Vancouver shares its name with the larger city ofVancouver in southernBritish Columbia, Canada, approximately 300 miles (480 km) to the north. Both cities were named after British sea captainGeorge Vancouver, but the U.S. city is older. Vancouver, British Columbia, was incorporated 29 years after the incorporation of Vancouver, Washington, and more than 60 years after the name "Vancouver" was first used in reference to the historicFort Vancouver trading post on the Columbia River. City officials have periodically suggested changing the U.S. city's name to "Fort Vancouver" to reduce confusion with its larger and better-known northern neighbor. ManyPacific Northwest residents distinguish between the two cities by referring to the Canadian city as "Vancouver, B.C." and the United States city as "Vancouver, Washington", or "Vancouver, USA".[5][6][7] Local nicknames formerly included "Vantucky" (though this is used as a derogatory term)[8][9][10][11][12] and "The 'Couv(e)".[13]
The Vancouver area was inhabited by several Native American tribes, most recently theChinook andKlickitat nations, with permanent settlements oftimber longhouses.[14] The Chinookan and Klickitat names for the area were reportedlySkit-so-to-ho andAla-si-kas, respectively, meaning "land of the mud-turtles".[15][16] First known European contact was made byWilliam Robert Broughton in 1792,[17][18] with approximately half of the indigenous population killed bysmallpox before theLewis and Clark Expedition arrived in the area in 1806.[14] Within another fifty years, other diseases such asmeasles,malaria andinfluenza had reduced theChinookan population from an estimated 80,000 "to a few dozen refugees, landless, slaveless and swindled out of a treaty".[14]
Meriwether Lewis wrote that the Vancouver area was "the only desired situation for settlement west of theRocky Mountains". The first permanent European settlement did not occur until 1824, when Fort Vancouver was established as a fur trading post of theHudson's Bay Company. From that time on, the area was settled by both the US and Britain under a "joint occupation" agreement. Joint occupation led to theOregon boundary dispute and ended on June 15, 1846, with the signing of theOregon Treaty, which gave the United States full control of the area. Before 1845, American Henry Williamson laid out a large claim west of the Hudson's Bay Company (including part of the present-day Port of Vancouver), called Vancouver City and properly registered his claim at the U.S. courthouse in Oregon City, before leaving for California.[19]: 42 In 1848, Williamson had it surveyed and platted byPeter Crawford. In 1850, Amos Short traced over the claim of Williamson and named the town Columbia City.[20] It changed to Vancouver in 1855. The City of Vancouver was incorporated on January 23, 1857.[21]
Based on an act of the 1859–60 legislature, Vancouver was briefly the capital ofWashington Territory, before capital status was returned toOlympia by a 2–1 ruling of the territorial supreme court, in accordance withIsaac Stevens' preference and concern that proximity to the border with Oregon might give some of the state's influence away to Oregon.[22][23][24]
The neighborhood of Sifton was the terminus of an early electrictrolley operated by the Northcoast Power Company that also served nearbyOrchards from 1910 until 1926. The trolleys made ten stops and ran once per hour, charging 15 cents each way. A mural in the heart of Orchards depicts the trolley and the rural character of the area at the time it was operating. The community was named after Doctor Sifton, a promoter of the trolley service.[25]
According to the archives of the VancouverColumbian newspaper, the Orchards-Sifton route ran along Vancouver's Main Street to 26th Street (renamed Fourth Plain Blvd.), then from 26th to K Street and thence north to 33rd Street. From there, it ran on 33rd over Burnt Bridge Creek and past the city limits. At that point the trolley became more like a regular train as it followed a cut through the wilderness. Few houses were seen between Vancouver and Orchards. The public's growing preference for motor cars in the 1920s heralded the end of the trolley.
Separated from Oregon until 1917, when the newInterstate Bridge began to replace ferries, Vancouver had three shipyards just downstream which produced ships forWorld War I beforeWorld War II brought an enormous economic boom. AnAlcoa aluminum plant opened on September 2, 1940, using inexpensive power from the nearbyNew Deal hydropower turbines atBonneville Dam. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor,Henry Kaiser opened ashipyard next to the U.S. Army base, which by 1944 employed as many as 36,000 people in a twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week production ofLiberty ships,landing ship tanks, andescort carriers. This influx of shipyard workers boosted the population from 18,000 to over 80,000 in just a few months, leading to the creation of the Vancouver Housing Authority and six newresidential developments: Fruit Valley, Fourth Plain Village, Bagley Downs, Ogden Meadows, Burton Homes and McLoughlin Heights. Each of these was later incorporated into the city, and are well-known neighborhoods, while the neighboring "shipyard city" ofVanport, Oregon, would be destroyed by theMemorial Day flood of 1948.[citation needed]
Vancouver has experienced conflicts with other Clark County communities because of rapid growth in the area.[citation needed] The city's first annexation more than doubled its size in 1909, with the largest annexation of 1997 adding 11,258 acres (45.56 km2) and 58,171 residents.[26] As a result of urban growth and the 1997 annexation, Vancouver is often thought of as split between two areas,[citation needed] East and West Vancouver, divided by NE Andresen Road. West Vancouver is home to downtown Vancouver and most of the more historical parts of the city, as well as recent high-density mixed-use development. East Vancouver includes the communities of Cascade Park East and West, which had populations of 6,996 and 6,956 in 1990, before annexation.
More than one-third of the Vancouver urban area's population lives in unincorporated urban areas north of the city limits, including the communities ofHazel Dell,Felida,Orchards andSalmon Creek. If county leaders had approved another major annexation plan in 2006, Vancouver would have surpassedTacoma andSpokane to become the state's second-largest city.[27] A 2025 proposal to annex the remaining urban growth area for Vancouver would expand the city limits by 56 square miles (150 km2) and add approximately 171,000 to the city's population. It is estimated to add up to $50 million to the city's budget deficit due to the cost of providing services to the new areas.[28] The 2025 annexation proposal would, like the proposal nearly 2 decades earlier, make Vancouver the state's second-largest city.[29]
Army presence in Vancouver was very strong, as the Department of the Columbia built and moved toVancouver Barracks, the military reservation for which stretched from the river to what is currently Fourth Plain Boulevard and was the largest Army base in the region until surpassed byFort Lewis, 120 miles (190 km) to the north. Built on the old company gardens and skirmish range, Pearson Army Field (laterPearson Field) was a key facility, and at one point theUS Army Signal Corps operated the largest spruce cut-up plant in the world to provide much-needed wood for airplanes. Vancouver became the end point for two ultra-long flights from Moscow,USSR, over the North Pole. The first of these flights was performed byValery Chkalov in 1937 on aTupolev ANT-25RD airplane. Chkalov was originally scheduled to land at an airstrip onSwan Island in nearbyPortland, Oregon, but was redirected at the last minute to Vancouver's Pearson Airfield. In June 1975, a monument was dedicated commemorating the event near State Highway 14, then moved to the north side of Pearson Field in 1987. Chkalov Drive, in east Vancouver, was named in his honor.
According to theUnited States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 49.86 sq mi (129.14 km2), of which 46.46 sq mi (120.33 km2) is land and 3.4 sq mi (8.81 km2) is water.[31]
Vancouver lies just north of Portland, Oregon, with which it shares a similar climate. Both are classified as warm-summer Mediterranean (Csb) on theKöppen climate classification, but with certain key differences. High pressures east of theCascade Range create something of aventuri effect, leading to cold east winds down the Columbia River Gorge. Unsheltered by theWillamette Valley, Vancouver has historically seen colder temperatures, including "silver thaw" storms where freezing rain cakes limbs and power lines. Such storms can paralyze Vancouver. This occasionally freezes the river, and in 1916 cut electric power in the city for almost two weeks. Rainfall occurs frequently throughout the fall, winter, and spring, but ceases around the middle of June, with dry and warm weather lasting through September. Average annual precipitation is 42 in (1,100 mm). Heavy snowfalls are infrequent and snow often falls and doesn't stick, with major snowstorms only occurring every 2–4 years. Close proximity to the river was also a concern for flooding, before dams constricted the river, destroying features such asCelilo Falls. Periodic floods have been a nuisance, with two of the most destructive occurring in June 1894 and May 1948. The1948 Columbia River flood almost topped the Interstate Bridge's support piers and completely destroyed nearbyVanport, Oregon. Other unusual storms include theColumbus Day Storm of 1962 and anApril 5, 1972, tornado which rated F3 on theFujita scale, striking a local school. An EF1 tornado struck onJanuary 10, 2008, just after noon, causing moderate damage along a two-mile (3.2 km) path fromVancouver Lake to the unincorporated Hazel Dell area.[citation needed]
Because many Vancouver residents work in Portland, there is typically significant rush-hour traffic congestion on two bridges that cross the Columbia River – theInterstate Bridge and theGlenn Jackson Bridge. In 2017 there were 297,932 weekday vehicle crossings on the two bridges.[32]
Climate data for Vancouver, Washington (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1891–present)
As of the2020 census, there were 190,915 people, and 75,663 households in the county.[3] The population density was 3,917.2/sq mi.The racial makeup of the city was 76.5% White, 2.3% African American, 0.6% Native American, 5.5% Asian, 1.6% Pacific Islander, and 9.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 14.7% of the population.[3]
22.1% of the population were under 18, and 6.2% were under 5. 15.7% of people were older than 65. The gender makeup of the city was 50.6% female, and 49.4% male.[3]
The median household income was $67,462, but the per capita income was $36,053. 12.7% of the population was below thepoverty line.[3]
The ancestry of the city is 16.1% German, 10.9% English, 9.7% Irish, 3.9% Norwegian, 2.9% Italian, 2.8% French, 1.5% Polish, and 0.7% Subsaharan African.[3]
Vancouver, Washington – Racial and ethnic composition Note: the U.S. Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
As of the2010 census, there were 161,791 people, 65,691 households, and 40,246 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,482.4/sq mi (1,344.6/km2). There were 70,005 housing units at an average density of 1,506.8/sq mi (581.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 80.9%White, 2.9%African American, 1.0%Native American, 5.0%Asian, 1.0%Pacific Islander, 4.3% fromother races, and 4.8% from two or more races.Hispanic orLatino people of any race were 10.4% of the population.
There were 65,691 households, of which 31.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.6% were married couples living together, 13.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.7% were non-families. 30.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.02.
The median age in the city was 35.9 years. 24% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28.9% were from 25 to 44; 25.3% were from 45 to 64; and 12.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.8% male and 51.2% female.
As of the2000 census, there were 143,560 people, 56,628 households, and 36,298 families living in the city. The population density is 3,354.7 people per square mile (1,295.3 people/km2). There were 60,039 housing units at an average density of 1,403.0 units per square mile (541.7 units/km2). According to the 2000 census, The racial makeup of the city was 76.2%White, 2.9%African American, 1.0%Native American, 5.0%Asian, 1.0%Pacific Islander, and 4.80% from two or more races.Hispanic orLatino people of any race were 10.4% of the population. 16.4% were of German, 9.2% English, 8.4% Irish and 7.9% American ancestry. 89.2% spoke English, 5.1% Spanish, 3.2% Russian, 1.4%Ukrainian and 1.1%Vietnamese at home.
There were 56,628 households, out of which 33.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.3% were married couples living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.9% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.06.
In the city, 26.7% of the population was under the age of 18, 9.8% was from 18 to 24, 32.1% from 25 to 44, 20.6% from 45 to 64, and 10.7% was 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.8 males.
Themedian income for a household in the city was $41,618, and the median income for a family was $47,696. Males had a median income of $37,306 versus $26,940 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,192. 9.4% of families and 12.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.1% of those under the age of 18 and 8.2% of those 65 and older.
The Vancouver economy is characterized byborder economics with neighboring Portland, Oregon. The state of Washington levies no individual or corporate income taxes and levies a property tax below the national average and a sales tax above the national median.[38] The State of Oregon has even lower property taxes and no sales tax but one of the highest state income taxes.[39] As a result, many Vancouver residents prefer to shop in neighboring Portland where they do not pay sales taxes,[40] then live and work in Vancouver where they do not pay state income tax (though Washington residents who work in Oregon must pay Oregon income tax.) For the same reasons, the city is popular with retirees. Conversely, the city is less favored by students and young adults.[citation needed] In 2003, 70% of workers in Vancouver worked in Clark County. There is a risk in sales tax avoidance because Washington has a use tax due on all purchases made in Oregon that are then returned to Washington. Vancouver residents "shop at their own risk" when attempting to avoid the sales tax in Washington, although the rule is rarely, if ever, enforced[citation needed] except for purchases requiring registration, such as motor vehicles.
The taxation and demographics of the area depresses the retail sector of Vancouver's economy.[citation needed] Oregon has stricter development laws to protect the timber industry;[citation needed] therefore, Vancouver tends to attract a higher proportion of the region's sprawling development. The voting base also led to rejection of extension of Portland's light-rail system into the city for several years.[citation needed] In 2013, Washington transitioned away from being acontrol state.
The economic history of Vancouver reflects the region. Moving from a salmon- and trade-based indigenous economy by theChinook people, theHudson's Bay Company pioneered extractive industries such as thefur trade and timber. Subsistence agricultural gave way to market and export crops such as apples, strawberries and prunes. Largely bypassed by the railroad in the 1880s, when the Oregon Steam Navigation company would ferry trains across the river downstream fromSt. Helens, Oregon, toKalama, Washington, early downtown development was focused around Washington Street (where ferries arrived), lumber and Vancouver Barracks activities such as a large spruce mill for manufacturing airplanes. A 1908 railroadswing bridge across the Columbia allowed greater industrial developments such as the Standifer Shipyard during the first world war.[41] With the Interstate Bridge andBonneville Dam Vancouver saw an industrial boom in the 1940s, including theKaiser shipyard andAlcoa, as well as aBoise Cascade paper mill, just west of the Interstate Bridge.[19]
As theold-growth forests were depleted and heavy industry left the United States, Vancouver's economy largely changed to high tech and service industry jobs, with many residents commuting to Portland. Vancouver contains the corporate headquarters forNautilus, Inc.,ZoomInfo,Papa Murphy's Pizza and The Holland (parent company of theBurgerville restaurant chain).[42]
ThePort of Vancouver USA operates a port on the Columbia River, which separatesOregon to the south andWashington to the north. It handles over 400 ocean-going vessels annually, as well as a number of barges which ply the river and its tributaries as far asLewiston, Idaho.
The Vancouver Energy project was a proposed crude oil transport hub in the Port of Vancouver USA. It was estimated to produce the equivalent of $1.6 billion in employment income during the terminal's construction and for its first 15 years of operation.[43] Vancouver Energy ended its bid to build the hub in February 2018 following Governor Jay Inslee's rejection of the project.[44]
In 2017, there were 4,550 employer firms.[45] 2,143 of these firms were shown to be owned by men, and 943 were shown to be owned by women. 556 of the firms were shown to be owned by minorities, and 3,234 were not shown to be owned by minorities. 241 of these firms were owned by veterans.[45]
Grant Street Pier, on Vancouver waterfrontClark County Historical Museum
In 1997, the city of Vancouver decided to dedicate the next 15–20 years to redeveloping and revitalizing the downtown core, west of I-5 and south of Evergreen Boulevard. The first projects started in the early 2000s with the construction of many tallcondominium structures aroundEsther Short Park. The most lauded outside investment was the construction of aHilton hotel directly across from the park.[citation needed]The Downtown redevelopment of Vancouver continued after a slowdown during the 2009–2012 recession. Numerous projects began to rise up around the city core and as of mid-2020 more than three dozen projects with mid-rise or high-rise structures were completed, under construction, or proposed.[47][48]
In 2016 the first ground was broken[49] for the $1.5 billion, 21-block redevelopment of Vancouver's waterfront at the former site of Boise Cascade Paper Mill. The site had been inaccessible to the public for more than 100 years.[citation needed] The project was planned for 3,300 residential units, and roughly 1 million square feet (93,000 m2) of office and retail space.[50] Around 15,000 people were in attendance for the official grand opening, in 2018, of the project and associated public space including Grant Street Pier, a cable-stayed viewing deck that extends out over the Columbia River.[51][52]
The Redevelopment of Terminal One master plan was approved by the city council in 2017.[53] This $500 million project will include multiple phases over several years including a seven-story AC Marriott hotel that began site preparation and construction in late 2019.[54] Future plans in the master plan called for amixed-use complex of mid-rise buildings on four blocks and a complete rebuild of the original 100-year-old Terminal One dock and pier. A public open-air market is also planned.
The Columbian newspaper moved to a new seven-story office building adjacent to the Hilton in 2008. Two years later,The Columbian filed forChapter 11 bankruptcy and the building defaulted toBank of America. In June 2010, the City of Vancouver agreed to purchase the office building for use as a new city hall for $18.5 million, a fraction of the $41.5 million sale price the owners of The Columbian office building had been asking prior to filing for bankruptcy. In 2011, the city consolidated five separate buildings housing 300 employees into the new building, located at 415 W. 6th Street. The move saved the city approximately $1 million a year in facility lease and maintenance costs.[55]
The Fort Vancouver Regional Library District opened a new library on C Street at Evergreen Boulevard in 2011. Future plans on C Street include a newMarriott hotel and roughly 250 new condominiums.
Panoramic scrolling image of Vancouver skyline taken fromHayden Island in 2023
Vancouver relies on acouncil–manager form of government composed of seven city council members including anon-partisan mayor's office. The mayor and council members serve four year terms. As is common in council-manager municipal government, the council oversees legislative issues such as local ordinances, while executive and administrative leadership is carried out by acity manager hired by the council. Vancouver also serves as the seat of Clark County and its associated county manager andcouncil.
In the early 2000s, Vancouver began seeing a revitalization of the local arts scene and cultural events. In 2010 there was a movement among local artists to form cooperatives and meet with established local gallery owners for a monthly forum known as "Art Conversations". Many of Vancouver's art galleries are located in downtown Vancouver, and in 2014, the City Council formally designated an "Arts District" in the downtown core.[56]
TheKiggins Theatre located within the Downtown Vancouver Art District, was built in 1936 by architect Day Hillborn. It was named for J.P. Kiggins, an entrepreneur and politician who cut a swath through town in the early 20th century, serving as Vancouver's mayor for 15 non-consecutive years between 1908 and 1935. It was renovated and reopened in 2011 as an independent film and community event venue.
The Vancouver Symphony Orchestra first formed in the late 1970s. Conducted and directed by Dr. Salvadore Brotons, the Symphony regularly performs concerts.[57]
Every June since 2006, the Recycled Arts Festival held in Esther Short Park has featured the work of dozens of artists whose creations are made from at least 75% reused or recycled materials, along with live music and food.[58]
Since the mid-1960s, Vancouver has hosted aFourth of Julyfireworks display on the grounds ofFort Vancouver National Historic Site that draws many people to the city. The display routinely ran to 45 minutes, attracted up to 60,000 visitors and was broadcast on area television, one of the largest west of the Mississippi River. Due to the death of key organizer "Mister Fireworks" Jim Larson and economic conditions during theGreat Recession, the show was not held in 2009.[59] A shorter, redesigned show debuted in 2010 and brought in approximately 35,000 people.[60] As of 2019, The Historic Trust (formerly the "Fort Vancouver National Trust"[61]) continues to organize the fireworks event.[62] The fireworks were not held in 2020 or 2021 due to COVID-19.[63]
4 Days of Aloha, also known as the Hawaiian Festival, takes place in late July in Esther Short Park, Clark College, and Fort Vancouver. Started in 2012 by "Aunty" Deva Yamashiro, a hula dancer and self-appointed cultural ambassador for Hawaii, the festival features live music, dance performances, craft workshops, and a celebration of Hawaiian food, arts, and culture.[64]
The 1935art deco telephone exchange building at Eleventh and Washington
The 1941 Clark County Courthouse, designed by prolific local architect Day Hillborn
Smith Tower, a round downtown apartment building for the elderly, built in 1965
The Hilton Hotel and Vancouver Convention Center across fromEsther Short Park
Many of these buildings have been repurposed. The 1867 Slocum House, anItalianate villa-style residence originally built one block south of its current location inEsther Short Park, was moved to its present location in 1966 and now houses a winery and art gallery.[68] The Carnegie Library was expanded in the 1940s, becoming theClark County Historical Museum after a new library was built in 1963. Other buildings have been torn down for urban renewal or renovated to house professional offices for lawyers and accountants.
Vancouver Public Schools' elementary schools includeSarah J. Anderson, Chinook, Eisenhower, Felida, Ben Franklin, Fruit Valley Community Learning Center, Harney, Hazel Dell, Hough, Martin Luther King, Lake Shore, Lincoln, Marshall, Minnehaha, Peter S. Ogden, Eleanor Roosevelt, Sacajawea, Salmon Creek, Truman, Walnut Grove, and Washington.
Evergreen Public Schools covers most of east Vancouver and has seven high schools:Evergreen High School,Mountain View High School, Henrietta Lacks Health and Bioscience High School, Heritage High School,Union High School, Legacy High School, and Cascadia Technical Academy (formerly Clark County Vocational Skills Center).[70]
The district has six middle schools: Cascade, Covington, Frontier, Pacific, Shahala, and Wy'East.
Evergreen Public Schools' 21 elementary schools are: Burton, Burnt Bridge Creek, Columbia Valley, Crestline, Ellsworth, Emerald, Endeavour, Fircrest, Fisher's Landing, Harmony, Hearthwood, Illahee, Image, Marrion, Mill Plain, Orchards, Pioneer, Riverview, Sifton, Silver Star, Sunset, and York.
Vancouver is located within the Portland media market for print, radio, and television media. It does, however, serve as the hometown for some media, includingThe Columbian, the Portland, Oregon newspaperThe Oregonian that covers some southwest Washington news, andThe Vancouver Voice which was southwest Washington's only alternative periodical for a time, and published from 2006 to 2011.
Vancouver has two interstate freeways,I-5 andI-205, both of which run north–south, across theColumbia River into Portland and towardSeattle. It also has two heavily travelledstate highways within the city limits.SR 14 begins at I-5 in downtown Vancouver and makes its way east. It is a freeway all the way untilCamas.SR 500 begins from I-5 at 39th Street in north Vancouver, travels east connecting with I-205, and continues east into the suburb of Orchards where the freeway terminates at Fourth Plain Boulevard, and meets with the south end of north–south-oriented 117th Ave.,SR 503. A third state highway,SR 501, starts at I-5 and heads west through downtown and continues along a path that runs between the Columbia River and Vancouver Lake.
The area's mass transit system isC-Tran, the Clark County Public Transportation Benefit Area Authority, which operates 135 buses, vanpools, and paratransit vehicles. There are also a number of express routes into Portland's downtown.
There have been multiple discussions about extending Portland'sMax Light Rail system into Vancouver. In 1995, Clark County voters rejected a ballot measure that would have funded a light rail extension north into Vancouver.[71] Opposition to paying for light rail was strong at that time, but slowly declined over the following several years, eventually leading Vancouver officials to begin discussing the idea again.[72][73] Meanwhile,TriMet reconstituted its planned MAX line to Vancouver as a shorter line running only within Portland, which could potentially be extended across the river and into Clark County at a later date. This extension of the MAX system opened in 2004 as theYellow Line,[74] running as far north as thePortland Expo Center, approximately 1 mile (2 km) south of downtown Vancouver. In 2012, Vancouver voters rejected a sales tax proposal to fund light rail operations in connection with theColumbia River Crossing proposal.[75] In 2022, theInterstate Bridge Replacement Program included a new proposal for a light rail extension into downtown Vancouver.[76]
Pearson Field, located near downtown Vancouver, is the main airport serving the city. The airport is intended primarily for general aviation without any commercial air service. The nearest commercial airport isPortland International Airport (PDX).
^Native Sons of Oregon (1901)."The Oregon Native Son".Oregon Native Son and Historical Magazine.2. Native Son Publishing Company: 324.OCLC7748147. RetrievedNovember 6, 2019.Called by the Chinooks Skit-so-to-ho, and Ala-si-kas by the Klikitats. Its meaning is "place of mud-turtles."
^abJollata, Pat (2004).Images of America: Downtown Vancouver. Arcadia Publishing.ISBN0-7385-2959-1.
^Olson, Jerry (March 30, 2014)."GLO Surveyor Personal Notes"(PDF). Washington State Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation.Archived(PDF) from the original on August 27, 2019. RetrievedAugust 29, 2019.
^"Columbia River Bridges". Southwest Washington Regional Transportation Council. Archived fromthe original on February 7, 2019. RetrievedNovember 6, 2019.
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