Vallabha | |
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| Personal life | |
| Born | May 7, 1478[note 1] |
| Died | July 7, 1530(1530-07-07) (aged 52) Vārāṇasī (now inUttar Pradesh, India) |
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| Children |
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| Parents |
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| Religious life | |
| Religion | Hinduism (Vaishnavism) |
| Order | Vedanta |
| Founder of | Puṣṭimārga |
| Philosophy | Śuddhādvaita |
Vallabha, also known asVallabhācārya,Vallabha Dīkṣita[1][note 2] (Devanagari: वल्लभाचार्य,IAST: Vallabhācārya, May 7, 1478 – July 7, 1530 CE), was an Indian saint and philosopher. He founded theKr̥ṣṇa-centeredPuṣṭimārga sect ofVaishnavism in theBraj (Vraja) region of India, and propounded the philosophy ofŚuddhādvaita.
Born into aTelugu Brahmin family, Vallabha studied Hindu philosophy from early age, then traveled throughout theIndian subcontinent for over 20 years. He became one of the important leaders of the devotionalBhakti movement. He won many philosophical scholarly debates against the followers ofAdvaita Vedānta. He began the institutional worship ofŚrī Nāthajī on Govardhana Hill. He acquired many followers in the Gangetic plain and Gujarat. After his death, the leadership of his sampradāya passed to his elder son Gopīnātha.
Vallabha rejectedasceticism and monastic life, suggesting that through loving devotion to the deity Krishna, any householder could achieve salvation. He authored many texts including but not limited to, theAṇubhāṣya (his commentary on theBrahma Sutras),Ṣoḍaśa Grantha or sixteen tracts and several commentaries on theBhāgavata Purāṇa.
Events from Vallabha's life are recounted in several sectarian Puṣṭimārga texts. Among theBraj Bhasha sources include theCaurāsī Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā,Śrī Nāthajī Prākaṭya kī Vārtā, andCaurāsī Baiṭhak Caritra. According to Barz the most importantSanskrit source is theŚrīvallabhadigvijaya.[3]
According to Saha and Hawley, theCaurāsī Baiṭhak Caritra dates to the mid-18th century.[4][5] However, Ṭaṁḍana, Bachrach, and several Puṣṭimārga leaders state it was only composed in the 19th century. Ṭaṁḍana also considers theGharu Vārtā,Nija Vārtā, andŚrī Ācāryajī kī Prākaṭya Vārtā to be 19th century texts which were based on the olderCaurāsī Vaiṣṇavana kī Vārtā andDo Sau Bāvana Vaiṣṇavana kī Vārtā.[6] TheCaurāsī Baiṭhak Caritra (attributed to Harirāya) enumarates the 84baiṭhaks ("seats") of Vallabha across India where he sat and preached Puṣṭimarga tenets. According to Saha, the text seeks to promote Vallabha as an exceptional philosopher and miracle worker who acquires converts wherever; the text does this by portraying Vallabha as adigvijayin ("world-conquerer") who establishes the superiority of his philosophy in theChar Dham.[7]
TheŚrī Nāthajī kī Prākaṭya Vārtā in its current form was likely written in the 1860s, although its contents were orally known prior to the 19th century. TheVallabha Digvijaya orYadunātha Digvijaya claims to have be composed in 1610, however modern scholars state the text was composed around the turn of the 20th century.[8][9]
Other Sanskrit texts include Gadādhara Dviveda'sSampradāya-Pradīpa (colophon states A.D. 1552–53, but according to Hawley, actually from the latter half of the 1600s),[10] Muralīdharadāsa'sŚrīvallabhācāryacarita (c. 1573),Prabhucaritaciṁtāmaṇi (attributed to Devakīnaṁdana, which is baseless according to Bhatt),[11] and the Gujarati poemVallabhākhyāna by Gopāladāsa (c. 1580). Another Braj Bhasha work,Saṁpradāyakalpadruma, which is claimed to be composed by Viṭṭhalanātha Bhaṭṭa (a grandson ofViṭṭhalanātha's second daughter Yamunā)[12] cannot be stated to be of old origin according to Śāstrī. Other texts by Gokulanātha's followers include Kalyāṇa Bhaṭṭa'sKallola, Keśavadāsa's GujaratiVallabhavela, and Gopāladāsa Vyārāvāḷā's GujaratiPrākaṭya-Siddhāṁta.[9]
According to scholars, the life of Vallabha as depicted in traditional sources contains many miracles, supernatural events, and "patently implausible features". Vallabha is considered by followers of the Puṣṭimārga to be an ideal divine incarnation who was born for a supernatural purpose, and his hagiographies portray are meant to portray a living intimate relationship with Kr̥ṣṇa to serve as an example to devotees. Barz (1992) gives biographical account of Vallabha which includes these traditional elements. His biography has been criticized byVaudeville for relying solely on English and Hindi Vallabhite sources and a lack of critical analysis of them typical of a Western Indologist.[13][14][3] Śāstrī, commenting on the presence of miracles in Vallabha's biographies, notes that the texts authored by the followers ofGokulanātha, a grandson of Vallabha, contain no mention of miracles in relation to Vallabha and his second sonViṭṭhalanātha (Gokulanātha's father) making them valuable sources. This is due to the fact that these followers instead consider Gokulanātha to be God in human form, with Vallabha and Viṭṭhalanātha only being reveredācāryas. No single text contains a full biography of Vallabha, and different sources contain inconsistent and contradictory information, likely due to internal fragmentation of the religious community from the 17th to 19th centuries.[15][16]
According to tradition, Vallabha's family were Velanāṭa or VellanāḍuTelugu Brahmins who belonged to theBhāradvāja gotra and theTaittirīya branch of theYajurveda. Their ancestral village was Kāṅkaravāḍa on the southern bank of theGodāvarī River.[18] Keśvararāma Kāśīrāma Śāstrī identifies the village of Kāṁkara (Kanker, Chhattisgarh) with Kāṁkarapāṁḍhu or Kāṁkaravāḍa.[19]
According to some sources such as theŚrīvallabhadigvijaya, Vallabha's birth occurred in the forests of Campāraṇya, due to his parents fleeing Vārāṇasī in fear of Muslim invasion. These sources depict his birth as miraculous, with his parents initially leaving the seemingly still-born infant beneath aśamī tree, before being recalled by a supernatural voice to see Vallabha alive and surrounded by fire. According to other hagiographies such asŚrī Nāthajī Prākaṭya kī Vārtā, Vallabha appeared in the Agnikuṇḍ ("Pool of Fire") inMathurā.[3][20][21]
Most hagiographies date Vallabha's birth to Vaiśākha vada 11, 1535V.S. (May 7, 1478 CE). Though conversion of this date into the Gregorian calendar is disputed among scholars (with some putting Vallabha's birth in 1478 and some in 1479), Hawley confirms the year 1478 after adjusting for the calendar used in Braj.[3][20][21] The followers ofGokulanātha, one of Vallabha's grandsons, consider Vallabha's year of birth to be 1473 CE. G.H. Bhatt, on comparing the two dates, states that the year 1473 CE is correct. In his view, the sources mentioning 1473 CE are older and more authentic than those mentioning 1478 CE.[22]
Soon after Vallabha's birth his family moved back to Vārāṇasī. His education commenced at the age of eight, and by the age of eleven had mastered several Sanskrit Hindu texts, with theBhāgavata Purāṇa being his favorite.[3]
According to theŚrī Govardhananāthajī ke Prākaṭya kī Vārtā (19th century),[23][24]Mādhavendra Purī (c. 1420–1490) taught Vallabha inVaranasi, however this is considered "highly improbable" byEntwistle due to the dates of Vallabha's birth and Mādhavendra's death. When asked what he would like as a fee for teaching Vallabha, Mādhavendra asked to serveŚrī Nāthajī, as he had a premonition that Vallabha would establish the formal worship of the deity. When Mādhavendra Purī arrived at Govardhan Hill, the image was being already being worshipped as a snake deity by the local villagers, and as Kr̥ṣṇa by Saddu Pāṇḍe. Mādhavendra Purī adorned Śrī Nāthajī with a garland and turban decoration, and offered him milk (he was told by Śrī Nāthajī that he would only accept solid food when Vallabha arrived). The text also claims that Mādhavendra was appointedmukhiyā of the Bengali priests, which is also considered unlikely by Entwistle since the Śrī Nāthajī temple was built after his lifetime. Mādhavendra Purī later went to South India to get sandalwood, from which he never returned.[25][26][27][3][28] Other Puṣṭimārga texts and the Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava tradition record different, constrasting events surrounding the identity of Mādhavendra Puri's students and the establishment of the Kr̥ṣṇa image on Govardhana Hill.[29][30][31][32][26][33]
Nearing the end of his life, Lakṣmaṇa Bhaṭṭa decided to take his wife and 10-year-old son along on a pilgrimage to southern India. They first stopped at the Vaishnavatemple ofJagannātha inPurī in 1489. The local ruler was sponsoring a great philosophical debate where four questions were posed to scholars: "What is the foremost scripture? Who is the foremost deity? Which is the most effectivemantra? What is the easiest and best action?", to which Vallabha responded with theBhagavad Gītā, Kr̥ṣṇa, any of Kr̥ṣṇa's names, andsevā (service) to Kr̥ṣṇa, whereupon Jagannātha wrote aśloka in support of his response and condemning the supporters ofAdvaita Vedānta.[34]
In 1490, they reached thetemple ofVeṅkaṭeśvara atTirupati, where Lakṣmaṇa Bhaṭṭa died, and Illammāgārū began to live with her brother inVijayanagara.[35]
When Vallabha was living in his ancestral village of Kāṅkaravāḍa, he heard of a philosophical debate (śāstrārtha) being held in at the court of KingKr̥ṣṇadevarāya ofVijayanagara, and that the Vaiṣṇava schools of thought were being beaten byAdvaita Vedānta philosophers. Vallabha immediately went to Vijayanagara to join the debate, and entered the Vaiṣṇava camp led byVyāsatīrtha of theMādhva school. Vallabha through his erudition and debate skills defeated the Advaita philosophers, and was rewarded byKr̥ṣṇadevarāya with large amounts of gold (most of which he distributed among Brahmins).[36]
Vallabha was also offered the prestigious title ofācārya from theMādhva sampradāya and theViṣṇusvāmī sampradāya. Vallabha chose to becomeācārya of the Viṣṇusvāmī school. Very little is known of the Viṣṇusvāmī school, and by Vallabha's time its followers were few. The majority view among sectarian followers is that Vallabha chose to becomeācārya of that school in order to make his own doctrines more prestigious, and that there is likely no real connection between the ideas ofViṣṇusvāmī and Vallabha. A minority of followers believe there is a connection between the philosophies of Viṣṇusvāmī and Vallabha. Modern scholars hold there is no legitimate connection between the two philosphies.[36] According to Keśvararāma Kāśīrāma Śāstrī, Vallabha himself did not claim to belong to Viṣṇusvāmī's school. He notes that in theSubodhini, Vallabha claims Viṣṇusvāmī's devotional path belongs to the tamāsa guṇa, while his own is nirguṇa. Only later writers such as Gosvāmī Puruṣottama, Yogī Gopeśvara, and Gadādharadāsa link Vallabha's and Lakṣmaṇa Bhaṭṭa's philosophical school to Viṣṇusvāmī. It is also stated in traditional biographies that Bilavamaṁgala (a scholar of Viṣṇusvāmī's school) waited 700 years for Vallabha to take his seat. Rather Vallabha himself states that despite Bilvamaṁgala's Māyāvāda tendencies, through his devotion he can achievemokṣa.[37]
According to sectarian literature, this debate occurred shortly after Lakṣmaṇa Bhaṭṭa's death in 1490 when Vallabha was only 13 years old;[38] however, Kr̥ṣṇadevarāya only became king of Vijayanagara in 1509.[36]
The debate is mentioned in theCaurāsī Baiṭhak Caritra and but is not found in independent historical sources. According to Saha, the Vijayanagara episode is meant to portray "the image of a victorious Vallabha winning the subcontinent for Kr̥ṣṇa".[38] It is also mentioned in theSampradāya-Pradīpa, whose narrative is described as "clearly counterfactual" by Hawley who posits the episode was written for the purpose of furthering the interests of the Puṣṭimārga in the late 17th century.[10]
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In 1493, Vallabha is said to have had a dream where Kr̥ṣṇa ordered him to go toGovardhana Hill and establish proper service (sevā) to his image (svarūpa) which had appeared there years ago. When he arrived in Gokula in 1494, Vallabha had a vision where Kr̥ṣṇa appeared before him and bestowed upon him theBrahmasambandhamantra, which was to be used to clean the flaws of a human soul. The next morning, Vallabha administered the mantra to his companion Dāmodaradāsa Harasānī, who became the first member of thePuṣṭimārga (Vallabha Sampradaya).[3][39] Most sources state these events occurred in Gokula, except theŚrī Nāthajī Prākaṭya kī Vārtā which states it happened inJharkhand.[40]
When Vallabha came to Govardhana Hill, he went to the house of Saḍḍu Pāṇḍe. Saḍḍu Pāṇḍe had received a vision from Kr̥ṣṇa years earlier that told him a stone that had appeared on Govardhana Hill was his own svarūpa and that he should give offerings to it. The image was known as Devadamana; Vallabha announced that it was actually the svarupa of Śrī Govardhananāthajī (shortened toŚrī Nāthajī) and initiated an ascetic named Rāmdās Chauhān to perform the regular worship.[3][41] In 1499 a wealthy merchant fromAmbālā named Pūrṇamalla Khatrī began building a temple for Srī Nāthajī.[3][41]
Vallabha may have intended to remain a lifelong celibatebrahmacārī, but during his second pilgrimage of India between 1501 and 1503, he had gone toPaṁḍḥarapura to view the godViṭṭhala or Viṭhobā (a form of Kr̥ṣṇa). There Vallabha was ordered by Viṭṭhala to marry. Some sectarian sources assert this was because Viṭṭhala wanted to take birth as his son, and others say it was to create a line of descendants to preserve and promote Vallabha's version ofbhakti-mārga.[3][42] This episode is mentioned in theVallabhākhyāna,Nija Vārtā, andSampradāya Kalpadruma and according to Entwistle is a later myth.[43]
Following his caste traditions and practices, Vallabha married Mahālakṣmī (aka Akkājī)[44] sometime between 1502 and 1504, a Vārāṇasī girl of his own caste who began living with him upon maturity c. 1510–1512.[45][46][47] Vallabha had two houses, one at Aṛaila on theYamunā river acrossPrayāgarāja, and at Caranāṭa near Vārāṇasī. According to Saha, the location of his home provided a central location which allowed him to access to preach and convert throughout northern and central India.[48][49]
His first son, Gopīnātha, was born in 1512 at Aṛaila and according to sectarian tradition was theavatāra ofBalarāma, elder brother of Kr̥ṣṇa. His second son,Viṭṭhalanātha, was born in 1515 at Caranāṭa, and is considered the avatar of Viṭṭhala.[3][47]
Vallabha made three pilgrimages throughout India which are documented in later sectarian sources. These pilgrimages are stated to have taken place between 1479 and 1530, although Saha doubts the accuracy of the dates. At pilgrimage sites such asDvārakā,Kannauja,Purī,Mathurā,Gokula, andGovardhana, Vallabha had theological debates and attracted followers and devotees. He made extensive conversion campaigns in theGangetic Plain andGujarat, where he attracted converts from various castes includingBhumihars,Rajputs,Gurjars,Ahirs,Kurmis, andVaniyas,Bhatias,Kanbis, andPatidars respectively.[50] In theCaurāsī Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā, the lives of eighty-four of Vallabha's most notable devotees are narrated. Of the 84 devotees, 39 wereBrahmins, 36 were mercantile or landowningKshatriyas, 5 wereVaishyas, and 6 wereShudras.[51]
Only scholarly theory for why Vallabha's theology was attractive to these groups was that of social mobility. For agrarian castes, particularly in Gujarat, the emphasis on purity gave higher status. For mercantile castes, purity as well as the emphasis on restraint and frugality in daily life elevated their status, while wealth could then be funnelled toward religiously meritorioussevā to Kr̥ṣṇa.[52]
Another reason was that Vallabha promoted a househoulder life-affirming, socially conservative view that appealed to castes that depended on social and political stability for their livelihoods, notably in the context of splintering Muslim sultanates in India.[52]
In 1530, Vallabha took a vow ofrenunciation and withdrew to the banks on theGaṅgā river in Vārāṇasī. After a month, he summoned his sons Gopīnātha and Viṭṭhalanatha, and designated the 18 or 19 year old Gopīnātha as his successor. According to sectarian accounts, he walked in the Gaṅgā and vanished in a flash of light.[3][53] This is event is said to have occurred on Āṣāḍha suda 3, 1587V.S. (July 7, 1530).[54]
Vallabha composed several texts during his lifetime (all inSanskrit) most notable of which are:[3][55]
There also exist other texts attributed to Vallabha some of which are considered to be either lost or spurious, includingJaiminīyasūtrabhāṣya,Pātrāvalambanam,Śrīpuruṣottamanāmasahasram,Trividhanāmāvalī,Premāmr̥tam,Parivr̥ddhāṣṭakam, andMadhurāṣṭakam. Smith notes that it is possible for works of Vallabha to have been lost in the first twenty years after his death, as his family became embroiled in disputes until Viṭṭhalanātha's final accension as head of the family and sect after the deaths of Gopīnātha and his son Puruṣottama.[56]
In theAṇubhāṣya Vallaha provides formal philosophical proof for Śuddhādvaita; the text is highly intellectual in nature. Vallabha argues that thejīva ("individual soul") is inseparable fromakṣarabrahman ("the absolute all-encompassing universe") yet dependent on God's grace. He argues thatjīvas due to theirsvabhāva ("personal nature") andadhikāri ("eligibility") are either attracted to the religious path of knowledge or of devotion. He states the fruit of knowledge ismokṣa, union with an abstract, absolute, impersonalakṣarabrahman. In contrast, the higher fruit of devotional is entrance intonityalīlā (both in life or after death), which is the state of observing and participating in God's spontaneous and creative nature.[56]
This text is divided into three sections:Śāstrārtha,Sarvanirṇaya, andBhāgavatārtha. In theŚāstrārthaprakaraṇa, Vallabha gives his view on the contents of theBhagavad Gītā, which he considers to be highest śāstra due to it embodying the words of Kr̥ṣṇa. He discusses various topics including the nature of the universe and God and argues thatbhakti ("devotion") is based on knowledge of Kr̥ṣṇa as depicted in theBhagavad Gītā andBhāgavata Purāṇa. In theSarvanirṇayaprakaraṇa, Vallabha surveys the philosphies of rival schools and asserts the superiority of his own views on devotion and the nature of souls to the universe. In theBhāgavatārthaprakaraṇa, Vallabha gives his view on theBhāgavata Purāṇa as an entire text, itsskandhas ("canto"),prakaraṇas ("topical division"), andadhyāyas ("chapter").[56]
This commentary on theBhāgavata Purāṇa is Vallabha's most esoteric work, and provides commentary on the text at a deeper level than theBhāgavatārthaprakaraṇa down to thevākya (sentence"),pada ("word"), andakṣara ("syllable"). In this text Vallabha usesAlaṃkāraśāstra (classical Indian aesthetic theory) to analyze devotional experiences.[56]
This text has 16 short treatises.[56]
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Vallabha formulated the philosophy ofŚuddhādvaita, in response to Śaṅkara'sĀdvaita Vedānta, which he called Maryādā Mārga or Path of Limitations. Vallabha asserted that religious disciplines focusing on Vedic sacrifices, temple rituals,puja, meditation, and yoga held limited value. Additionally Vallabha rejected the concept ofMāyā, stating that the world was a manifestation of the Supreme Absolute and could neither be tainted nor change.[57] The school rejects the ascetic lifestyle and cherishes householder lifestyle, wherein followers see themselves as participants and companions of Kr̥ṣṇa, viewing their daily lives as an ongoingraslila.[58]
According to Vallabha,Brahman consists of existence, consciousness, and bliss (sat-cit-ānanda), and when manifested completely, asKr̥ṣṇa himself. The purpose of this tradition is to performsevā (selfless service) out of love for Kr̥ṣṇa. According to Vallabha, through single minded religiosity, a devotee would achieve awareness that there is nothing in the world that is not Kr̥ṣṇa.[57]
According to Vallabha there are three kinds of souls:puṣṭi,maryāda, andpravāha. Thepuṣṭi andmaryāda souls are divine souls that have potential of upliftment or salvation. Thepuṣṭi ("complete" or "well-nourished") souls rely on Kr̥ṣṇa's grace as the sole effective means to achieve devotion, and other efforts are insignificant without God's grace.[59][60]
Vallabha distinguishes between two aspects of devotion: themaryāda and thepuṣṭi.Maryāda followers rely on their actions and God's judgment for spiritual rewards, aligning with scriptural injunctions. In contrast,Puṣṭi followers rely solely on God's grace, prioritizing complete devotion and surrender without personal effort, embodying unconditional love and faith towards God. Vallabha also emphasizes that the path ofpusti is open to all, regardless of caste or gender. He cautions against seeing this path as too focused on pleasure, saying it is about pure, divine devotion without being attached to worldly desires.[61]
Vallabha viewed the world (jagat) as intricately linked to the belief that the world is an expression and manifestation of Brahman. He accepts the idea that Brahman manifested itself as both the individual souls (jivas) and the world. Vallabha argued that Brahman desired to become many to express His playful nature (lila) and hence created the world. Vallabha emphasizes that the world is not illusory but as real as Brahman itself, which manifests by temporarily suppressing its attributes of bliss and consciousness. Whenjivas, through ignorance, misunderstand or misinterpret the world as distinctly real and plural, they fall into the trap ofsamsara, which is unreal.[62]
TheIndian postal department of theGovernment of India issued a commemorative stamp bearing the image of Vallabhācārya on April 14, 1977.[63][64]
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