V-weapons, known in original German asVergeltungswaffen (German pronunciation:[fɐˈgɛltʊŋsˌvafṇ], German: "retaliatory weapons", "reprisal weapons"), were a particular set of long-rangeartillery weapons designed forstrategic bombing during World War II, particularlystrategic bombing andaerial bombing of cities.[1][2] They were theV-1, apulsejet-poweredcruise missile; theV-2, aliquid-fueledballistic missile; and theV-3 cannon. Germany intended to use all of these weapons in a military campaign againstBritain, though only the V-1 and V-2 were so used in a campaign conducted 1944–45. After the invasion of western Europe by the Allies, these weapons were also employed against targets on the mainland of Europe, mainly in France and Belgium.Strategic bombing with V-weapons killed approximately 18,000 people, mostly civilians. The cities ofLondon,Antwerp andLiège were the main targets.[3][4]
V-weapons formed part of the range of the so-calledWunderwaffen (superweapons, or "wonderweapons") ofNazi Germany.
As early as 28 June 1940, a strategic bombing rationale had been advanced for theA4 (V-2 rocket) being developed at a meeting between Army Ordnance ChiefEmil Leeb and Commander-in-Chief of the Wehrmacht,Walther von Brauchitsch.[5] Following the relative failure of theBaedeker Raids in Britain in 1942, development of both flying bomb and rocket accelerated, with Britain designated as the target.[6] On 29 September 1943,Albert Speer publicly promised retribution against the mass bombing of German cities by a "secret weapon".[7] Then the official 24 June 1944Reich Propaganda Ministry announcement of the "Vergeltungswaffe 1"guided missile implied that there would be another such weapon.[8] After the first operational A-4 launch in September 1944, the rocket was renamed theV-2.[9] (although no one knows exactly who gave it this name).[10] However, the V-2 operations manual distributed tofiring batteries continued to use the A-4 name for the rocket.[11]
Allen Dulles, head of the American secret service OSS in Switzerland, was in contact with the Austrian resistance group around the priestHeinrich Maier from 1943 onwards. Through this Dulles received crucial information and plans about Peenemünde, theV-1 and theV-2 rocket.[12][13][14][15]
Beginning in October 1943, launch sites for the V-1 were constructed in Northern France, along the coast fromCalais toLe Havre. Aerial bombing attacks on these sites by the Allied airforce were only partially successful, and by June 1944 they were ready for action.[16] Prompted by theNormandy Landings of 6 June, in the early morning of 13 June 1944, the first V-1 flying bomb attack was carried out on London.[6][17] Ten missiles were launched, of which four reached England. The first of these impacted nearSwanscombe, causing no casualties. AtBethnal Green, however, a bridge was destroyed, six people killed and nine injured.[18] The attacks became sustained at a rate of about 100 a day.[17] With the first attack the British put their pre-plannedOperation Diver (after their codename "Diver" used for the V-1) into action.
The buzzing sound of the V-1'spulse jet engine was likened by some to "a motor cycle in bad running order". As it reached its target and dived, there would be a distinct sound of the propulsion unit spluttering and cutting out; the eerie hush before impact which followed was quite terrifying, according to observers. The brief interval of silence before detonation was also a warning to seek shelter (later V-1s were corrected to have the originally intended power dive).[19] At least one business in London advertised how quickly a patron could access a nearby shelter. Despite this, the cloudy and rainy conditions of June and July aided the effectiveness of the weapon, and casualties were high. By late August a million and a half people had left London, and the rate of work production was affected.[20] By the late summer and autumn, however, increasingly effectivecountermeasures against the V-1 were taken, and people started returning to London.[21]
A total of 9,251 V-1s were fired at targets in Britain, with the vast majority aimed at London; 2,515 reached the city, killing 6,184 civilians and injuring 17,981.Croydon to the south, on the flight path of the V-1s, suffered severely, taking 142 hits.[22]
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V-2 rocket launching sites were set up by the Germans aroundThe Hague in the Netherlands on 6 September 1944. The first was launched from here against London on 8 September 1944 and took an estimated 5 minutes to fly the 200 miles (320 km) from the Hague to London, where it struck at 6:43pm on 8 September onChiswick, causing 13 casualties.[23] As the V-2 explosions came without warning, the government initially attempted to conceal their cause by blaming them on defectivegas mains. However, the public was not fooled and soon began sardonically referring to the V-2s as "flying gas pipes".[24]
By October the offensive became sustained. A particularly devastating strike was on 25 November 1944, when a V-2 exploded at theWoolworths store in New Cross Road, killing 168 people and seriously injuring 121.[25] Intercepting the supersonic V-2 missiles in flight proved virtually impossible, and other countermeasures, such as bombing the launch sites, were fairly ineffectual. Sustained bombardment continued until March 1945. The final missiles arrived on 27 March 1945, with one of them killing 134 people and injuring 49 when it hit a block of flats inStepney.[26]
1,115 V-2s were fired at the United Kingdom. The vast majority of them were aimed at London, though about 40 targeted (and missed)Norwich. They killed an estimated 2,754 people in London, with another 6,523 injured. A further 2,917 service personnel were killed as a result of the V-weapon campaign. Since the V-2 was supersonic and could not be heard (and was rarely seen) as it approached the target, its psychological effect "suffered in comparison to the V-1".[28]
The V-weapon offensive ended in March 1945, with the last V-2 landing inKent on March 27, and the last enemy-action incident of any kind on British soil occurred at 09:00 on 29 March 1945 when a V-1 struck aHertfordshire field.[29] In terms of casualties, their effects had been less than their inventors hoped or their victims feared, though the damage to property was extensive, with 20,000 houses a day being damaged at the height of the campaign, causing a massive housing crisis in south-east England in late 1944 and early 1945.[30]
The existential horror of the V-2 attack on London is the theme ofThomas Pynchon's novelGravity's Rainbow.[31]
V-2s were launched againstAntwerp andLiège in Belgium; the attack on Antwerp was to prevent use of thePort of Antwerp which was essential for Allied logistics. In the six months following liberation in September 1944, Belgian towns were targeted by German V-weapons. A total of 2,342 V-weapons (mostly of the more advancedV-2 type) fell in a 16-kilometre (9.9 mi) radius around Antwerp alone.[32] A post-warSHAEF report estimated V-Bombs had been responsible for killing 5,000 people and injuring a further 21,000, mostly in the cities of Antwerp and Liège.[32]
On 17 March 1945 eleven V-2 rockets were fired at the Ludendorf rail bridge across the Rhine atRemagen on Hitler's orders (seeBattle of Remagen). This was the only time they were fired at a tactical target or at a target in Germany; the nearest hit to the target was 270 meters (890 ft) away; and one hit Cologne, 64 kilometers (40 mi) to the north. The General Staff were against their use as they were inaccurate and could kill German citizens and troops, but Hitler was desperate to destroy the Allied bridgehead across the Rhine. They were launched by Batterie SS Abt. 500 atHellendoorn in the Netherlands, about 200 kilometers (120 mi) to the north.
The V-3 cannon, also designed to fire on London, was never used for this purpose due to Allied attacks on the launch facilities, especially thefortress of Mimoyecques, and the offensive in northern Europe in 1944, overrunning the launch sites. Consequently, its use was diverted, in the winter of 1944, to bombardLuxembourg, with minimal result.[33]
The term V-4 has been applied by later writers to a number of projects and systems but in no case is this supported by period German documentation.[34] Things it has been assigned to include theGerman nuclear program during World War II, theA9 rocket, and theFieseler Fi 103R Reichenberg (a crewed version of the V-1 for suicide attacks).[34]
The name has also been applied to a solid fuel rocket named theRheinbote (Rhine Messenger).[35] A salvo of 24 was fired at Antwerp on 24 December 1944, but they were "woefully inaccurate" and after another salvo was launched at the port, SS Lieutenant GeneralHans Kammler gave up on the programme.[35]
