-general;
all of them under the India-the Twelve orders of the supreme Government of India, consisting of Provinces, the Governor-General in Council. The Governor-General, who also bears the title of Viceroy, holds his court and government at Calcutta in the cold weather, and during summer at Simla, an outer spur of the Himálayas, 7000 feet above the level of the sea. The Viceroy of India, and the Governors of Madras and Bombay, are usually British states- men appointed in England by the Queen
"Наместники" .Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (in Russian). 1906. This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: "Наместники" .Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (in Russian). 1906.Authority control databases: National |
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