Veterinarian performing an intradermal test for allergy in a dog (2006)
In many countries, the local nomenclature for a veterinarian is a regulated and protected term, meaning that members of the public without the prerequisite qualifications and/or license are not able to use the title. This title is selective in order to produce the most knowledgeable veterinarians that pass these qualifications. In many cases, the activities that may be undertaken by a veterinarian (such as treatment of illness or surgery in animals) are restricted only to those professionals who are registered as a veterinarian. For instance, in the United Kingdom, as in other jurisdictions, animal treatment may only be performed by registered veterinarians (with a few designated exceptions, such asparaveterinary workers), and it is illegal for any person who is not registered to call themselves a veterinarian, prescribe any drugs, or perform treatment.
Most veterinarians work in a clinical setting or bricks and mortar practice, treating animals directly. Other vets work as mobile vets[1] offering veterinary services and treating patients in their clients home. Veterinarians may be involved in general practice, treating animals of all types; they may be specialized in a specific group of animals such ascompanion animals,livestock,zoo animals orequines; or mayspecialize in a narrow medical discipline such assurgery,dermatology orinternal medicine. As with other healthcare professionals, veterinarians face ethical decisions about the care of their patients.[2] Current debates within the profession include the ethics of certain procedures believed to be purely cosmetic or unnecessary for behavioral issues, such asdeclawing of cats,docking of tails,cropping of ears anddebarking on dogs.[3]
The word "veterinary" comes from the Latinveterinae meaning "working animals". "Veterinarian" was first used in print byThomas Browne in 1646.[4] Although "vet" is commonly used as an abbreviation in all English-speaking countries, the occupation is formally referred to as a veterinary surgeon in the United Kingdom and Ireland and now as a veterinarian in most of the rest of the English-speaking world.
AncientIndian sage and veterinarianShalihotra (mythological estimate c. 2350 BCE), the son of a sage, Hayagosha, is considered the founder of veterinary sciences.[5]
The first veterinary college was founded inLyon, France, in 1762 byClaude Bourgelat.[6] According to Lupton, after observing the devastation being caused bycattle plague to the French herds, Bourgelat devoted his time to seeking out a remedy. This resulted in his founding a veterinary college in Lyon in 1761, from which establishment he dispatched students to combat the disease; in a short time, the plague was stayed and the health of stock restored, through the assistance rendered to agriculture by veterinary science and art.[7]
TheOdiham Agricultural Society was founded in 1783 in England to promoteagriculture andindustry,[8] and played an important role in the foundation of the veterinary profession in Britain.[9] A 1785 Society meeting resolved to "promote the study of Farriery upon rational scientific principles."
Dr. Herman F. Sass, Veterinary Surgeon, Toledo, Ohio, approximately 1911
Veterinary science came of age in the late 19th century, with notable contributions from SirJohn McFadyean, credited by many as having been the founder of modern Veterinary research.[10]
Veterinarians treat disease, disorder or injury in animals, which includesdiagnosis, treatment and aftercare. The scope of practice, specialty and experience of the individual veterinarian will dictate exactly what interventions they perform, but most will perform surgery (of differing complexity).
Unlike in human medicine, veterinarians must rely primarily onclinical signs, as animals are unable to vocalizesymptoms as a human would. In some cases, owners may be able to provide amedical history and the veterinarian can combine this information along with observations, and the results of pertinent diagnostic tests such asradiography,CT scans,MRI,blood tests,urinalysis and others.
Veterinarians must consider the appropriateness ofeuthanasia ("putting to sleep") if a condition is likely to leave the animal in pain or with a poor quality of life, or if treatment of a condition is likely to cause more harm to the patient than good, or if the patient is unlikely to survive any treatment regimen. Additionally, there are scenarios where euthanasia is considered due to the constraints of the client's finances.
As with human medicine, much veterinary work is concerned withprophylactic treatment, in order to prevent problems occurring in the future. Common interventions includevaccination against common animal illnesses, such asdistemper orrabies, anddental prophylaxis to prevent or inhibit dental disease. This may also involve owner education so as to avoid future medical or behavioral issues.
Additionally, veterinarians can play important roles in public health and the prevention ofzoonoses.[11]
The majority of veterinarians are employed in private practice treating animals (75% of vets in the United States, according to the American Veterinary Medical Association).[12]
Small animal veterinarians typically work in veterinary clinics, veterinary hospitals, or both. Large animal veterinarians often spend more time travelling to see their patients at the primary facilities which house them, such as zoos or farms.
Other employers include charities treating animals, colleges of veterinary medicine, research laboratories, animal food companies, andpharmaceutical companies. In many countries, the government may also be a major employer of veterinarians, such as theUnited States Department of Agriculture or theAnimal and Plant Health Agency in the United Kingdom. State and local governments also employ veterinarians.[13][14]
TheCOVID-19 pandemic has created a greater demand for veterinary services.[15] Many people are home with extra time on their hands, and adoption agencies and animals shelters have seen a surge in pet purchases as a result.[15] TheAmerican Veterinary Medical Association has provided COVID-19 resources for veterinarians on prevention measures, animal testing, and wellbeing.[16]
Conservation medicine – The study of the relationship between animal and human health and environmental information.
Small animal practice – Usuallydogs,cats, and othercompanion animals/household pets such ashamsters andgerbils. Some practices are canine-only or feline-only practices.
Laboratory animal practice – Some veterinarians work in auniversity or industrial laboratory and are responsible for the care and treatment of laboratory animals of any species (often involvingbovines,porcine species, felines, canines,rodents, and even exotic animals). Their responsibility is not only for the health and well-being of the animals, but also for enforcing humane and ethical treatment of the animals in the facility.
Large animal practice – Usually referring to veterinarians that work with, variously,livestock and other large farm animals, as well asequine species and large reptiles.
Equine medicine – Some veterinarians are specialists in equine medicine. Horses are different inanatomy,physiology,pathology,pharmacology, andhusbandry to other domestic species. Specialization inequine veterinary practice is something that is normally developed after qualification, even if students do have some interest before graduation.
Food supply medicine – Some veterinarians deal exclusively or primarily with animals raised for food (such asmeat,milk, andeggs). Livestock practitioners may deal withovine (sheep),bovine (cattle) andporcine (swine) species; such veterinarians deal with management ofherds,nutrition,reproduction, and minor field surgery. Dairy medicine practice focuses on dairy animals.Poultry medicine practice focuses on the health of flocks of poultry; the field often involves extensive training in pathology, epidemiology, and nutrition ofbirds. The veterinarian treats the flock and not the individual animals.[19]
Wildlife medicine – A relatively recent branch of veterinary medicine, focusing onwildlife. Wildlife medicine veterinarians may work withzoologists and conservation medicine practitioners and may also be called out to treat marine species such assea otters,dolphins, orwhales after a natural disaster oroil spill.
Aquatic medicine – mostly refers to veterinary care of fish in aquaculture (like salmon, cod, among other species), but can also include care of aquatic mammals. For certain countries with high economic income from aquaculture, this is an important part of the veterinary field (like Norway, Chile). Other countries (particularly those which are landlocked), might have little or no emphasis on aquatic medicine.
Dentistry – Many practices are incorporating dentistry into their daily medical services. Veterinary dentistry can extend the life of the patient by preventing oral disease and keeping the teeth and gums of the patient in healthy condition.
Veterinary specialists are in the minority compared to general practice veterinarians, and tend to be based at points of referral, such as veterinary schools or larger animal hospitals. Unlike human medicine, veterinary specialties often combine both the surgical and medical aspects of a biological system.
Veterinary specialties are accredited in North America by the AVMA through the American Board of Veterinary Specialties, in Europe by the European Board of Veterinary Specialisation and in Australia and New Zealand by the Australasian Veterinary Boards Council.[20][21][22] While some veterinarians may have areas of interest outside of recognized specialties, they are not legally specialists.
Many veterinarians, especially in large animal practice, offerhouse calls and farm calls through a mobile practice. The start-up and operating costs of a mobile practice are typically lower than those of a traditional brick and mortar hospital, which can cost millions of dollars or more for equipment and surgical supplies. Costs associated with mobile units can range from as low as $5,000 for a utility box in an SUV to around $250,000 for a fully equipped custom built chassis.[23] The potential advantages to the client are not having to transport the animal, lower stress for the animal, a lower risk of disease transmission from other animals, and convenience. A 2015 study published in the Journal of American Veterinary Medical Association proved that blood pressure readings, pulse rates and body temperature rates were increased by 11–16% when those readings were done in the clinic versus in the home.[24] However, mobile practices often lack the facilities and equipment to provide advanced care, surgery, or hospitalization. Some mobile practices maintain a relationship with a traditional hospital for referral of cases needing more comprehensive care.
The last AVMA Report on Veterinary Compensation, published in 2018, indicated private practice associate veterinarians who had board certification earned a mean of $187,000. A veterinarian's salary can easily exceed $300,000 depending on the specialty. The median starting salary for new veterinary graduates without specialization in 2018 was $103,800 in the United States according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, while the lowest paid earned less than $89,540 annually.[25] States and districts with the highest mean salary are California ($398,340), Michigan ($325,100), Illinois ($324,870), New York ($322,500), and Hawaii ($221,150).[26] Veterinarians who own their own clinics are typically paid a much higher salary. The average owner payout is $400,000 for every $1,000,000 of clinic income. In 2021 there were practices sold with $8–10,000,000 in yearly revenue with the owners drawing salaries of several million dollars. Over 90% of practice owners do not regret purchasing or starting their own practice, according to a 2020 survey of clinic owners.
Veterinary students learning the dental treatment of a horse in August 2008
In order to practice, vets must complete an appropriatedegree inveterinary medicine, and in most cases must also be registered with the relevant governing body for their jurisdiction.
Degrees in veterinary medicine culminate in the award of a veterinary science degree, although the title varies by region. For instance, in North America, graduates will receive a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (Doctor of Veterinary Medicine or Veterinariae Medicinae Doctoris; DVM or VMD), whereas in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand or India they would be awarded aBachelor of Veterinary Science, Surgery or Medicine (BVS, BVSc, BVetMed or BVMS), and in Ireland graduates receive a Medicinae Veterinariae Baccalaureus (MVB). In continental Europe, the degree of Doctor Medicinae Veterinariae (DMV, DrMedVet, Dr. med. vet., MVDr.) is granted.[27]
The award of a bachelor's degree was previously commonplace in the United States, but the degree name and academic standards were upgraded to match the 'doctor' title used by graduates.
Comparatively few universities haveveterinary schools that offer degrees which are accredited to qualify the graduates as registered vets. For example, there are 30 in the United States, 5 in Canada, 1 in New Zealand, 7 in Australia (4 of which offer degrees accredited by theAmerican Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)), and 8 in the United Kingdom (4 of which offer degrees accredited by theAmerican Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)).[28]
Due to this scarcity of places for veterinary degrees, admission to veterinary school is competitive and requires extensive preparation. In the United States in 2007, approximately 5,750 applicants competed for the 2,650 seats in the 28 accreditedveterinary schools, with an acceptance rate of 46%.[29]
With competitive admission, many schools may place heavy emphasis and consideration on a candidate's veterinary and animal experience. Formal experience is a particular advantage to the applicant, often consisting of work with veterinarians or scientists in clinics,agribusiness, research, or some area of health science. Less formal experience is also helpful for the applicant to have, and this includes working with animals on a farm or ranch or at a stable or animal shelter and basic overall animal exposure.[30]
In the United States, approximately 80% of admitted students are female. In the early history of veterinary medicine of the United States, most veterinarians were males. However, in the 1990s this ratio reached parity, and now it has been reversed.
Preveterinary courses should emphasize the sciences. Most veterinary schools typically require applicants to have taken one year equivalent classes inorganic,inorganic chemistry,physics,general biology; and one semester of vertebrate embryology and biochemistry. Usually, the minimal mathematics requirement is college level calculus. Individual schools might require introduction to animal science, livestock judging, animal nutrition, cell biology, and genetics. However, due to the limited availability of these courses, many schools have removed these requirements to widen the pool of possible applicants.
Following academic education, most countries require a vet to be registered with the relevant governing body, and to maintain this license to practice.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, veterinarians must be licensed to practice in the United States.[31] Licensing entails passing an accredited program, a national exam, and a state exam. For instance, in the United States, a prospective vet must receive a passing grade on a national board examination, the North America Veterinary Licensing Exam. This exam must be completed over the course of eight hours, and consists of 360 multiple-choice questions, covering all aspects of veterinary medicine, as well as visual material designed to test diagnostic skills.
Postgraduate female veterinarian student in medical gear preparing for procedures
The percentage electing to undertake further study following registration in the United States has increased from 36.8% to 39.9% in 2008. About 25% of those or about 9% of graduates were accepted into traditional academic internships. Approximately 9% of veterinarians eventually board certify in one of 40 distinct specialties from 22[32] specialty organizations recognized by the AVMA American Board of Veterinary Specialties (ABVS).[33][34]
The first two-year curriculum in both veterinary and human medical schools are very similar in course names, but in certain subjects are relatively different in content. Considering the courses, the first two-year curriculum usually includes biochemistry, physiology, histology, anatomy, pharmacology, microbiology, epidemiology, pathology and hematology.[36]
Some veterinary schools use the same biochemistry, histology, and microbiology books as human medical students; however, the course content is greatly supplemented to include the varied animal diseases and species differences. In the past, many veterinarians were trained in pharmacology using the same text books used by physicians. As the specialty of veterinary pharmacology has developed, more schools are using pharmacology textbooks written specifically for veterinarians. Veterinary physiology, anatomy, and histology is complex, as physiology often varies among species. Microbiology and virology of animals share the same foundation as human microbiology, but with grossly different disease manifestation and presentations. Epidemiology is focused on herd health and prevention of herd borne diseases and foreign animal diseases. Pathology, like microbiology and histology, is very diverse and encompasses many species and organ systems. Most veterinary schools have courses in small animal and large animal nutrition, often taken as electives in the clinical years or as part of the core curriculum in the first two years.
The final two-year curriculum is similar to that of human medicine only in clinical emphasis.[36] A veterinary student must be well prepared to be a fully functional veterinarian on the day of graduation, competent in both surgery and medicine. The graduating veterinarian must be able to pass medical board examination and be prepared to enter clinical practice on the day of graduation, while most human medical doctors in the United States complete 3 to 5 years of post-doctoral residency before practicing medicine independently, usually in a very narrow and focused specialty. Many veterinarians do also complete a post-doctoral residency, but it is not nearly as common as it is in human medicine.
In the last years, curricula in both human and veterinary medicine have been adapted with the aim of incorporating competency-based teaching.[37][38] Furthermore, the importance of institutionalized systematic teacher feedback has been recognized and tools such as clinical encounter cards are being implemented in clinical veterinary education.[39]
Veterinarians work with a wide variety of animal species typically in hospitals, clinics, labs, farms, and zoos.[42] Veterinarians face many occupational hazards including zoonotic diseases, bites and scratches, hazardous drugs, needlestick injuries, ionizing radiation, and noise.[43][44][45] According to the U.S. Department of Labor, 12% of workers in the veterinary services profession reported a work-related injury or illness in 2016.[46]
Veterinary practices need a health and safety plan that addresses infection prevention and other hazards.[45][47] Workplaces should utilize engineering controls, administrative controls, and personal protective equipment to keep their employees safe.[47][45] PPE such as gloves, safety goggles, lab coats, and hearing protection should be readily available with mandatory training on proper usage. Raising awareness is the most important step in promoting workplace health and safety.[46]
Needlestick injuries are the most common accidents among veterinarians, but they are likely underreported.[46][47][48] Needlesticks can result in hazardous drug or bloodborne-pathogen exposures.
Unlike human medical professionals, veterinarians receive minimal training on safe handling of hazardous drugs in school.[49] Also, a large percentage of veterinarians are women of reproductive age and drug exposures put them at risk of infertility or other adverse health outcomes.[49][50] Additionally, some antibiotics, steroids, and chemotherapy drugs are known to have negative effects on male fertility.[51] The U.S.National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has issued guidance on the safe handling of hazardous drugs for veterinary workers.[52] Animal bites and scratches are another common injury in veterinary practice.[44]
The close interactions with animals put veterinarians at increased risk of contracting zoonoses. A systematic review of veterinary students found that between 17% and 64% had acquired a zoonotic disease during their studies.[43] The animal species, work setting, health and safety practices, and training can all affect the risk of injury and illness.[43]
Noise can be a prominent exposure, in which case a hearing loss prevention program may be recommended. A NIOSH study on kennel noise found that noise levels often exceeded OSHA'spermissible exposure limit.[53] Reducing noise is beneficial for animal and human health.[54][55]
Veterinarians have high suicide rates in comparison to the general population.[56] A study by the U.S.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that male veterinarians are 2.1 times and female veterinarians are 3.5 times as likely as the general population to die by suicide.[56] Some reasons for this could be long hours, work overload, client expectations and complaints, poor remuneration, euthanasia procedures, and poor work-life balance.[56] A survey of more than 11,000 vets found 9% had serious psychological distress, 31% experienced depressive episodes, and 17% had suicidal ideation.[57] Online support groups, such as Not One More Vet, have been established to help veterinarians who may be experiencing suicidal thoughts.[58] NOMV educates veterinarians and vet techs about other ways to help themselves with mental health.[59] Another driver of stress can be student loan debt. A 2013 national survey found that average debt for veterinary medicine graduates was as high as $162,113.[60] Veterinarian lifelong earning potential is less than a physician, so it can take a lot longer to break even.[60]
The Incredible Dr. Pol, a US veterinarian reality show. Produced by National Geographic Wild, a Disney channel. It follows the life of Dr. Jan Pol and Pol Veterinarian Service in Michigan.
Most states in the US allow for malpractice lawsuit in case of death or injury to an animal from professional negligence. Usually the penalty is not greater than the value of the animal. Some states allow for punitive penalty, loss of companionship, and suffering, likely increasing the cost of veterinary malpractice insurance and the cost of veterinary care. Most veterinarians carry business, worker's compensation, and facility insurance to protect their clients and workers from injury inflicted by animals.[citation needed]
^Tiffany, Lynn M. "Mobile Vets are Driven to Succeed". Veterinary Practice News. 9 Jun 2011."Mobile Vets Are Driven to Succeed". 9 June 2011.Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved5 December 2016.
^Bragg, Ryan F., et al. "Evaluation of the effects of hospital visit stress on physiologic variables in dogs". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 15 January 2015. Web. 26 November 2016[1]
^Burger, C.; Pirker, M.; Bergsmann, E.M.; Winter, P. (2015). "[Quality management in competence-oriented teaching: Theory and practice at the Vetmeduni Vienna] Qualitätsmanagement in der kompetenzorientierten Lehre: Theorie und Praxis an der Veterinärmedizinischen Universität Wien". In Vettori, Oliver; Salmhofer, Gudrun; Mitterauer, Lukas; Ledermüller, Karl (eds.).Eine Frage der Wirksamkeit? Qualitätsmanagement als Impulsgeber für Veränderungen an Hochschulen [A question of effectiveness? Quality management as innovation generator for changes at universities] (in German). Bielefeld, Germany: UniversitätsVerlagWebler. pp. 145–160.ISBN978-3-946017-00-4.
^Bergsmann, Evelyn; Klug, Julia; Burger, Christoph; Först, Nora; Spiel, Christiane (2017). "The Competence Screening Questionnaire for Higher Education: Adaptable to the needs of a study programme".Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education.43 (4):537–554.doi:10.1080/02602938.2017.1378617.S2CID148700628.
^abEpp, T., & Waldner, C. (2012). Occupational health hazards in veterinary medicine: zoonoses and other biological hazards.The Canadian veterinary journal = La revue veterinaire canadienne, 53(2), 144–150.
^Schäffer, D.; Marquardt, V.; Marx, G.; von Borell, E. (2001). "[Noise in animal housing--a review with special reference to pig housing]".DTW. Deutsche tierarztliche Wochenschrift.108 (2):60–66.ISSN0341-6593.PMID11367883.
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