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TheVardar offensive (Bulgarian:Офанзива при Вардар) was aWorld War I military operation, fought between 15 and 29 September 1918. The operation took place during the final stage of theBalkans Campaign. On 15 September, a combinedforce of Serbian, French, and Greek troopsattacked the Bulgarian-held trenches in Dobro Pole ("Good Field"), at the time part ofSerbia (present-dayNorth Macedonia). The assault and the preceding artillery preparation had devastating effects on Bulgarian morale, eventually leading to mass desertions.
On 18 September, a second Entente formationassaulted the Bulgarian positions in the vicinity ofLake Doiran. Effectively employing machine gun and artillery fire the Bulgarians managed to stall the Allied advance on the Doiran sector. However the collapse of the front at Dobro Pole forced the Bulgarians to withdraw from Doiran. The Allies pursued the German11th Army and the Bulgarian1st Army, while pushing deeper intoVardar Macedonia. By 29 September, the Allies had captured the former HQ ofSkopje, thus endangering the remnants of the 11th Army.
The parallel development of the anti-monarchistRadomir Rebellion forcedBulgaria to sign theArmistice of Salonica and withdraw from the war. The treaty included the fullcapitulation of the 11th Army, bringing the final tally of Bulgarian and German prisoners to 77,000 and granting the Allies 500 artillery pieces. The Bulgarian downfall turned the strategic and operational balance of the war against theCentral Powers. The Macedonian Front was brought to an end at noon on 30 September, when the ceasefire came into effect.
The 28 June 1914,assassination of Austro-Hungarianheir presumptiveArchduke Franz Ferdinand precipitatedAustria-Hungary's declaration of war againstSerbia. The conflict quickly attracted the involvement of all major European countries, pitting theCentral Powers against theEntente coalition and startingWorld War I.[4][5][6]
Serbia was defeated during the autumn 1915 phase of theSerbian Campaign, prompting France and Britain to transfer troops from theGallipoli Campaign toGreek Macedonia. TheMacedonian front was thus established in an effort to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquerVardar Macedonia.[7]
On 17 August 1916, in theStruma offensive Bulgaria invaded Greece, easily conquering all Greek territory east of theStruma, since the Greek Army was ordered not to resist by the pro-GermanKing Constantine. The surrender of territory recently won with difficulty in theSecond Balkan War of 1913 was the last straw for many supporters ofLiberal Party politicianEleftherios Venizelos. With Allied assistance, they launched a coup which secured Thessaloniki and most of Greek Macedonia, causing theNational Schism. In June 1917, theVenizelists gained full control of the country, immediately declaring war on the Central Powers and joining theAllied Army of the Orient operating on the Balkan Front. The Greek entry into the war along with the 24 division reinforcements that the Army had received in the spring of the same year had created a strategic advantage for the Entente.[8]
On 30 May 1918, the Allies launched an offensive on the heavily fortifiedSkra salient, commencing thebattle of Skra-di-Legen. Utilizing the cover of heavy artillery a Franco-Hellenic force made a rapid push into the enemy trenches, conquering Skra and the surrounding system of fortifications. Greek casualties amounted to 434–440 killed in action, 154–164 missing in action and 1,974–2,220 wounded, France lost approximately 150 men killed or injured. A total of 1,782 soldiers of the Central Powers became prisoners of war, including a small number of German engineers and artillery specialists that served in Bulgarian units; considerable amounts of military equipment also fell into Entente hands. The plan for a Bulgarian counterattack against Skra remained unfulfilled as the Bulgarian soldiers refused to take part in the operation. Both the Greek and the French press used the opportunity to extol the efforts of the Greek army, favorably influencing the Greek mobilization.[9][10][11]
The fall of Skra prompted Bulgarian prime ministerVasil Radoslavov to resign on 21 June 1918.Aleksandar Malinov who assumed office immediately afterwards pursued secret negotiations with Britain, offering Bulgaria's exit from the war with the condition that Bulgaria fully retain eastern Macedonia. However, British prime ministerDavid Lloyd George rejected the proposal, assuring the Greek ambassador in London Ioannis Gennadius, that Britain would not act against Greek interests.[12]
In late July 1918, Bulgariancommander-in-chiefNikola Zhekov sent German Field MarshalPaul von Hindenburg a message regarding a rumored Entente offensive, and detailed Bulgaria's inability to adequately defend the Vardar portion of the front. Zhekov requested that Germany immediately reinforce the Balkan Front, hinting that Austria-Hungary would also be required to strengthen its positions in Albania. On 17 August, Hindenburg pledged to provide Bulgaria with support once the situation on other front permits it. Hindenburg's reluctance to support Bulgaria was also manifested by the early September redeployment of the last GermanJäger battalion stationed in Macedonia back into Germany.[13]
The Bulgarians, using information from escaped prisoners of war, determined that Entente forces would engage in hostile actions west of lakeOhrid, inMonastir, Dobro Pole or Human. On 27 August, the 2nd and 3rd Bulgarian Divisions stationed at Dobro Pole were ordered to make emergency preparations, as new evidence indicated a frontal assault on Dobro Pole along with a secondary attack on Human. By 7 September, Dobro Pole was reinforced by one machine gun company, six battalions and ten heavyhowitzers, the head ofArmy Group Scholtz GeneralFriedrich von Scholtz then stated that the defensive measures made the defense of the front feasible. Scholtz had failed to take into account the departure of Bulgarian chief of staff Nikola Zhekov and his subsequent replacement byGeorgi Todorov. Widespreadinsubordination anddesertions also plagued the Bulgarian troops who refused to participate in fortification works; poor rations and fatigue contributed to the low morale.[14]
A day prior to the Entente offensive, GeneralLouis Franchet d'Espèrey laid out the final plan for the operation. The first phase consisted of a combined Franco-Serbian attack on the positions of the 2nd and 3rd Bulgarian Divisions, which was expected to create a breach of the front line in the area of Dobro Pole, while also posing a danger to the Bulgarian supply lines on riverVardar. The 1,875-metre (6,152 ft) Dobro Pole ("Good Field") peak dominated the region, providing excellent observation points for the defenders. Dobro Pole was surrounded by a well-developed system of trenches which, in combination with the rough terrain, made the area impassable for wheeled transport. Dobro Pole was, however, lower and less steep than the mountains on other parts of the front that averaged 2,000 metres (6,600 ft).[15][16]
A second Anglo-Franco-Hellenic force would then attack the Bulgarian1st Army between the Vardar river andLake Doiran, preventing it from forming new defensive positions in the area. The initial advance would allow theArmée d'Orient to progress in support of other units first toPrilep, Disma and Borran. In the meantime, an Anglo-Hellenic force would strike MountBelasica, occupying theRupel Pass. The Doiran sector had previously been subject to two major Entente offensives known as theFirst Battle of Doiran (August 1916) andSecond Battle of Doiran (April–May 1917). Both engagements ended in decisive Bulgarian victories, forcing the Allies to limit their operations to small raids and harassing fire. Between 1916 and July 1918, Bulgarian defenses around Doiran underwent a period of considerable reorganization under the personal supervision of GeneralVladimir Vazov. The sector was divided into two 14-kilometre (8.7 mi) defensive areas, protected by theMountain Division and the 9th Infantry Division respectively. Bulgaria established combat security outposts at a distance of 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) from the enemy trenches, while also reinforcing the defenses of the dominant Dub and Kala Tepe mountains. Similarly to Dobro Pole the defenses consisted of a series of mutually supporting trenches, with built in observation posts, machine gun positions and artillery pieces.[16][17][18]
D'Espèrey expected to march the Allied Army of the Orient through the towns ofDemir Hisar, Rupel, Petrici, Blagusa, Gradec,Štip and Belessa finally seizing Skopje. Units stationed at Katsania andTetovo would prevent a Bulgarianflanking maneuver, while the main body of the force would widen the breach both in Štip and Prilep. In case of a collapse of the front between Dobro Pole and Tzena, the Bulgarian 1st Army and the German 11th Army[Note 3] would either be annihilated or, in less favorable circumstances, perform an organised retreat to a new defensive line on riverCrna. The prevention of such a retreat was to be achieved by a rapid, penetrating attack onGradsko,Dren Planina and Visoka.[19][20]
At 8 a.m. on 14 September 1918, Entente forces commenced a 566-gun artillery barrage on enemy positions. Their aircraft also bombed enemy positions and strafed a 250-truck column moving towardsKozjak. On the same day, Scholtz sent Hindenburg atelegraph stating that[21]
... all indications point out that an enemy offensive will target the 11th Army on both sides of Vardar as well as Dobro Pole....[22]
The Bulgarian high command did not attempt to perform a spoiling attack as they lacked the necessary vehicles and pack animals. The barrage did not cause a significant number of casualties but severely affected the Bulgarianesprit de corps. On the night between 14 and 15 September, Franco-Serbian patrols reported that the artillery barrage had dealt sufficient damage to thebarbed wire entanglements separating the trenches.[21]
At 5:30 a.m. on 15 September, the French 122nd and 17th (Colonial) Divisions struck Sokol, Dobro Pole, Kravitski Kamene and Kravitsa while the Serbian Shumadia Division assaulted Kamene and Veternik. The GreekArchipelago Division,3rd Division and4th Division underPanagiotis Gargalidis acted as a link between the Serbian and French troops without entering combat. The offensive immediately caused a wave of mass desertion among the Bulgarian units; the remaining infantrymen and artillery squadrons were not able to hold their ground. During the course of the battle, the 122nd Division broke into two columns and suffered heavy casualties. The left column managed to reach a position located 50 metres (160 ft) from Sokol at 6:30 a.m. and take the peak at the end of the day. At 16:00 pm, the right column captured Dobro Pole after rushing a 200-metre (660 ft) segment of steep terrain. The 17th Division seized Kravitsa at 7:00 am, suppressing the last signs of resistance.[23][24][25]
Two Franco-Greek Regiments attempted to stormZborsko but were pushed back in the ensuing counterattack, as powerful pockets of resistance between the Sousnitsa and Bigrut streams facilitated its defense. Greek units then focused on Sousnitsa the fall of which created an opening in the Bulgarianrear and put the surrounding units to flight. Using dispersed bluffs as cover, soldiers of the Shumadia Division took over Veternik, Kamene and the western part of a nearby mountain range with considerable difficulty. Elements of the same unit successfully flanked Kravitski Kamene while the 17th Division was engaging in a frontal assault. At 16:00 pm, the Serbian1st Army's thrust on Sokol failed to produce intended results. An attack later that night did secure the peak. The two French divisions were then ordered to remain in position while the Serbian Timok and Yugoslav Divisions moved forward. By the end of the day, Bulgaria lost approximately 40–50 percent of the 12,000 soldiers involved in the battle, including 3,000prisoners of war, 2,689 dead and 50 out of the initial 158 artillery pieces. Entente casualties amounted to 1,700 Frenchmen and 200 Serbians killed in action.[23][26][27][28][29]
On the morning of 16 September, the Serbians overran the Kozjak mountain range and the Golo Bilo peak. They were joined by the 35th Greek Regiment which crossed the Poroi river and later marching on Topolets. At 11:00 am, Franco-Hellenic units stormed Zborsko for a second time and were met by heavy artillery and machine gun fire. The attack was rebuffed with the loss of 158 Greeks and roughly the same number of French lives and attempts to take the area were suspended.Živojin Mišić's 1st Army and theArmée d'Orient performed a night attack on theGradešnica fortified zone, suppressing the defenders. The 1st Division Group moved into a position on the Poroi river north of Brahovo in conjunction with the Timok Division. By the night of 16 September, the gap in what formerly constituted the front-line had extended to 25 kilometres (16 mi) in width and 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) in depth. The Allied command ordered its air department to continue attacking all bridges on the river Vardar.[23][30]
At 4.00 a.m. on 17 September, Hellenic components of the 1st Division Group raided mount Preslap, a key position housing Bulgarian artillery. The Greeks rapidly descended from Golo Bilo and then began climbing the cliffs of Preslap with their bare hands. The Preslap garrison proceeded to abandon their positions and retreat eastwards. Having lost their artillery cover forces at Zborsko followed their comrades in retreat. The Timok Division conquered Topolets and advanced towards Studena Voda and Preslap while the Morava and Yugoslav Divisions overran Koutskov Kamene. At the same time, the Drina and Danube Divisions seized Gradešnica along with the Poltsista and Besistsa peaks, then halted at Melinitsa.[31][32]
On 18 September, the 11th French Colonial Division and the 6th Greek Regiment occupied the villages ofZovik,Staravina andCebren [mk], approaching towards theCebren Monastery [mk] bridge on Crna. An Ententeair raid destroyed another bridge north of Razim Bey. Bulgarian forces failed at putting a stop to the Allied offensive, abandoning their wounded and large quantities of military equipment. By the end of the day, Allied troops had advanced 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) into enemy territory while also seizing locales of strategic importance that would later enable them to continue pushing deeper into Vardar Macedonia.[23][33]
On 16 September, the Allies commenced a 232 gun and 24 howitzer artillery barrage on the Bulgarian positions between Vardar and Doiran. Bulgaria responded in kind, with the artillery duel continuing during the following two days. On the night of 17–18 September, Bulgarian positions were targeted by ninesalvos ofgas shells, however the attack failed to produce any considerable effect due to the preceding arrival of new gas masks and the adequate training of the defenders.[34]
At 5.00 a.m. on 18 September, theBritish XII Corps executed apincer maneuver on the 9th Bulgarian Division, while the GreekSerres Division and the83rd British Brigade assaulted the Bulgarian trenches to the west, taking numerous prisoners. On the north–east direction theCrete Division and the28th British Division advanced between the lake and Belasica, after clearing out the Bulgarian outpost line. The26th British Division seized a number of Bulgarian security outposts but was quickly repulsed by heavy artillery fire and counter-attacks that recaptured the lost ground. It was not until 7:20 am, when the Serres Division managed to make limited gains on the flanks having suffered numerous casualties and lost momentum. In the meantime the22nd British Division overtook two central trenchlines. Supported by concentrated artillery and machine gun fire the 3rd Bulgarian Brigade pushed the Allies back, by the end of the day the sum of the Entente forces were back at their starting point, the British 67th Brigade having lost 65 percent of its soldiers.[35][36][37][38]
The offensive was resumed at 4.00 a.m. on 19 September after a night of heavy shelling. The operation involved the British 77th and 65th Brigades, the French 2/2ndZouaves regiment.[39] along with the Serres and14th Greek Divisions. Following five hours of intense fighting the Allies managed to overrun the town ofDojran, mount Kala Tepe and Teton Hill, with the Pip Ridge and mount Dub remaining in Bulgarian hands. In the aftermath of the engagement the Allied command found itself to be unable to make any further offensive operations on the Doiran sector as it no longer possessed an adequate reserve of manpower. Bulgaria lost a total of 518 dead, 998 wounded, and 1,210 captured. Greek casualties amounted to 503 killed, 2,286 injured and 615 missing, with the British suffering 3,871 dead and wounded.[36][37][40][41][42]
On 20 September, the 17th and 122nd French Colonial Divisions along with the 1st Serbian Army crossed the river Crna. News of a breakthrough at Dobro Pole prompted the defenders of Doiran to abandon their positions and rush to the defense of their homeland, in order to prevent a future occupation by the Entente. On 21 September, the Allies became aware of the Bulgarian withdrawal after observing a series of fires and munition dump explosions on the Bulgarian positions, a pursuit by the British XII Corps was launched immediately. The Serbian advanced guard approachedKrivolak, thus creating a wedge between the 1st Bulgarian and 11th German Armies in an effort to force the latter to retire towardsAlbania. The2nd Bulgarian Army headed towards theKosturino Pass avoiding direct engagement with the Allies.[43][44][45]
At 17:30 p.m. on 22 September, the Italian 35th Division under GeneralErnesto Mombelli joined the offensive, seizing Hill 1050 stronghold from the302nd German Division and taking 150 prisoners. Fighting took place inKanatlarci and along the Monastir–Prilep road, in Cepik, Kalabak andTopolčani as the Allies continued to advance towards Prilep. At 14:00 p.m. on 23 September, General Louis Franchet d'Espèrey announced that the initial plan of the operation was to be modified. The Italians were ordered to strikeKičevo with the aim of preventing the enemy forces stationed at Monastir from reaching the railroad hub inUskub, the11th Colonial French Division was instead tasked with securing Prilep. Half an hour later the French entered Prilep, to the east Franco–Serbian columns marched on Štip,Veles,Brod and through the Peristeri mountain range.[45][46]
On 24 September, Bulgarian infantry supported by artillery halted the advance of the Italian cavalry betweenKruševo and the Buchin bridge. At 17:00 pm, an Italo–Serbian assault resulted in the fall of Stepanci. On 25 September, the Sicilia Brigade captured Kruševo and the surrounding peaks after being reinforced by the 11th Colonial French Division. TheQuadruple Alliance High Command set Uskub as the rallying point for its forces in Vardar Macedonia, intending to later strengthen them with units from Germany and Austria. The 30th and156th French Divisions occupied Prevaletz and Drvenik respectively. On 25 September, a band of Bulgarian deserters who had previously fled from Dobro Pole arrived atKyustendil, looting the city and putting the Bulgarian High Command to flight. The mass of retreating Bulgarian mutineers then converged on the railway center ofRadomir in Bulgaria, just 48 kilometres (30 mi) from the capital city of Sofia. On the evening of 26 September, Italian cavalry wrestled Goloznica from a Saxon infantry unit, later entering Drenovo where it received information of a Bulgarian withdrawal from Veles. On 27 September, the leaders of theBulgarian Agrarian National Union took control of these troops and proclaimed the establishment of the Bulgarian Republic. About4,000–5,000 rebellious troops threatened Sofia the following day, in what came to be known theRadomir Rebellion.[43][47][48][49][50]
The Serbian Second Army having previously taken Štip, entered Veles, Kochana and Grlena. Uskub was protected by a garrison of six and a half battalions, fourarmored trains and four artillery batteries split between a mountain range south of the city and a position north of lake Kaplan. Between 27–28 September, the 1st and 4th French Colonial Regiments made their way through Drachevo and Pagaruza, successfully bypassing any sentries located in the 20-kilometre (12 mi) gap between the two Bulgarian formations that protected Uskub. At 4:00 a.m. on 29 September, French GeneralFrançois Léon Jouinot-Gambetta laid out the plan for the final stage of the offensive, the attack on Uskub. The assault was launched an hour later, Frenchspahi utilized thick fog to advance on mount Vodna, however they were forced to regroup after facing heavy resistance. A pincer movement by the 1st Colonial Regiment created a bridgehead at river Vardar, while the 4th Colonial Regiment seized Lisici village. At 9:00 am, the spahis overtook Vodna, later shifting their attention towards the Kalkandelen road. The 1st Colonial Regiment joined the spahis, opening machine gun fire on the retreating61st German Corps and causing numerous casualties. At 11:00 am, the French entered Uskub, detaining 220 Bulgarian and 139 German soldiers, while also seizing 5 guns and large amounts of ordnance.[45][51]
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Under those chaotic circumstances a Bulgarian delegation arrived in Thessaloniki to ask for an armistice. On 29 September, the Bulgarians were granted theArmistice of Salonica by General d'Esperey. The Bulgarian downfall turned the strategic and operational balance of the war against the Central Powers. The Macedonian Front was brought to an end at noon on 30 September, when the ceasefire came into effect. The treaty included the fullcapitulation of the 11th German Army, bringing the final tally of German and Bulgarian prisoners to 77,000 and granting the Allies 500 artillery pieces. TheRadomir Rebellion was put down, by Bulgarian forces, as of 2 October, while TsarFerdinand I of Bulgaria abdicated and went into exile the following day.[47][52][53]
New balance was best described by German EmperorWilhelm II in his telegram toBulgarian Tsar Ferdinand I: "Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!".[54][55] On 29 September 1918, theGerman Supreme Army Command informedKaiser Wilhelm II and theImperial ChancellorCountGeorg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless.[56]
The British and Greek Armies headed east towards the European side of theOttoman Empire, while the French and Serbian forces continued north. The British Army neared Constantinople and, without a force capable of stopping the advance, the Ottoman government asked for an armistice (theArmistice of Mudros) on 26 October. In Serbia, "Desperate Frankie" (as the British nicknamed d'Esperey) continued to advance and the Serbo-French Armyre-captured the country, overrunning several weak German divisions that tried to block its push nearNiš. On 3 November, Austria-Hungary was forced to sign anarmistice on the Italian Front ending the war there. On 10 November, d'Esperey's army crossed theDanube river and was poised to enter theHungarian heartland. At the request of the French general, CountMihály Károlyi, leading the Hungarian government, came to Belgrade andsigned another armistice.[57]
